Section 4: 1860-1892 (Ch 17-21)

Radical Republicans

Emerged in Congress in the years leading up to the Civil War, were led by Congressman Thaddeus Stevens and Senator Charles Sumner; demanded a strict Reconstruction policy to punish the Southern states, favored the civil and political rights for Black people (were powerful force until mid 1870s) Used numerical advantage to vie for control of Reconstruction with Johnson, and secured 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments while most southern white still couldn't vote immediately after Civil War

Andrew Carnegie

1. After mastering telegraph and becoming personal secretary sending messages of the manager of Pennsylvania Railroad, Carnegie learned business sense, and entered the steel industry by using Bessemer process; in 1900, his company produced more steel than all of great Britain (through vertical combination) 2. Was philanthropic, funded public libraries and donated $350 million to various foundations

Indian Bureau

1. Agency managing integration of US with over 500 Native American tribes (created by John C. Calhoun); after Civil War, its agenda was to assimilate Native Americans by ending tribal gov'ts and communal land ownership, christianize and "civilize" them; tribes were considered foreign powers operating under sanctions of treaties 2. Took until 1834 for Indian Reorganization to restore tribal gov'ts; 1924 Indian citizenship Act conferred same citizenship rights on Natives as in the 14th Amendment

Wade-Davis Bill

Radical Republicans in Congress passed this law to retaliate against Lincoln's leniency with the South by increasing the threshold for citizens taking the loyalty oath to 50%, and pressing for emancipation; Lincoln did not sign bill before his assassination

Alaska

1. Americans first turned attention to Alaska back when Russians made colonies there, and their continued presence was a violation of the Monroe Doctrine; after Civil War, Secretary of State William H. Seward purchased Alaska for $7.2 million (purchase was known as "Seward's folly") 2. Not only prevented instability in Russia, but opened up vast mineral wealth (which are still largely untapped)

Social Darwinism

1. Argued that Americans who suffered financially and socially from industrialization only required some luck and honest effort to succeed in society; British philosopher coined "survival of the fittest," claiming that rich deserved to be rich due to their superior capacity for adaptation, thus justifying abuse of the weak by the strong in society 2. At best, this theory inspired philanthropy toward long-term productive ends, and at worst, was justification for policies that unfairly favored wealthy

Fourteenth Amendment

1. As Congress tried to pass Civil Rights Act of 1866, was considered usurpation of states' rights to determine citizenship, so Committee on Reconstruction amended the Constitution; Ratified in 1866, the Fourteenth Amendment clarified citizenship status of African Americans and American-born people, and monitored whether or not states abused civil rights of their citizens 2. Contains the Privileges or Immunities Clause, the Due Process Clause, the Equal Protection Clause, and deals with post-Civil War issues

Overview of the Civil War (1860-1865)

1. As US expanded borders, economy, and population, regional tensions over slavery led to civil war (grappled over question of whether new territories should allow slavery) 2. Collapse of two-party system (Whigs and Democrats) in 1850s revealed tendency toward sectional parties and rendered compromise difficult; Election of Lincoln initiated process of secession, as he asserted that he would not allow Union to be broken apart 3. Both sides had advantages as the war began; a. Union: greater population than Southern states, great military capacity (able to resupply troops and recruit reinforcements), more diverse economy, and railroad network b. Confederate States: Only had to fight a defensive war (did not have to invade and conquer North), while Union had to fight offensive war, and Confederacy held rich military tradition 4. Civil War spurred rapid industrialization of the North (due to manufacturing war materials), speeding up process of industrialization that began before war, and stimulated long period of economic growth 5. Most significant war outcome: abolition of slavery; issuing Emancipation Proclamation shifted war's focus from preserving Union to emancipating slaves, opened up enlistment of African Americans, and then 13th amendment was ratified, abolishing slavery forever 6. Outcome of war played significant role in growth of US as modern nation; established fact that states did not have autonomy to secede, was increasingly referred to as a nation, and unification was built around democratic principles

Ku Klux Klan

1. At end of Civil War, Ku Klux Klan was founded in Pulaski, Tennessee as a club lamenting the "Lost Cause"; Nathan Bedford Forrest was its first Grand Wizard, and with progression of Reconstruction, the Klan was a force for intimidation and terrorism (burned African-American schools and churches, displaced them from homes, lynched them) 2. Targeted anyone who supported Reconstruction; goal was "Home Rule" (return of state gov'ts under control of Democratic Party) and later southern autonomy

Jim Crow

1. Laws passed in the South after 1876 to promote segregation; Jim Crow was name of a white Vaudeville comedian's name who mocked African-Americans; symbolized institutionalized racism of South during Reconstruction; as each state was restored to self-government, Democratic Party enacted restrictions on rights of freedmen (poll taxes and literacy tests, banning African Americans from public facilities) 2. Descriptor for Southern society after Home Rule was established and North ended Reconstruction efforts

Thaddeus Stevens

1. Leader of Radical Republicans in the House of Representatives; withe counterpart Charles Sumner, established Reconstruction policies to force punitive peace on South, chaired Committee on Reconstruction, and organized President Johnson's impeachment 2. Buried in an African American cemetery

Telephone

1. Invented by Alexander Graham Bell, first telephone service connected American cities was in place by 1877; several small companies consolidated into American Telephone and Telegraph Company 2. Due to communication revolution, time zones were recognized beginning in 1883, and ease with which business was conducted was an advantage for America in achieving national and international markets

Crazy Horse

1. Lakota Sioux chief and fierce warrior who led resistance against US after Cheyenne and Sioux were ordered to go to federal gov't's reservations; solidified Cheyenne-Sioux tribal alliance and led the war that hindered unification of Custer's forces, and annihilated Custer and his Seventh Cavalry 2. When he left reservation after Plains Indians were subdued, he was bayoneted to death; his legacy remains on stone in Mount Rushmore

Siege of Vicksburg

1. Last Confederate stronghold on Mississippi River fell (1863) after 6-week siege by General U.S. Grant's army, and while Union victory was solidified with Battle of Gettysburg, fall of city of Vicksburg meant Union controlled Mississippi River (its original aim to split Confederacy geographically) 2. Most devastating turning point for Confederacy came at Gettysburg and Vicksburg ending Southern offenses and control of the Mississippi

Battle of Little Big Horn

1. Most significant defeat inflicted by Indians in history, in this battle (also known as "Custer's Last Stand"), Custer divided forces in face of enemy of unknown number, and attacked without properly scouting; was pyrrhic victory for Custer, losing 270 men, and US Army continued to hound these Native Americans until Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse were defeated 2. Great Plains War continued until Battle of Wounded Knee

Patents

1. Originally British idea; instrumental in expansion of new American economy in 19th century, in which writers and inventors were assured ability to benefit from intellectual property and defend their products from imitators 2. Reorganization of patent law occurred in 1836, by end of 1800s thousands of patents were being issued annually

Homestead Act

1. Passed in 1862 by federal government as part of Republican Party's 1860 campaign, this Act encouraged settlement of the West by offering 160 acres of land to any 21-year-old head of household who would pay ten dollars, live on the land for five years, and cultivate and improve it; 2. After six months, land could be purchased outright for $1.25 per acre 3. However, ⅔ homesteaders failed to establish viable agriculture in dry west, and much of land was eventually sold to large companies and real estate speculators; the homestead act's encouragement of western settlement represented the concept of "laissez-faire"

The Gettysburg Address

1. President Lincoln went to dedicate a military cemetery at Gettysburg, and his address at ceremony framed Civil War in terms of fulfilling democratic goals; invoked Declaration of Independence with Civil War framed as test of whether nation founded on liberty and equality can last; 2. Perhaps the most famous American speech by a president, here Lincoln recast the war as a historic test of the ability of a democracy to survive.

Chivington Massacre

Also known as Sand Creek Massacre, erupted when in Colorado Territory (1864) Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors raided traffic traveling to and from Denver, with Cheyenne chief Black Kettle declaring he couldn't control his warriors; Colonel John Chivington + 700 troopers killed 200 Native Americans, and Chivington had gone beyond his orders, retiring before facing punishment, and undoing the Cheyenne power structure (due to loss of chiefs)

Thirteenth Amendment

Amendment to the Constitution that abolished slavery (foreshadowed by Emancipation Proclamation); penalty for secession of slaveholding states and Civil War, as this was the step deemed necessary to occur before Reconstruction should be considered a success Considered to end of abolitionist movement, but events of Reconstruction left freedmen in condition similar to their status before the war

The Gospel of Wealth

Andrew Carnegie's belief that wealthy men are to consider their wealth as trustee funds for them to administer in a manner that is in the best interests of all ("the man who dies rich dies disgraced"); the essay explained that wealthy held accumulated resources in trust and were proven to be wise judges of how wealth should be used for benefit of entire community-example of Social Darwinism)

Geronimo

Apache chief who resisted control of Mexican and American gov'ts and surrendered only after leading US army cavalry troop on pursuit in Arizona; led many raids and evaded capture for almost 30 years, but surrendered in 1886

Appomattox Courthouse:

As Union armies encircled Army of Northern Virginia, General Lee surrendered to General U.S. Grant in April 1865; Lee received rations for his men and permission for all soldiers to keep their horses and mules; Lee's urging men to surrender and return to civilian life was his greatest contribution to peace

Greenbacks

War-time emergency remedy was the most extensive issuing of paper currency; both North and South circulated paper currencies not backed by precious metals, touching off intense inflation

First Battle of Bull Run

Battle of Bull Run, or Manassas (1861) was first major conflict of Civil War; Thomas J. Jackson's refusal to retreat rallied Confederate forces, earning him nickname "Stonewall"; Confederate reinforcements arrived by train for first time in warfare, and the five thousand casualties revealed that Civil War would be long and bloody conflict

Reservation System

Beginning in the 1850s, land was set aside by federal gov't for Native American tribes to live communally; legal arrangements were conducted on basis of making treaties with foreign entities living on American soil; when Natives wanted to be treated on a tribal level, they had to stay on their allotted lands

Ten Percent Plan

For each Southern state, if 10% voters from 1860 election pledged to abide by Emancipation Proclamation, then states could establish new government and send representatives to Congress

Grange

Formed in 1867 as a support system for struggling western farmers. The Grange offered farmers education and fellowship, providing a forum for homesteaders to share advice and emotional support at social functions. It also represented farmers' needs in dealings with big business and the federal government

Frontier Thesis

Frederick Jackson Turner delivered paper entitled "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," at conference for historians, in which he stated that frontier experiences had transformed American society and democracy into more robust institutions; the essay was an expression of nationalism (asserted that Americans should be distinguished from European ancestors as innovative, enterprising, etc.), but the failure of many homesteaders negated his thesis

Texas Longhorns

Free-ranging cattle left by the Spanish that fed on grasses of Trans-Mississippi West until cowboys rounded them up for shipment to meat-packing plants in Chicago; processes continued until barbed wire closed off most of land (thus, era of cowboy was short, but remains iconographic image of Wild West)

James J. Hill

Had a singular "rags-to-riches" story; his Great Northern Railroad was only transcontinental line built without gov't assistance (built it across Rocky and Cascade Mountains in US and Canada); innovated by building trunk lines off mainline to access mines, logging operations, and ranches, building segments of the railway and attracting settlers until each segment was prospering

John D. Rockefeller

His company Standard Oil of Ohio became model for all subsequent large corporations (prime example of efficiency and technological innovation); served a chairman of the Standard Oil Trust, which grew to control nearly all of the United States' oil production and distribution (this is a classic example of monopolizing industry through vertical integration, control of production of raw materials to finished product); Standard Oil was broken up under the Sherman Antitrust Act

"Wabash" Case

In 1886, Supreme Court ruled that railroads were immune to regulations by state gov'ts because they were engaged in interstate commerce

African-Americans in Office During Reconstruction

In South Carolina, African Americans briefly comprise majority in legislature, and reconstruction governments, under Republican banner, passed laws ending discrimination, built infrastructure, and created educational system

Republican Platform of 1856

In their first ever national election, the Republican Party called for the Homestead Act to promote settlement of the west, a central route for the transcontinental railroad, high protective tariffs, and the Free Soil position of not extending slavery to the west.

Civil Rights Bill

Radical Republicans balked at Johnson's plan for reconstruction in passing this law; wanted to secure official citizenship for freedmen and undermine Black Codes; Johnson vetoed the bill, and Congress was thereafter intent on removing Johnson from office

Redeemers

Southern white Democrats who took back control of their state gov'ts when Union Army left; goals included "Home Rule," and creation of the Solid South (unity of former Confederacy in the Democratic Party)

Carpetbaggers

Southern white democrats gave the nickname to northerners who moved South during Reconstruction in search of political and economic opportunity.

"Ex Parte" Milligan

Supreme court case in 1866 that ruled that military tribunals could not try civilians if civilian courts were open (even if country was at war); Congress ignored the ruling during military Reconstruction, and Supreme court ultimately acquiesced

Louis Agassiz

Swiss-born scientist who was first to propose idea that an ice age had once gripped the earth, and his "scientific" statements on race were used as justification for racist policies in the South during and after Reconstruction; considered African Americans inferior, believing that natural selection applied to them, and that they would die off due to their inability to organize (his views and theories about race derived from Darwinism were indicative of latent racism in both North and South)

Andrew Johnson

The 17th President of the United States, Democrat Andrew Johnson became president upon the death of Lincoln and remained in office until 1869. Johnson's relationship with Congress declined steadily during his presidency, culminating in impeachment proceedings in 1868. He was known for his soft hand in dealing with southern states during Reconstruction, ultimately allowing for black codes, Jim Crow laws, and other curtailments of Civil Rights for blacks.

The Anaconda Plan

The Union strategy to conquer the South in the Civil War was called the Anaconda Plan; referred to process of blockading South with Union navy while diving Confederacy into thirds by taking Mississippi River and Shenandoah Valley to squeeze each third into submission

Scalawag

This is a derisive term that Democrats used to designate Southern moderates who cooperated with Republicans during Reconstruction.

Battle of Wounded Knee

1. After Sitting Bull's death (1890), his followers fled Standing Rock and joined Chief Spotted Elk of the Miniconjou Sioux to Pine Ridge Reservation near Wounded Knee, South Dakota; were apprehended by the Seventh Cavalry, and when shot was fired (deaf Indian would not put down rifle when ordered) opened fire, killing more than 200 Lakota Indians 2. This massacre represented ending of "Indian Wars" of the West, and after this, there were no more large-scaled armed uprisings among American Indians to US authorities

Freedmen's Bureau (1865)

1. A welfare agency (staffed by Union army officers) expanded initially in response to Black Codes, transferred abandoned land to former slaves, provided freedmen with basic necessities to own land or secure jobs (monitored their working conditions), and their greatest success was effort to educate African Americans in South 2. Johnson vetoed this legislation, but Radical Republicans overrode his veto

Overview of Reconstruction

1. At end of Civil War, Lincoln and Republican Party grappled with several questions about accommodations for emancipated men and women in South, how secessionist South would be reintegrated into US, if those who rebelled against US would face retribution, whether the executive of Congress was responsible for reuniting and reconstructing country, and whether secessionist states were still political entities awaiting gov't personnel (many Republicans argued that states had ceased to exist and needed to be readmitted by Congress) 2. Lincoln's primary post-Civil War policy objective was to restore Union, as he implemented "ten-percent" plan, vetoed Wade-Davis Bill, and after his assassination, his successor Andrew Johnson continued Lincoln's plan for Reconstruction (legitimized Southern state governments after they repudiated secession and ratified 13th Amendment) 3. In South, members of old slave owning class reclaimed power, replicating conditions of old South (Black Codes, had "won the war, but lost the peace") 4. When Republicans won in Congress in 1866 elections, undertook "Radical Reconstruction," showing potential of biracial democracy, enacting Reconstruction Acts of 1867, Civil Rights Act of 1867, which also faced virulent Southern opposition 5. President Johnson attempted to block radical Republicans' measures, and as tensions escalate between President and Republicans in Congress, they voted to impeach Johnson (were unsuccessful, but still rendered Johnson powerless in terms of Reconstruction) 6. During Congressional Reconstruction, new state gov'ts were formed, formerly enslaved families were reunited, African Americans were elected to local, state, federal offices (two to US Senate and 14 to House of Representatives) 8. Reconstruction had potential but ultimately failed, only lasting decade, inspiring civil rights activists throughout 20th century

Confiscation Acts

1. Before Civil War Lincoln was reluctant to take action against slavery in states where it already existed, for fear of pushing border states to secession; however, some Republicans in Congress framed question of slavery as military matter, and introduced first Confiscation Act in 1861, declaring that any slaves pressed into working for Confederacy would be taken as "confiscated property"; 2. Second act (1862) allowed seizure of slaves owned by Confederate officials, and Lincoln reluctantly signed both acts, indicating his evolving position on slavery

Antietam

1. Bloodiest one-day battle of the war, as there were 23,000 casualties from both sides, with George McClelland thwarting Robert E. Lee's plans; retreat of Lee into Virginia was first piece of good news for Union forces, spurring Lincoln to issue Emancipation Proclamation 2. As a result of the battle, foreign recognition of Confederacy was stymied

New York City Draft Riots

1. Both sides of Civil War had instituted drafts by 1863, but for the Union draft, men could pay a $300 fee to hire a substitute to serve; as a result, protests broke out in New York City, primarily spurring violent conflict between Irish immigrants and African Americans; 2. Protests were eventually suppressed by troops, and this was one of most significant episodes of resistance to Union policies

Chinese Exclusion Act

1. Chinese immigrants flocked to CA during gold rush, remaining when construction of transcontinental railroad began (1862); were instrumental in success of Central Pacific Railroad (crossing Sierra Nevada Mountains from Sacramento to Utah) 2. Tensions arose when it became apparent Chinese were "taking over" segments of economy and settling permanently; first nativist immigration law passed barred further Chinese immigration for 10 years (1882-1892); sentiment leading to Exclusion Act was prompted because Chinese-owned businesses flourished and their neighbors became jealous

Key Concepts/Big Picture of Civil War (1860-1865)

1. Civil War of clash of forces holding opposing interpretations of powers of federal gov't; Union victory established US as more unified nation with new perspective on US Constitution and Declaration of Independence 2. Both sides in Civil War originally used military tactics unsuited to their modern weaponry, but North adopted techniques of warfare that foreshadowed terrible nature of 20th century conflicts 3. Lincoln's adept management of war earned him top rank among presidents, status as a model of subsequent presidents, and legacy as martyr for American freedom 4. In surviving this harrowing national conflict, federal gov't emerged from Civil War with great powers and authority over states and individuals 5. Major ramification of the war were defining the relationships between the races and the economic transformations that launched settlement of west and rise of industrialized big business

Monitor v. Merrimac

1. Clash of ironclad ships that marked turning point in world naval conflicts, and part of reason why civil war was first modern war; 2. Confederate ship Virginia (refitted Merrimac) clashed with wooden Union ships until arrival of newly designed Monitor, and then the two ironclad ships pounded each other, which ended in a draw 3. Confederacy foreshadowed modern naval warfare later with the Hunley

Sitting Bull

1. Dakota Sioux medicine man and chief whose reservation in Black Hills (South Dakota) was location of strife over gold; Surrendered to federal authority in 1881, was kept in federal custody, and performed in Buffalo Bill's Wild West show; after 1885, returned to Standing Rock Reservation, and may have participated in Ghost Dance movement 2. As US officials feared general uprising among Native Americans, the US Indian agency ordered for his arrest, and shot and killed him in the process (1890)

Robert E. Lee

1. Declined Lincoln's offer to command Union Army, and although opposed to both slavery and secession, he joined Confederate cause; Commanding general of the Confederate Army. He was a brilliant strategist and beloved by his troops; one of the main reasons why the Confederacy lasted as long as it did. 2. Surrendered to General U.S. Grant at Appomattox in 1865

Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address

1. Delivered in March 1865, with end of war and slavery in sight; was lenient toward secessionist south ("with malice toward none, with charity for all"); implemented "ten percent plan," vetoed the Wade-Davis Bill (would have established strict standards for Southerners) 2. However, spoke of evils of slavery and of entire war as punishment on both sides for benefiting from slavery

Fifteenth Amendment

1. Devised by Radical Republicans, African-American males were given the right to vote in local and national elections (before all white women, and some southern white men in formerly seceded states); Ratified in 1870, it prohibited the denial of voting rights to any citizen based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." 2. Women suffragists objected because 14th and 15th Amendments were first uses of word "male" in US Constitution

Overview of Post-Civil War Settlement of the West

1. During and after Civil War, waves of settlers migrated West (due to government policies and economic opportunity); Midwest was agricultural region and crashes occured between Native Americans and settlers (led to ultimate demise of autonomy for Native Americans within US borders) 2. Factors contributing to migration West: railroad companies were selling land they had been granted, Homestead Act of 1862 was passed (populations of Minnesota, Dakotas, Kansas, and Nebraska grew between end of Civil WAr and 1900) 3. Immigrants mixed with native-born whites and African American migrants from South in West; very FEW laborers belonged to unions 4. Agricultural production developed; Chicago became transportation and financial nexus of national and international markets (grain and Cattle came through Chicago) Between end of Civil War and 1900, last large scale military conflict occurred between Native Americans and US; by 1880s "Indian Wars" resulted in defeat for Native Americans 5. The reintroduction/use of horses brought to North America by Europeans most altered Native Americans' way of life prior to 1890

Copperheads

1. Faction of Democratic Party in Northern states who opposed Civil War; Republicans called them "copperheads" after poisonous snake 2. Was strong in Midwest states above Ohio River and among Irish Catholic immigrants in eastern cities (many in midwest migrated from south, were distraught when southern ties were severed) 3. Successors of Jacksonian agrarians; attached to traditional, rural vision of US

Dawes Severalty Act

1. Federal gov't abandoned policy of giving land to tribes to be owned communally (to reduce authority of tribal governments and assimilate Native Americans); the Dawes Act of 1887 granted 160 acres of land to heads of American Indian families, encouraging them to farm private land and abandon tribal affiliations 2. However, gov't hampered implementation of the act, and the attempt to turn Natives into American citizens failed and increased their resistance

Fort Sumter

1. Federal installation on Charleston harbor, SC (not first fort fired upon-that was Pensacola); SC was first to secede (considered culprits who started war); fort was fired upon by Confederate batteries in 1861, and commander inside (Major Robert Anderson) surrendered; 2. As a result, 4 additional states seceded, Lincoln sent supply of ships "diplomatically" that would provoke the south to attack, claiming that Confederacy started Civil War

Jefferson Davis

1. First president of the Confederate States of America; served in Black Hawk War and Mexican War, and served as Democratic US congressman, senator, and secretary of war under Franklin Pierce; 2. His authoritarian leadership undid the confederacy (was hampered by the concept of states' rights), and was captured, charged with treason and imprisoned (1865-1867)

Transcontinental Railroad

1. First transcontinental railroad line to span continent began in 1862; Central Pacific (from in Sacramento, CA, crossed Sierra Nevada Mountains) and Union Pacific railroad was built from Omaha, Nebraska, and built predominantly by Irish immigrants, with Central Pacific built by Chinese immigrants 2. Was considered greatest civil engineering feat of the time, with five transcontinental railroads by 1900 (took homesteaders west, contributed to decimation of buffalo herds-Plains Indians resisted its construction)

Sharecropping

1. Form of tenant farming in which black and white workers lived on former plantation's land (working cotton or tobacco crops for owner), and portion of proceeds would be given to workers as income; most former slaves and poor whites accepted this, but were subject to manipulation by landowner or merchants, and natural agricultural problems (droughts, etc.) would leave sharecropping families with generations of debt 2. Was system almost exactly reminiscent of slavery, existing in South until WWII;9. The decline of the sharecropping system and of the crop-lien system in the South after 1940 was due primarily to the increase in mechanization and the declining demand for cotton

Attempted Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

1. Impeachment was used during Reconstruction as a political weapon; After the Radical Republicans passed the Tenure of Office Act to prevent Johnson from dismissing any member of Lincoln's mostly Republican cabinet, Johnson suspended the Secretary of War in defiance and was impeached. He escaped a conviction and removal from office by one vote in the Senate. 2. Thus, President Andrew Johnson was impeached because he wrestled with Congress for control of the Reconstruction process

Emancipation Proclamation

1. In 1863, Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in order to free slaves in areas under Confederate control; was most important act in saving Union by providing moral justification for continuing the war, proving that after January 1, 1863, all slaves in rebellion states would be free 2. Permitted Black soldiers to fight for freedom, and all conquered rebellion states had to honor the proclamation; Emancipation Proclamation declared slaves in confederate states still in rebellion "forever free"

Suspension of Habeas Corpus

1. In 1863, Lincoln suspended writ of habeas corpus, authorizing arrest (without due process) of rebels and traitors; under constitution, person can only be sentenced to prison after being formally charged, tried, and found guilty (however, states that can be suspended during times of emergency); Lincoln was responding to riots and threats of militia action in border state of Maryland 2. After war Supreme Court ruled (in Ex Parte Milligan) that suspension of the writ did not empower president to convict citizens before military tribunals; could only occur if civilians courts were not operating

The Ghost Dance Movement

1. In midst of devastating losses suffered by Native Americans in 1870s and 1880s, the Ghost Dance Movement was developed by prophet named Wovoka, who had visions of an apocalyptic battle that would end in victory over the whites; Ghost Dancers believed that wearing a white ghost shirt made them impervious to soldiers' bullets, and the movement (had adherents across Great Plains) led to a spiritual revival, instilling fear among white authorities; 2. Fearing uprising, President Benjamin Harrison sent thousands of troops to South Dakota in 1889

Key Concepts/Big Picture of Reconstruction

1. Reconstruction period was difficult era of social, political, and economic strife as US attempted to heal wound of Civil War 2. Main political battles occured between restored national political parties and also the executive and legislative branches of federal gov't 3. Radical Republicans were intent on inflicting retribution on South for starting Civil War, and enacted reform laws, policies, and constitutional amendments while holding powerful majority in Congress 4. Potential for change and reform in South regarding status of African Americans was severely hampered by racism and difficulty in rebuilding southern economy without slavery 5. Crippling laws and poor economic conditions reduced freedmen of South to status similar to that of slaves; African Americans were working on plantations without voting or other civil rights, with little social mobility

Compromise of 1877

1. Reflected growing northern disinterest in Reconstruction and in race relations in the South; As Florida, South CArolina, and Louisiana were still under military occupation after Civil War and sent in disputed election returns, the Republicans claimed Rutherford B. Hayes had won, while Democrats claimed Samuel B. Tilden had; 2. Compromise was reached in which the South traded the presidency for receiving the three states back under home rule (due to racism and limits on federal power, former slave masters were restored in South as political ruling class)

Abraham Lincoln

1. Rose from humble beginnings to successful lawyer in Springfield, IL, belonged to Whig Party, serving one term in House of Representatives (1847-1849), before joining Republican Party (emerged during the late 1850s as the nation's top Republican) in 1856 2. Victory in 1860 election spurred secession, despite his assurance that the Constitution prohibited him from abolishing slavery where it already existed; appointed General U.S. Grant to lead Union military, issued Emancipation Proclamation (1863), chose Andrew Johnson as running mate in second-term election, and was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth after guiding Union to victory; 18. Best evidence of Lincoln's talents as a political leader: His ability to keep his party relatively united despite its internal conflicts

Telegraph

1. Samuel F.B. Morse invented telegraph in 1844, and a direct line 3,600 miles long connected NY to San Francisco to relay news about Civil War and West (Western Union Telegraph Company monopolized the telegraph from that point on); because Morse code could be perceived over greater distances on radio waves than the human voice, Samuel's influence outlasted the telegraph 2. Transatlantic cable was laid between US and Great Britain, and the cables were chief source of into until replaced by satellite communication in 1960s

Incorporation

1. Spread of large-scale companies in Gilded Age was facilities by changes in laws around incorporation; by mid 1800s, states rewrote corporate laws allowing for charters of businesses; allowed for establishment of a corporation in which public members could invest their money, providing "limited liability" (investors could only lost the amount they had invested) 2. States removed restrictions on corporations (would no longer oversee governance rules of corporations)

The Slaughter-House Cases

1. Supreme Court consolidated three similar cases in 1873 under collected name "Slaughter-House Cases"; when state granted corporation to run centralized facilities that smaller slaughter-houses would have to rent space in, these slaughterhouses cited 14th Amendment, arguing that their privileges and immunities were being denied by this forced removal 2. Court said that amendment did not apply to rights derived from "state citizenship," only national citizenship, and Southern states exploited this decision to assert that 14th Amendment could not prohibit state Jim Crow laws

Ulysses S. Grant

1. The most famous general of the Civil War and later president from 1869 to 1877; pulled off astounding victories during Civil War in in the West (ex: reduction of Vicksburg and freeing Mississippi River), but relied primary on attrition of Confederate Army (wearing down of Confederate Army prevailed) 2. His administration was marred by corruption (Gilded Age)

Buffalo

1. These animals were source of sustenance for Native Americans, as they were proficient buffalo killers, but cultural values mandated killing of just what was needed; white hunters began killing buffalo for their hides (Buffalo Bill killed 4,000 by order of federal gov't), but it was ultimately determined that the "solution" to Native American problem was to eliminate the buffalo; Great Plains Indians lost way of life with their near extinction 2. Most severe blow to American Indians in the Great Plains War was the near extinction of the American bison through deliberate slaughter

Black Codes

1. They were passed (1865-1866) immediately after Civil War by Southern state legislatures to restrict the rights of former slaves; forbade African Americans from owning land, owning businesses, and arrested freed people for minor infractions (vagrancy laws); punishments for violation of Black Codes included forcing African Americans to labor on plantation 2. Mississippi was first to pass Black Codes, followed by ten states of former Confederacy

Battle of Gettysburg

1. This was the largest battle of the Civil War and considered to be the turning point, as it marked the Union's first major victory in the East. It resulted in 51,000 deaths; 2. Confederate Army's last invasion of North, with Lee unsuccessfully attacking Union forces, and George Meader, new Union Commander vanquished them 3. Resulting in Lee offering to resign, and South realized that Gettysburg was Confederacy's doom

Tenure of Office Act

1. To wrest control over Reconstruction from President Johnson, Radical Republicans passed this act as a trap; sought to require Congressional consent to review any firings conducted by the executive branch; when Johnson attempted to fire Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, asked permission of Congress; when they refused, Johnson went ahead with the firing 2. Johnson's violation of this act was the pretext used by Radical Republicans to impeach him for "high crimes and misdemeanors"

Overview of the New American Economy

1. US economy expanded rapidly in late 1800s with industrial revolution; this was facilitated by gov't support for innovation and technological advancements, and era of industrial expansion after Reconstruction is known as Gilded Age 2. Era of small, local businesses gave way to large corporations and trusts (3 most important industries of era = railroad, steel, oil) 3. Although there was veneer of economic boost, wealth was not equally distributed (robber barons vs. impoverished workers living in slums) 4. Giant corporations countered traditional American notion of economy; with masses of unskilled workers in companies of the Gild Age, it was evident that these men would come to comprise permanent working class 5. New ideas about nature of American economy arose during Gilded Age, including "Social Darwinism," (justified wealth and power of large business owners), and "laissez-faire" economies ("hands-off" approach to economic activities) 6. Critics of laissez-faire pushed gov't to rein in on massive corporations (ex: Sherman Antitrust Act), but such efforts were hindered by courts and lax enforcement 7. Largest voter turnout in American history occured in Gilded Age 8. Some critics advocated for alternatives to capitalism (ex: Henry George's "single tax,"Edward Bellamy argued for socialist future)-many proposals for gov't involvement were enacted during Progressive Era (1910s) and New Deal (1930s)

Disenfranchisement

1. When states received self-government, they systematically limited or removed African Americans' voting rights (despite 15th Amendment); regulations that applied to all voters were not equally enforced, literacy tests hampered vote of freedmen, poll taxes barred sharecropping African Americans from voting (existed on a cashless economy) 2. Such tacit restrictions on voting were not entirely eradicated in South until nearly 100 years after ratification of 15th Amendment

Military Reconstruction Act

1. With Military Reconstruction Act of 1867, Congress combined the seceded states (except for Tennessee) into five military districts each headed by a general with regular army and African-American militia troops to impose order and protect African-American voters after 15th Amendment 2. Southerners who cooperated with the process were known as "scalawags," and Northerners who came to South to participate were "carpetbaggers"

George Armstrong Custer

1. Youngest general officer of Union Army during Civil War, and after Civil War he headed Seventh Cavalry in the war against the Sioux (planned an attack in Little Big Horn River and Black Hills in South Dakota), launching three-pronged attack on Sioux + Cheyenne settlements 2. Calculated his odds were better based on fraud Indian Bureau statistics, and he and ⅓ of his cavalry force were isolated and killed by Crazy Horse + Sitting Bull

Cornelius Vanderbilt

Acquired wealth through steamboat lines, he consolidated railroads in the East until he had formed empire for his son, William; he pioneered use of steel rails set at a uniform width, and vastly improved service

Forts Henry and Donelson

Capture of these two forts on Tennessee and Cumberland rivers was first step toward U.S. Grant's rise to command all Union armies; Grant kept Kentucky from seceding, opening way for Union victory in western theater

Nez Perce War

Chief Joseph of Nez Perce tribe in Idaho attempted to escape reservation system by leading around 700 of his people on a flight to Canada; after three months of battles, he surrendered, lobbying Congress until his people were removed from reservations in Kansas and the survivors returned to Idaho

Congressional Reconstruction

Constitutional voting laws were changed to enfranchise former slaves as citizens.

Sioux Rebellion

Dakota Sioux realized unscrupulousness of Indian Bureau agents (hunted animals to extinction, wouldn't release food warehouses), in 1862, Sioux warriors killed family on farm next to their reservation; when Sioux were defeated, 38 of the men responsible were hanged in largest mass execution in American history (was illustrative of Gilded Age corruption)

Stock Market

During rapid growth of American economy after Civil War, companies were yearning for sources of capital to expand their businesses, and the main source of this capital by 1900 was sale of stocks on Wall Street (conducted in open air until 1921-when investors realized that stocks could be bought and sold depending on public perception of a company's soundness or potential)

Ten Percent Plan

Lincoln attempted to ease country back to peace with lenient plan for Reconstruction; gave amnesty to all Confederates and called for emancipation of slaves, and once 10% of a state's population swore oath of loyalty to Union, Lincoln planned to recognize state's gov't as legitimate

Presidential Reconstruction

Lincoln's and Johnson's plans that would have made it easy for the former Southern confederate states to rejoin the Union. These plans were invalidated by the Reconstruction Act of 1867.

Border States

Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware were slave states that remained loyal to Union (later including West Virginia); Republican Party mandated that slavery be left alone where it existed, and thus Lincoln convinced these four states not to secede (reasoning that if these states left, Union would dissolve; Lincoln used military force and police powers to convince these citizens in ways that were later deemed unconstitutional; the desire of Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state reopened sectional debate that the ratification of US Congress ultimately mediated

Alabama

Most successful Confederate raider ship during the war, built for Confederacy in a British shipyard, which became a source of the last major diplomatic crisis between US and United Kingdom

Hiram Revels

One of 16 African Americans elected to US Congress during Reconstruction, Hiram Revels was first African-American to serve in US senate (1870); in 1857, was principal of African-American high school, helped recruit African-American soldiers during civil war, and took ministerial position in Mississippi before being elected to Senate from that state

Trent Affair

When British ship, the Trent, was boarded by Union vessel and two Confederate diplomats arrested, British almost entered Civil War on side of the Confederacy, but lincoln released the prisoners instead

Bessemer Process

William Kelly invented process by which air was forced up through molten iron to make steel (contemporaneously, Henry Bessemer had made similar strides in Great Britain), but after bankruptcy, Kelly sold his patent to Bessemer, who developed process at the height to steel-making technology in 1800s (allowed for cheaper manufacture of better steel, forming crucial infracture of new American economy)

"A Century of Dishonor"

Written by Helen Hunt Jackson and published in 1881, this book attempted to raise public awareness of the harsh and dishonorable treatment of Native Americans by the United States in the 19th Century; presented book to Indian Bureau, sent copy to every member of Congress, and lectured continually, advocating for better treatment for Native Americans