Section 7: 1953-1983 (Ch 32-36)

Medgar Evers

African-American WWII veteran who returned to Mississippi, resolving to end racial discrimination in his home state; rose in ranks of NAACP and organized new chapters of NAACP + voter registration drives across the state, and boycotts; as the face of the NAACP he received numerous threats, and was shot in the back by a sniper in 1963

"Organization Man"

Analyzed the growing sense of conformity and the loss of individualism in American society.

Earth Day

Annual event held on April 22, beginning in 1970 that became rallying point for environmentalist movement; encouraged environmental activism + policy awareness among colleges, schools and communities, and now Earth day is a celebration in 192 countries

The Beat Generation

Literary movement that represented a subversive undercurrent in the 1950s; represented repudiation of mainstream values (suburban lifestyle, consumerism, patriotism); most important text of the movement was ON the Road by Jack Kerouac, and also important is Allen Ginsberg's book of poems, Howl (ripped apart materialism); such literature resonated with many young people, and was precursor to counterculture of 1960s

Twenty-Fourth Amendment

This amendment to the Constitution was adopted in 1964, banning the denying or abridging of the right to vote by levying poll taxes

Women's Liberation Movement

1. "Second Wave" of feminism occurred in 1960s and '70s amid Vietnam War, and women's liberation activities sprang from Betty Friedan's 1963 The Feminine Mystique, chronicling dissatisfaction of women in the '50s seeking to transcend housewifery and motherhood and to establish political stance; by 1966, Friedan was elected president of National Organization for Women, which advocated for equality of sexes in education + employment + political office, also lobbying gov't to reform family, marriage, and divorce laws 2. Tactics ranged from nonviolent marches, bra burning, to protests against beauty pageants

Emmett Till

1. 14 year old African American from Chicago who, when in Mississippi, on a dare, approached young white woman and said, "Bye, baby," whistling as he left; woman's husband removed Till from his house forcibly and beat and shot the boy to death (his body was later recovered out of the Tallahatchie River by fisherman); when Till's murderers were brought to trial, the case drew national attention, but the all-white jury found two men innocent; 2. Tension had arisen from Brown decision, outrage over Emmett Till's death prompted Rosa Parks + others to launch civil rights movement

Overview of the Rise of Liberalism and Challenges to the Status Quo in the 1960s

1. 1960s: highpoint of American liberalism (implementation of LBJ's Great Society programs, provisions of Warren Court, civil rights legislation) 2. Liberal ideology centered around efficacy of gov't initiatives to address social problems, favored Keynesian economics; this liberal coalition included moderates in labor movement, critics of McCarthyism, civil rights supporters, civil society groups (ex: ACLU and ADA) 3. Election of JFK in 1960 marked break with conservative '50s, but liberal agenda was fully effectuated by LBJ (ex: Medicare, immigration reform, Head Start program) 4. Civil rights movement inspired other social change movements in '60s (ex: women's liberation, gay liberation—after Stonewall Riots—Earth Day and counterculture movement—"hippie enclaves") 5. However, liberal agenda unraveled as Vietnam War depleted resources from social programs; urban riots staged by Black underclass ensued; liberal agenda was scrutinized by left, which was seminal in creating the New Left (associated with organization Students for a Democratic Society)

Overview of Politics and Society in the 1970s

1. 1970s was characterized by economic decline, political scandals, decline in public trust, and perception of misguided foreign policy; major source of distrust was Watergate, ending in Nixon's resignation in 1974 2. The US withdrawal from Vietnam in 1973 and defeat of South Vietnam shattered perception of American invincibility, and although Carter successfully pursued Middle East peace, the ensuing Iranian hostage crisis (1979-1981), and his failed negotiations with Panama (resulting in transfer of Panama Canal zone to Panama) tarnished his reputation 3. Arab Oil Embargo and accident at Three Mile Island nuclear facility contributed to economic downturn In terms of societal values of the 1970s, reassertion of traditional values occurred as backlash to promiscuity of the 1960s, and Christian fundamentalist movement gained traction, soon organizing opposition to liberal social trends (noticeable in election of Reagan in 1980); 4. Many of the hippies and radicals of 1960s shifted focus to personal improvement rather than societal change, as 1970s saw growth of personal fitness, nutritional awareness, and home improvement 5. In 1970s, structure of family was altered; % women engaged in workforce grew (rendered the "quiet revolution" of women entering the workplace), divorce rate increased and % women breadwinners increased

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

1. A group of blacks in 1909 led by W. E. B. du Bois formed NAACP as result of lynching + racial riot in Springfield, Illinois; it called for an end to racial discrimination, attacked Jim Crow laws, and fought to overturn the 1896 Plessy decision (hired Thurgood Marshall to argue the 1954 Brown case, who eventually became first Black justice on Supreme Court); organization focused more on lobbying gov't to achieve legislative + judicial advances, and provided legal counsel + representation. Led by middle-class blacks, the organization continues to advocate for integration and equal treatment for American blacks. 2. The NAACP was the oldest civil rights organization addressing the concerns of African Americans

Operation Rolling Thunder

1. After Gulf of Tonkin Resolution authorized retaliation, LBJ ordered large-scale bombing of North Vietnam (campaign was named Operation Rolling Thunder), and when campaign proved ineffectual (after dropping more bombs than in all of WWII), LBJ escalated number of ground troops in Vietnam 2. This operation failed to force North Vietnam to negotiate peace because military assets of North Vietnam were located in underground tunnels

Key Concepts/Big Picture of the Rise of Liberalism and Challenges to the Status Quo in the 1960s

1. After JFK's assassination, LBJ administration successfully passed wide range of measures addressing reforms in Great Society program 2. Advances in liberal Democratic program included medical insurance for old + indigent, environmental legislation, + measures designed to close achievement gap between poor and affluent students 3. Warren Court advanced many civil rights issues, conferring nine members of court with ability to virtually make law outside legislative powers of states + Congress 4. Throughout decade of 1960s, social change movements, inspired by civil rights movement successes, addressed inequalities of gender, sexuality, and ethnicity 5. Counterculture of 1960s (culminating in Woodstock Festival of 1969) challenged mainstream culture of 1950s + '60s (perceived as overly materialistic + conformist)

Key Concepts/Big Picture of the Civil Rights Movement

1. After century of repression following Civil War, new individuals ignited activism on behalf of African Americans in civil rights movement; prominent ministers + other leaders organized national reform associations to coordinate protests + mobilize African-American communities in face of segregation and other forms of racial discrimination 2. Black protesters gathered in South from all over America to advance causes of voter registration and desegregation through marches, sit-in, and other forms of nonviolent protests that resulted in important federal legislation promoting equality 3. Campaign arose on behalf of white supremacist organizations + individuals in South harassed civil rights leaders 4. Many African-Americans grew impatient with pace of change through nonviolent means and advocated more militant approaches through "black pride," "black power," and "black nationalism" to achieve separation of races as racist as that espoused by white supremacists

Nixon Resignation

1. After enjoying wide popularity with achieving landslide victory in Election of 1972, Nixon became first president to resign from office; gave short speech to Americans on television in 1974 rather than face impeachment 2. Lyndon Johnson's approach to the Vietnam War was to increase the number of American military personnel even though fighting a limited war 3. All of the following protest movements challenged American societal norms during the Vietnam era EXCEPT the antinuclear energy movement

Vietnam Veterans Against the War

1. Anti War movement included Vietnam Veterans Against the War; founded in 1967, it reflected frustrations from returning veterans, first-hand experiences added legitimacy to group, and soldiers even attacked commanding officers; organization began during Spring Mobilization to End the War demonstration in NYC, and addressed issues of acclimation into civilian life and medical + psychological support 2. John Kerry was prominent spokesman fro group in early 1970s

Camp David Accords

1. As Carter's biggest foreign policy success, these were the first peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, called for end to hostilities between the two nations, signed in 1978 in exchange for Israel's return of the Sinai Peninsula (previously acquired in the Six-Day War) in return for free passage of Israeli ships though the Suez Canal, end to boycotts between the nations, access for Israel to purchase Arab oil 2. However, due to assassination of Sadat, full implementation of the accords was thwarted

Whip Inflation Now

1. As Ford embrace notion that Americans could ameliorate stagflation by reducing consumption, saving money, and drive of sacrifice for the common good; Ford was concerned about inflation and "energy crisis," held summit economic meeting, and launched anti-inflation crusade; advocated balancing family budgets, using credit wisely, economizing, recycling, looking for bargains and guarding health (as sick days translated to waste); 2. Despite its support, WIN was not particularly impactful

Counterculture

1. As babyboom generation grew weary of culture of previous generation, counterculture as visible in late 1960s; A political and social movement that questioned traditional middle-class values and the conservative conformity and materialism of American society. Also heavily involved in (and to a large degree created by) the Anti-War movement during the Vietnam War. (ex: the Hippies, Yippies, and the Free Speech Movement) 2. Associated with communal living, spiritual experiences, drug use, music, and avant-garde art; culminated in the Woodstock Festival and the Altamont event 3. Influenced attitudes around sexuality, concern for gov't, critique of militarism, greater informality, and increased emphasis on nutrition + natural foods

Watergate Scandal

1. As five men linked to G. Gordon Liddy (advisor to Committee to Reelect the President) broke into campaign headquarters that housed the Democratic National Committee offices in 1972 at the Watergate hotel, Nixon denied involvement on behalf of his staff, and Woodward and Bernstein began investigation in Washington Post that led to his downfall; as watergate was investigated primarily by senate committee, they revealed other break-ins, white house staffers' "enemies list" and "plumbers" (those who stopped press leaks), and other unscrupulous practices; 2. Before impeachment went underway, Nixon announced his resignation in 1974

Jimmy Carter

1. Before running family business, Carter studied nuclear physics and engineering; as governor of Georgia, enacted state-level reforms to end racial discrimination, and won over Gerald Ford in Election of 1976; through Iranian Hostage Crisis Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Cold War negotiations, and Energy Crisis was criticized for vacillation in decision-making, but lauded for stance on human rights and influencing the UN 2. Lost election of 1980 to Reagan, but devoted to humanitarian causes afterwards 3. Carter convinced the UN, along with his own administration to denounce human rights violations by governments around the world

Students for a Democratic Society

1. Beginning in 1960, campuses of American universities experienced political + social activism on part of this organization; SDS was associated with New Left movement, consisting of college students protesting social injustices + Vietnam War; in Port Huron Statement of 1962, SDS leaders denounced materialism + discrimination of American society, advocating takeover of university campuses for political campaigning; 2. Moved toward Marxist radical rhetoric in 1960s, and splintered in several groups (including the Weathermen) but organization ended in 1970s

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

1. Beginning in 1979, when the socialist gov't in Afghanistan was unpopular with religious people, led to rebellion and installation of new anti-Soviet gov't; Soviet forces intervened in 1979 and installed a pro-Soviet gov't, which was again confronted by rebellion of the Afghan Mujahideen rebel group; Soviets continued to fight for a decade, and President Carter cut off grain shipment to USSR, boycotting 1980 Summer Olympic Games (Moscow); 2. USSR pulled out in 1989, but engagement weakened gov't and contributed to collapse of USSR in 1991, and their withdrawal led to rise of Taliban

"The Affluent Society"

1. Book by John Kenneth Galbraith that criticized consumerism and obsession with increasing productivity managed by private industries bent on making profits; criticized advertising industry for making Americans want to consume more resources, and asserted that gov't should moderate excesses of consumerism by devoting resources to public secor (ex: education); professed that poverty should be eradicated 2. His ideas were extension of Keynesian economics + Progressive Reform, and JFK made Galbraith one of his chief advisors

Montgomery Bus Boycott

1. Boycott helped shape future civil rights strategies because it combined direct action protest with litigation in the courts; In Alabama, Blacks walked + carpooled to work, whereas before the boycott they had comprised majority of the passengers riding the buses; boycott lasted 381 days and cost bus company 65% of its normal income (The Montgomery Bus Boycott in the wake of the arrest and fine of Rosa Parks seriously lowered the bus company's revenues for over a year); thereafter, the Warren Court decreed that the segregation of the buses should end 2. MLK began his leadership in the civil rights movement by organizing the boycott

Overview of the Civil Rights Movement

1. Civil Rights Movement was one of most significant reform movements in American history (occurring in 1950s and 1960s), as it challenged legal basis of segregation and the pervasive racism of American society 2. Precedents for civil rights activism were established in South Carolina Colored People's Convention, Colored Farmers' National Alliance, and formation of NAACP, but many historians cite WWII as major turning point in modern civil rights movement (veterans partook in "Double V" campaign, Great Migration occurred) and this was generation that would become leaders of civil rights movement 3. Legal challenges, civil disobedience, non-violent protests, and direct action were all tactics employed in this movement, as it gained national traction with the Montgomery Bus Boycott, thrusting its leader MLK into the national spotlight 4. Encountered violent resistance from Southern whites (ex: riots after desegregation of Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas), and such activism was repeated in other situations (ex: Freedom Rides of 1963) President LBJ championed civil rights cause, passing 1964 Civil Rights ACt (banned racial discrimination in public places), and Voting Rights Act (outlawed literacy tests + poll taxes in disenfranchisement) 5. However, confronting housing + employment rights for Blacks was more difficult to surmount; 23. Civil rights organizations in the 1950's and 1960's based their court suits primarily on the Fourteenth Amendment

Escobedo v. Illinois

1. Danny Escobedo was arrested, freed, and rearrested for murder of brother-in-law in 1960, and during questioning he asked repeatedly to consult with his lawyer; after he was charged with murder, case was appealed by Warren Court, ruling that Escobedo was prosecuted while police denied the accused the right to have legal counsel 2. Case laid groundwork for Miranda case by setting precedent of accused criminal's right to remain silent until a lawyer could be provided (made convicted far more difficult to obtain)

War on Poverty

1. Declared in state of union address that US would fight "unconditional war on poverty"; Head Start program aimed to reach disadvantage children (began in Mississippi-most impoverished state), established urban programs, stressed education and vocational training; however, did not acknowledge that welfare state led to citizens choosing to live meager existence rather than bettering themselves through gov't programs; War on Poverty stressed federally funded educational and jobs training programs 2. At onset of War on Poverty, poverty declined, but remained same since 1970s

The Draft

1. Drafting of young men in Vietnam War was concerning, and in 1964 Selective Service System increase # men drafted to serve; over 8 million people served, many men volunteered, some middle class got college deferments, but this became increasingly difficult by 1968 2. 100,000 draft eligible men fled the country, and draft was significant reason for anti war movement; US had not used draft to bring people into armed forces since

Sun Belt

1. During 1960s-1970s, over 7 million Americans migrated from Northeast and Midwest to move into warmer fifteen southern states known as the Sun Belt, which led to first big boost to Southern economy since Civil War 2. Migration to Sunbelt occurred as result of greater influence of labor unions in North (demanded higher wages), increasing number of retirees seeking warm winters, collapse of industries of Rust Belt (from Pittsburgh to Cleveland), and invention of air-conditioning systems; 14. The largest population growth during the 1970's occurred in the states below the 37th parallel from Virginia to California (the Sunbelt)

The Recession of the 1970s

1. Economy experienced major recession between 1973 and 1975; major cause was Arab Oil Embargo and quadrupling in price of Crude oil; inflation was as high as 14%, scarcity of affordable fuel stagnated economy, resulting in combined impact of inflation at time of stagnant growth ("stagflation"); could not devise solution because during typical inflation interest rates are raised, but in times of stagnant growth, interest rates are lowered; 2. Gerald Ford resorted to tax cuts to stimulate economy, Carter reversed them, and Reagan reinstated them (by 1980s, price of crude oil steadily declined)

Martin Luther King Jr.

1. First rose to national prominence as a civil rights leader during the 1956 Montgomery bus boycott; In late 1950s and early 1960, King tirelessly led the struggle for integration and full equality; as leader of Southern Christian LEadership Conference, he advocated nonviolent resistance, prompted Blacks to rally in churches, boycotts, sit-ins, and freedom rides 2. Was arrested in 1963 after leading demonstrations in Birmingham, and the episode prompted JFK to push for stronger civil rights measures; MLK was awarded Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 and led march from Selma to Montgomery in 1965; He was assassinated in 1968

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC or Snick)

1. Formed as a youth spin-off from the Southern Christian Leadership conference after the Montgomery Bus Boycott, launched a sit-in in Nashville Tennessee, and were arrested (Endured beatings, verbal abuse, etc.), but SNCC protests did not strike back; After 3 months, Nashville ordered integration of public dining facilities, and SNCC thereafter staged sit-ins in pools, public parks, theaters, churches, etc 2. John Lewis became chair of SNCC in 1963, and Stokely Carmichael became chairman in 1966 (moved SNCC in a more militant direction)

The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

1. Formed to coordinate protests around South in wake of Montgomery Bus Boycott; 60 people from 10 states created the organization, and it sought to end segregation by urging Blacks to resist the practice in all of its forms and to do so nonviolently; first convention of SCLC was held in Montgomery in 1967, and MLK was elected as its president (other leaders were Dr. Ralph David Abernathy, + Reverend C.K. Steele) 2. The Organization revealed the centrality of African-American churches to the early civil rights movement; in 1960s, vast majority of African Americans were affiliated with historically Black Baptist and Methodist Protestant denominations

Vietcong

1. Guerilla fighters in South Vietnam representing National Liberation Front (nationalist + communist organization fighting to unite Vietnam under one communist gov't); coordinated attacks on national basis, assassinated South Vietnamese leaders, sabotaged American installations 2. Supplied with weapons by USSR + China and established extensive tunnel systems to hide Vietcong soldiers

Kennedy Assassination

1. Having gone to Dallas to shore up support from Democrats of Texas, Kennedy was shot twice while traveling in an open car in a motorcade; Lee Harvey Oswald (Exhibited leftist leanings) was accused of assassinating the president, and after JFK's death, LBJ was sworn in as president (Oswald was later shot by Jack Ruby) 2. When Chief Justice Earl Warren headed commission investigating the assassination, announcing that Oswald had acted alone LBJ presented JFK as a martyr, thus easing Kennedy's policies passage by Congress

My Lai Massacre

1. In 1969, American infantrymen murdered at least 450 unarmed South Vietnamese villagers in village of My Lai, and shooting only stopped when American helicopter observed what was happening and landed between infantry patrol and survivors; this massacre revealed dark side of pressure, confusion, drug use, and protracted nature of war + undermined morale of American military personnel 2. Led to court martial on changes of premeditated murder of lieutenant in charge of the patrol

Roe v. Wade

1. In 1973 the Supreme Court legalized most first- and second trimester abortions in the US (represented a major achievement for the women's liberation movement); struck down state anti abortion laws, proclaiming that such laws violated women's right to privacy, and that 14th Amendment guaranteed personal liberty of women in deciding to terminate pregnancy 2. In 1970s, and '80s, Supreme Court upheld states' right not to fund abortions, and Congress limited use of federal funds for abortions through Medicaid

Oil Embargo

1. In 1973, Arab oil-producing nations, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), cut exports to US and increased price of oil; conducted in retaliation for US support of Israel in 1973 Yom Kippur War, and by that time US was dependent on foreign oil; even after embargo was lifted, OPEC quadrupled price of oil, catalyzing energy crisis of 1970s; Americans responded to embargo by purchasing smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, reducing consumption of energy, gov't reduced speed limits and encouraged development of alternative sources of energy; 2. Now Canada accounts for 40% and Persian Gulf 18% of petroleum imports

Overview of the War in Vietnam and the Antiwar Movement

1. Located on the edge of Indochina peninsula in Southeast Asia, Vietnam was colony of France from mid 1800s to mid 1900s, occupied by Japan during WWII and reoccupied by France; soon, during resistance movement led by Ho Chi Minh in 1954, French forces were defeated in Vietnamese town Dien Bien Phu, and France withdrew from region; 2. As result, Vietnam was divided at 38th parallel between communist controlled North Vietnam (led by Ho Chi Minh) and western-allied South Vietnam; communist rebel movement, Vietcong (US adversary), continued to press its cause in South Vietnam 3. American observers concluded that South Vietnamese gov't would likely fall to Communist rebels without outside aid; thus, US involvement in Vietnam began in 1950s (sent military advisors + assistance to South Vietnamese gov't); after Congress have LBJ blank check with Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964), Us became heavily involved in Vietnam War 4. By 1968, Vietnam War seemed unwinnable, becoming quagmire that US could not successfully extricate itself from; 5. Viet Cong + North Vietnamese forces launched Tet Offensive in January 1968, alarming American public, with many questioning morality of the war, and a vocal antiwar movement was generated, dooming LBJ's presidency 6. War continued during Nixon administration (Elected in 1968), and while he assured public of plan to attain "peace with honor," he expanded war to Cambodia in 1970, began policy of Vietnamization in 1969, replacing American troops with Vietnamese troops; however such measures did not lead US to victory, pulling out in 1973, and by 1975, South Vietnam was defeated + reunited with North Vietnam as communist country 7. Following Vietnam War, commentators believed that US was less willing to participate in military engagements abroad, and 'Vietnam Syndrome' ensued

Key Concepts/Big Picture of Politics and Society in the 1970s

1. Nixon administration employed successful foreign policy, but was rendered moot by domestic issues arising from Nixon's temperament and atmosphere of suspicion 2. Nixon was political moderate who mobilized return to law and order in expanding power and size of federal gov't 3. As Vietnam War terminated, the Watergate scandal erupted, with the combined impact of these events creating credibility gap between Americans and presidents 4. Decade of 1970s witnessed major economic downturn (characterized by unprecedented/atypical combination of high inflation and high unemployment) caused in part by energy crisis related to Arab oil embargo 5. President Carter's administration faced daunting foreign issues and domestic woes that created a crisis of confidence

Vietnamization

1. Nixon entered office with Vietnam War troop level at peak of 541,500, and in response to Vietcong's use of Cambodia as route into South Vietnam, he covertly authorized bombing of Cambodia in 1969; subsequently ordered first troop withdrawal, explaining that his objective was to gradually withdraw all American soldiers + equip South Vietnamese to defend themselves 2. Nixon set end of America's involvement (by 1973), but due to his failed presidency, Vietnamization did not receive adequate funding and South Vietnam fell to communism in 1975

Warren Court

1. Nominated for office by democratic parties in 1946, Warren, became chief justice of Supreme court under Eisenhower, served as chairman of Warren Commission (investigated Kennedy's assassination), guiding court through its most activist era in great societal flux; implemented changes in application of Constitution; Warren Court promoted radically equal society, in which civil liberties were secured regardless of race, religion, or other attributes 2. Most important decision of Warren Court was Brown v. Board of Education

Freedom Rides

1. Northern lawyers, teachers, students organized bus rides of activists + protests to enter the South, and protests helped challenge segregation laws + disenfranchisement and established Freedom schools; voter registration drives held by Freedom riders led to beatings + burning of buses, and this tactic was employed to raise awareness in North (violence aimed at Freedom riders exposed injustices of southern society) 2. The murder of three Freedom Riders by Klansman led to passed of Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act under LBJ

Head Start Program

1. One of the War on Poverty programs; summer program for disadvantaged children overseen by Office of Economic Opportunity, designed to build emotion + physical health of preschool children to surmount adverse social and economic conditions; children as young as three began in 1965, in 1969, came under oversight of Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; transformed into year-round day-care and preschool instruction 2. Source of critics phrase "from cradle to the grave" referring to desire of gov't to control citizen's lives by extending welfare state

The Pill

1. Oral contraceptive research began as early as 1950s, and by 1960, first pill was 100% effective at preventing pregnancy and market; pill contains synthetic hormone (progesterone) that convinced women's body she was pregnant (suppressed ovulation); As result, sexual activity increased among unmarried women in 1960s, and '70s, often resulting in unwanted pregnancies if women inadvertently skipped daily doses 2. By 1968, nearly 20% of all women of childbearing age used the Pill

Black Panther Party

1. Organized in 1966 in Oakland, CA, by Huey Newton (later arrested for murdering policeman) + Bobby Seale, the Black Panthers stressed a program of black pride, economic self-sufficiency, and armed resistance to white oppression; formed wing of "black nationalism" movement and protected residents from police brutality, adopting Marxist ideology 2. Demanded from federal gov't release of all Blacks from jails, their exemption from the draft, and reparation payments for history of white oppression

Key Concepts/Big Picture of Post-War Domestic Issues, 1945-1963

1. Post-WWII economic growth, G.I. Bill, + increases in wages for industrial workers returned America to prosperity, ushering in era of consumerism + affluence for a growing middle class 2. In 1950s, large number of American families moved from older urban centers to newly-built suburbs (aided by new highways, affordable housing, + gov't assistance) 3. Cold War fears led to second Red Scare in 1950s, which included loyalty oaths for gov't employees, investigations of people's political affiliations, and sense of paranoia + suspicion 4. While the 1950s has reputation for cultural conformity, many developments challenged prevailing cultural norms, including rock n' roll music, Beat Generation literature, and new ideas surrounding race + gender 5. In early 1960s, fears of domestic subversion faded and election of JFK occurred, who addressed variety of domestic + international concerns before his untimely death by an assassin's bullet

Overview of Post-War Domestic Issues, 1945-1963

1. Post-WWII years saw unprecedented growth of economy + rising living standards; was dramatic rise in middle class, facilitated by G.I. Bill, strong labor movement (Secured higher wages for industrial workers) 2. As more affluent society emerged in post-war world, many families moved from cities to suburbs (late 1940s + 1950s); however, economic gains were not equally distributed, and as city transplants to suburbs took tax funding with them, cities were rife with crime and poverty 3. In 1950s, Americans were concerned about Communist infiltration; Senator Joseph McCarthy heightened concerns with claims about spread of domestic communism; second Red Scare led to loyalty oaths, blacklists, and wave of paranoia; this Red Scare abated somewhat with Senate censure of McCarthy in 1954 4. 1950s was characterized as decade of conformity; however, there were undercurrents of nonconformity that led to civil rights movement, birth of the Beat Generation and women's liberation movement

Great Society

1. President Johnson's program to reduce poverty and racial injustice and to promote a better quality of life in the United States; was able to sustain reform initiatives of New Deal era and effected legislative advances (ex: civil rights legislation, War on Poverty, VISTA, Head Start, resurrection of Civilian Conservation Corps/Job Corps); passed pollution control laws, environmental legislation, National Endowment for the Arts, public school funding, Medicare and Medicaid, consumer safety regulations for products, and public housing funding 2. However, unraveled as federal funding was diverted toward Vietnam War

Sit-Ins

1. Reenacting CORE's first sit-in that took place in North Carolina, in 1960, 4 Blacks sat down at lunch counter in Greensboro, and while politely asking for service, they were refused according to South's segregation policies; when asked to leave, they refused, and their sit-in touched off 6 month protest that culminated in desegregation of Greensboro's lunch counters 2. Thereafter, stin-ins became chief strategy of the subsequent anti-war protests of the youth revolt

McCarthyism

1. Refers to the extreme anti communism in American politics and society during the early 1950s. The term derives from the actions of Senator Joseph McCarthy, who led an intense campaign against alleged subversives during this period (backlash against Progressive reform, held series of televised hearings from 1951-1954 charging army officers, civil servants, writers, actors, etc, as having membership in Communist Party, which spurred House of Representatives to open hearing of a body called the House Un-American Activities Committee; 2. When McCarthy pursued more attacks against Army personnel, the Senate moved to censure him and his influence diminished rapidly

Rosa Parks

1. She was a quiet black seamstress who sparked the Montgomery bus boycott by refusing to give up her bus seat for a white man in 1955; during WWII Parks joined NAACP in Alabama and became the secretary to its president; protest surrounding her arrest prompted Montgomery Bus Boycott and launched activities of MLK 2. After her release, Parks moved north and served as secretary to a member of the House of Representatives

John Fitzgerald Kennedy

1. Son of wealthy banker who was a decorated war hero in WWII, and then served three terms on House of Representatives; A Democratic, served as president from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. A young and charismatic leader, he cultivated a glorified image in the eyes of the American public; he alienated Southern democrats because his policies on civil rights were firm; His primary achievements came in the realm of international relations, particularly the peaceful resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis. 2. Was first Roman Catholic + youngest man elected to executive branch

Southern Strategy

1. Southern strategy led to realignment of former Confederate states from Solid South of the Democratic Party to support for the Republican Party; Nixon campaign strategist popularized this idea, and was followed by REpublican strategists fro rest of 1900s; Nixon was advised to emphasize states' rights in his campaign, and gained support of white southerners who believed Nixon would stall civil rights (however, Nixon was member of NAACP) 2. By Nixon's 1972 campaign, he won 70% of popular vote in deep South

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas

1. Supreme Court (under Earl Warren-after Eisenhower place Warren on Supreme Court, it undertook a liberal agenda) decision in 1954 that overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision that "separate but equal" education was constitutional. Required immediate integration of all public schools nationwide. Future Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall led the legal team for Linda Brown 2. Some states complied immediately while others staged protests to nullify, and activities of NAACP to advance desegregation were met with activities of White Citizens' Councils to hamper it (adopted "Southern Manifesto" to resist it)

Advent of Television

1. Television became extremely popular medium in 1950s (by end of decade, nearly 90% American homes owned TV set; programming settle into predictable genres, and most emblematic of 1950s was suburban situation comedy (sitcom) and daytime dramas (soap operas); many of these genres were carryovers from radio; 2. Ed Sullivan Show was extremely popular (Aired from 1948-1971)

Lyndon Baines Johnson

1. Texan, already in House of Representatives, joined the navy, elected to Senate in 1949, became Democratic Majority Leader in 1955, became vice president under JFK in 1960; after ascending to pre, LBJ won in his own right in 1964 against Barry Goldwater 2. His presidency was tremendous advance for welfare programs, civil rights relislation, but his escalation of Vietnam War without developing winning strategy was his undoing (declined to run in Election of 1968)

Domino Theory

1. The theory that if a foreign country fell to communism, neighboring countries would likely become communist as well; closely associated with military involvement in Vietnam; presumes that communism is imposed on country from the outside (doesn't develop as result of internal conditions); 2. After French forces were defeated and Vietnam was divided, US became more involved in supporting South Vietnam, especially after Congress gave LBJ blank check with Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964)

Free Speech Movement

1. This movement at University of California Berkeley was seminal moment in growth of New Left; grew on campus after political activity was banned, and students responded by engaging in such activities on what they thought to be city property; however, when university asserted that this was campus property, police arrested Jack Weinberg, 32-hour-long riot ensued, and the Free Speech Movement grew from this encounter, with philosophy student Mario Savio as its effective leader 2. Many student activists registered Black voters in South in Freedom Summer project in 1964, and demonstrations continued until university backed down on ban on political activities

Suburbanization

1. Trend after WWII was growth of suburbs; to meet housing crunch creating by returning WWII soldiers, new suburban communities were built just outside of major American cities; race played a factor, as many white families did not want to live in urban neighborhoods that became integrated after Great Migration 2. Innovation developer William Levitt gained skill in rapid construction of housing during WWII and applied this production, thus building houses rapidly and cheaply

Desegregating the Military

1. Truman issued Executive Order 9981 to ban segregation in military (1948); prior to this, Blacks were segregated into separate units and worked under different rules; however, opinion within military toward Blacks changed, and white officers that commanded Black units were consistently impressed by their units (mostly famous segregated Black units were Tuskegee Airmen + 761st Tank Battalion); 2. Black troops pushed for civil rights within miliary, and NAACP encouraged them to partake in the "Double V" campaign

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties

1. Under Nixon and Kissinger, negotiations opened to freeze on nuclear weapons, where meetings in Helsinki and Vienna led to two separate agreements signed in Moscow SALT agreements recognized aggressive offensive strategy, and mutual assurance of destruction thus deterred outbreak of nuclear war; SALT I of 1972 permitted limited deployment of defensive anti ballistic missiles + limited production of missiles, and SALT II (Carter) called for limitation of missile launchers but was never ratified by Senate; 2. The first strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) differed from the SALT II in that SALT I was approved by the Senate, and SALT II was not

Key Concepts/ Big Picture the War in Vietnam and the Antiwar Movement

1. Various presidents after WWII committed the US to policies that ultimately led to American involvement in Southeast Asia as theater in Cold War 2. After some American forces were attacked by North Vietnam, US Congress grant LBJ "blank check" with which he escalated the war 3. Confusion + disagreement about objectives + merits of the war prompted an anti war movement that accompanied other protest movements (ex: civil rights movement, women's rights, general youth revolt in 1960s and '70s) 4. Protests during Vietnam era grew particularly violent as an anti authoritarian drug culture incited riots + demonstrations in which protestors clashed with gov't security forces 5. Excesses of protracted conflict in Vietnam and flawed military strategy led to failure of US gov't to achieve its objectives + revision of abilities of American presidents to wage war by executive action alone

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

1. When Congress passed National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in 1970, protection of environment became national policy (required federal agencies to publish environmental impact statement, established council to president on environmental policy, and required president to submit annual environmental quality report to Congress); 2. Thus, Nixon consolidated major programs to combat pollution and damage into the EPA, responsible for managing federally owned public land and enforcing law on endangered species and other conservation measures

Dien Bien Phu

1954 battle that was last effort of France to retain its colony of Indochina; Viet Minh nationalists soundly defeated the French, who gave up claims to Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia; the French pull out left the UN and US to pick up the pieces in the context of Cold War tensions

Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party

1964 to support African American representation at the Democratic convention.

Thurgood Marshall

A black attorney, who successfully argued the case of Brown v. Board of E education of Topeka in front of the Supreme court in 1954. In 1967, Marshall became the first African-American appointed to the Supreme Court.

Equal Rights Amendment

A constitutional amendment declaring equal rights for men and women. It failed to gain the necessary votes for ratification within the constitutional time limit, largely due to the negative campaign run by conservative Phyllis Schlafly. It was supported by the National Organization for Women, as it would have prevented all gender-based discrimination practices.

Miranda v. Arizona

After Ernesto Miranda was arrested + coerced into confessing to rape of woman, Supreme Court ruled that evidence was circumstantial and conviction couldn't stand because Miranda had not been informed of his right to legal counsel; In 1966 the Supreme Court ruled that accused suspects had to be informed that they had rights: Fifth Amendment rights against self-incrimination, right to remain silent and the right to have an attorney present during questioning; court decreed that statements obtained before the Miranda rights were read to a suspect would be inadmissible in courts as evidence

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization

After France lost control of its colony of French Indochina in 1954, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles crafted "New Look" national security policy that diverged from containment policy of Truman administration; discussed responding to USSR aggression with retaliation, and that if Laos, Cambodia and South Vietnam fell to communism, the rest would follow (this theory prompted formation of SEATO, mutual defense treaty modeled after NATO, but did not create unified military command and left US to defend South Vietnam alone)

March on Washington

After JFK announced support for end of segregation, 200,000 demonstrators marched on national capital in august 1963 demanding "jobs and freedom"; John Lewis + MLK delivered famous speeches ("I have a dream"); march was also designed to lobby leaders in Washington to support a civil rights bill that passed the House early in 1964; LBJ signed Civil Rights Act year after the march (banning segregation in public facilities, employment discrimination and denial of voting registration, and authorized attorney general to sue agencies + businesses that barred desegregation)

White House Tapes

After Nixon staffer inadvertently revealed existence of taping system that recording all Oval Office conversions, senate committee demanded the release of such tapes; Nixon instigated series of obstructions of justice delaying their release by executive privilege, and released them slowly and with long silences (erased portions of the tapes); finally "smoking-gun tape" was released, where Nixon was recorded instructing staff to contact CIA to get FBI to back down on the investigation; this revelation led to impeachment proceedings, on grounds that president had obstructed justice

Vietnam

After WWII, Vietnam experienced dame type of divided support that Korea did, and result was same; at Geneva Conference, US, UK, USSR, Communist China, and French Indochina met in 1954 to resolve nationalist interests of former colonial people, calling for cease-fire and divide of Vietnam of 17th parallel as Korea was divided at 38th; Vietnamese citizens were given choice of country in which to live, and general elections were scheduled for 1956, in which Ho Chi Minh was leader of North Vietnam and Ngo Dinh Diem was president of South Vietnam (Eisenhower committed US to provide him with military, economic, + political support)

Iranian Hostage Crisis

After an American-backed ally named Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (Shah of Iran) fled the country as result of establishment of Islamic Republic, US allowed him to enter and receive medical treatment; as result, students stormed American Embassy in Tehran and held 53 American personnel hostage; Carter then boycotted Iranian oil, froze Iranian assets in America, but his attempt at rescue failed when American military aircraft collided and killed eight rescuers; during campaign for Election of 1980, Americans' frustration over the crisis led to victory for Reagan, but finally, Carter was able to negotiate the release of the hostages

G.I. Bill

Also known as Servicemen's Readjustment Act, this 1944 law provided cash payments for tuition + living expenses for veterans attending college and low-interest loans to aid them to purchase homes and start businesses; intent was to aid veterans of WWII in adjusting to life during peacetime, it was widely successful, helping millions of veterans advance economically (college education + home ownership were key to entrance into middle class)

Pleiku

American military advisors had been located in Vietnam since before JFK escalate their number to 17,000, and at this battle in 1965, attack by Viet Cong killed eight Americans; LBJ responded with Operation Rolling Thunder and placement of American ground troops into Vietnam; large number of Vietnamese casualties during this battle stimulated development of search and destroy missions that moved American soldiers into combat with helicopters

Agent Orange

American soldiers in Vietnam suffered exposure to this mixture of chemical herbicides used in effort to defoliate the jungle and make finding the enemy easier; toxins contaminating the basic formula were detrimental to the health of millions of Vietnamese + thousands of American soldiers

Khe Sanh

As North Vietnamese cut off supplies to make raids around Khe Sanh in South Vietnam, Westmoreland decided to supply the marines inside the fortification by air, and by 1968 he launched Operation Niagara, the largest bombing mission in history of aerial bombing to that point (equivalent of five atomic bombs were dropped to eliminated besieging enemy forces); after 77 days siege was broken, over 700 Americans and 15,000 Vietnamese died, but was likely used as diversion by North Vietnamese to help Tet Offensive

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

As Vietcong increased activities in South Vietnam, LBJ launched clandestine military operations, and in 1964 North Vietnamese attacked American vessel Maddux (intelligence vessel); Resolution was passed by the Senate in 1964 following questionable reports of a naval confrontation between North Vietnamese and US forces in the Gulf of Tonkin; the Resolution granted President Johnson broad wartime powers and "blank check" to wage war without explicitly declaring war.

Henry Kissinger

As noted scholar in study of diplomacy, nuclear strategy, American foreign policy and defense, was consultant to national security council during Berlin Crisis, and then became national security advisor under Nixon; became secretary of state under Nixon in 1973, held through Ford administration; Was chief strategist for opening China, ending Vietnam War, achieving détente with Soviet Union, supporting Israel, and thus won Nobel Peace Prize for ending the Vietnam War

G. Gordon Liddy

As participant in search for Ellsberg;s mental health records, he was former FBI agent, and went on to lead team of white house "Plumbers" (stopped press leaks) under Nixon; masterminded break-ins of Democratic National Headquarters during Nixon's 1972 presidential campaign, was convicted and was sentenced to eight years; while four others served in prison, Liddy served as much as them combined because he refused to testify before a senate committee

Stagflation

As the existence of severe inflation during time of severe recession did not respond to either the inflationary policies under a Democrat or Republican nor the stimulated of their economy by deficit spending, stagflation called Keynesian economics into question; supply-side economics arose in thinking of economists in 1970s as potential solution to stagflation, with an increase in productivity coupled with tax cuts (conservative politicians embraced this)

Little Rock, Arkansas

Attention of nation was drawn to efforts of nine Black students to integrate Central High School in this southern city in 1957; President Eisenhower had to send US Army troops to enforce the Supreme Court's ruling before mob violence abated

Stokely Carmichael

Became leader of a movement called "black nationalism" during civil rights movement, and coined the phrase "Black Power"; rejected nonviolent strategies of earlier leaders, and, having from through the SNCC and Freedom Rides, his break with majority opinion caused rift in civil rights movement; as chairman of SNCC in 1966, advocated for self-defense training, and pursuit of political + economic power

Stonewall Rebellion

Beginnings of gay liberation movement raced to series of riots outside of the Stonewall Inn (gay bar in NYC), and raid in 1969 occurred in which police began arresting customers, ensued in a full-fledged riot; event brought series of grievances to light, including discrimination against homosexuals in gov't civil service jobs, and as such, many gays chose to conceal their identities; subsequent protests sparked militant activism for homosexuals, and awareness of LGBTQ rights; every year, NYC's "Gay Pride" march commemorates that event

The Feminine Mystique

Betty Friedan's book and rallying cry for the women's liberation movement. It denounced the belief that women should be tied to the home and encouraged women to get involved in activities outside their home and family; sparked revival of feminist activism, and Friedan described the post-WWII suburbia as the new cult of domesticity ("comfortable concentration camp"), identified "glass ceiling," and in response largest women's liberation movement organization was founded by Friedan in 1966 (National Organization for Women), and founded another with Gloria Steinem (most famous feminist leader in US)

Malcolm X

Born Malcolm Little, dropped out of school and moved to NYC + Boston where he was arrested for burglary; while in prison, came under the influence of Islam, changed his last name to "X" (symbolize loss of his African ancestors' tribal name); urged African Americans to take pride in their heritage, and he extolled the virtues of self-defense and community action. Originally a member and spokesman of the controversial Nation of Islam, he later broke with its leader Elijah Muhammad and was assassinated.

Black Power

Civil Rights slogan advocated in the 1960s emphasizing black superiority and a decrease in interracial cooperation; espoused militancy and rejected pacifism, and was criticized by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., the SCLC, and the NAACP.

William C. Westmoreland

Commander of American forces in South Vietnam, oversaw increase of American troops to nearly 500,000 by 1968; he developed the "search and destroy" strategy that relied on war of attrition, dependent on a body count of the number of enemy soldiers killed as progress toward victory; after Tet Offensive, his strategies fell from favor and he was replaced

Elvis Presley

Cutting first single record in 1954, ebgan touring, playing miz of Negro spiritual roots with jazz, the blues, and country music, producing rockabilly and ultimately rock' n' roll; his music career was interrupted by stint in military, and upon completing his service, entered into a movie career, personifying new youth culture for a freer lifestyle Died of drug addiction, but remains one of richest dead men in history

Port Huron Statement (1962)

Delineated the frustrations and sense of alienation experienced by many young people in America in the 1960s, was written by the Weathermen.

Pentagon Papers

Department of Defense study outlining events surrounding American involvement in Vietnam from 1945-1967; included 4,000 pages of gov't documents and analysis considered "Top Secret-Sensitive," revealing that LBJ misrepresented events and lied to Americans; Ellsberg (military analyst) released the papers in 1971, which Nixon deemed a threat to national security, and he attempted to discredit Ellsberg by divulging his mental health records (similar to Watergate break in); these papers tarnished images of JFK, LBJ, and Nixon, forging path to distrust between journalists and executive branch

No-Fault Divorce

Divorces in which it was not necessary to prove a spouse had committed adultery or violated marriage vows became legal in some states as early as 1970, and by 1976, divorce rates tripled; in states where no-fault divorces were available, domestic violence, murder, and suicide declined, and resulting breakup of families led some to advocate National Day Care (vetoed by Nixon in 1972)

Tet Offensive

During supposed cease-fire in observance of New Year holiday, in 1968 Viet Cong + North Vietnamese forces attacked major South Vietnamese cities (including capital Saigon), all designed to demonstrate ease with which communist forces could coordinate widespread attacks; American casualties were highest to that date in war, and Tet Offensive made Americans doubt whether US would win war; Westmoreland was denied request to raise # American forces in Vietnam, and while campaign ended in military failure, it achieved psychological victory; Tet and Election of 1968 were major turning points in effort to win in Vietnam

Kent State Shootings

Early in 1970, US military + South Vietnamese attacked into Cambodia, and the expansion of the war into this neighboring country set off significant anti war demonstrations on college campuses; Reserve Officers' Training Corps building were burned and protestors confronted police; at Kent State in Ohio, National Guard forces fired into crowd of protestors and four students were killed; 100,000 protestors marched on Washington, D.C. to stage massive anti war rally

Federal Highway Act

Eisenhower advanced his own new deal works project in backing the 1956 Federal Highway Act; envisioned creating the Interstate Highway System to facilitate military travel during times of national emergencies; was larger than any other single public works project in American history, employed tens of thousands of citizens and contributed significantly to automobile, recreational, and entertainment industries; additionally, its design as emergency landing fields for airplanes saved lives

Congress of Racial Equality

Formed in 1942 by James Farmer, CORE stto against racial segregation of public transportation + other public facilities in North prior to civil rights era; many white members joined starting from University of Chicago, and organization spread nationally, inspiring sit-ins + freedom rides (when these tactics led to arrest, CORE members employed jail-ins)

National Organization for Women

Formed in 1966 to advocate for and raise public awareness of women's issues, NOW was a central part of the 1960s women's liberation movement; demanded better educational opportunities for women, denounced traditional marriage; over half a million women belong to this (largest feminist organization in America); NOW particularly focuses on issues concerning access to abortions, domestic abuse, Constitutional rights for women, diversity, homosexual rights, and economic factors

Marcus Garvey

Founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association was best known for instilling pride and self-sufficiency in working class African Americans.

The Hollywood 10

Group of directors + screenwriters who refused to cooperate with anti-communist investigations of post-WWII period; As House Un-American Activities Committee launched investigation of entertainment industry (feared Communists would subtly convey message through TV + movies), they called 79 individuals to testify, and those who refused were either fined, sentenced to jail for contempt of Congress or blacklisted in 1950s

The New Left

In 1960s, many groups criticized liberal initiatives of '60s (ex: LBJ's Great Society) for failing to significantly challenge economic + racial policies and pursuing immoral foreign policy (such critics emerged as the New Left); broke with left movement developed in the 1930s, and stemmed from Students for a Democratic Society organization; many of its participants were inspired by tactics of civil rights movement, and New Left emphasized participatory democracy + community building, was critical of nuclear arms buildup and anticommunism, and became synonymous with anti-Vietnam War movement; ultimately dissolved due to infighting and violent action in late 1960s

Freedom Schools

In 1960s, one goal of the Freedom Rides was to instil greater pride in southern African-American communities; Freedom schools were held during summers, teaching African-American history and nonviolent philosophies of civil rights movement; proposed in 1963 and thereafter spread across Mississippi; meeting places of the schools + homes of the organizers were targets of firebombing + mobs, and founder of the movement was Charles Cobb

Engel v. Vitale

In 1962, Warren Court decision upheld the separation of church and state, ruling that school-sponsored prayers violated the Constitution; The Supreme Court ruled in 1962 that school prayer was unconstitutional in public schools.

Medicare/Medicaid

In 1965 LBJ backed changed in Social Security Administration to incorporated idea Truman initiated in the Fair Deal; An element of President Johnson's great Society program, the Medical Care Act created Medicare to provide senior citizens (ages 65+) with single-payer government medical insurance (attached to their social security payments + funded by social security taxes) including hospitalization insurance, home health care, and physician and surgeon expense coverage, and Medicaid to provide welfare recipients with free healthcare (costs for Medicaid were divided between states and federal gov't).

Tinker v. Des Moines

In 1969, Supreme Court ruled that a school prohibition against students wearing black armbands in protest of Vietnam War was unconstitutional; case originated from decision of John F. and Mary Beth Tinker to wear black armbands in school against Vietnam War in support of "christmas Truce" called for by RFK 2. When school principal, Des Moines, suspended the students, Court ruled that students had right to free speech as long as actions didn't interfere with educational process 3. Proclaimed "students do not shed their constitutional rights at the schoolhouse gate"

War Powers Resolution

In 1973, Congress asserted its role by issuing this resolution, which reduced power of executive to wage war without congressional consent; Korean + Vietnam wars were presidential wars fought in clandestine ways, and this resolution stipulated that president was to consult with Congress before employing military force and notify them within 48 hours of deployment; required end to any conflict of this nature after 60 days, or 90 days if withdrawal would endanger US

Three Mile Island

In 1979, failure of cooling system of Three Mile Island nuclear plant outside of Harrisburg, PA raised fears of a "meltdown" of the reactor core that could lead to release of radiation into atmosphere; under Carter administration, this incident led to shakeup of Nuclear Regulatory Commission and deeper focus on plant safety for the 72 nuclear plants in America; while these plants produced 12% of nation's electricity without any other serious incident, the 125 reactors under construction were put on hold

Fair Deal

In campaign for Election of 1948, Harry Truman's attempt to extend the policies of the New Deal; included measures to increase the minimum wage, expand Social security, national health insurance, greater farm subsidies, and construct low-income housing, civil rights legislation, etc. While he won victory dude to his pro-labor stance against Taft-Hartley Act over Thomas Dewey, conservatives in both parties prevented much of fair deal from implementation (except doubling minimum wage + expanding social security benefits)

Vietnam Pullout

In the wake of Vietnam, all remaining American personnel evacuated from the embassy in Saigon before it fell to communists in the North; President Ford couldn't rally support for more expenditures to help South Vietnamese, and American prestige was undermined by the unification of Vietnam

The Lonely Crowd

In their book, sociologist David Riesman, Nathan Glazer, + Reuel Denney noted that in post-WWII era, Americas were eager to conform and not to think independently; argued that Americans looked outward rather than inward and based their lives on established norms; additionally, William Whyte's book The Organization Man echoed theme of conformity in describing conformist atmosphere of modern corporations

James Meredith

Integrating southern universities proved to be more dangerous than integrating high schools; Meredith attempted to register in 1962 at University of Mississippi, and was shot in both legs with a shotgun; thereafter, JFK sent over 3,000 troops to protect Meredith when he tried to enroll again

New Frontier

JFK called his Progressive agenda the New Frontier; however, his reform efforts were disappointing to liberals, and Kennedy's cabinet overhauled the executive branch's operations, but he failed to install a new Department of Urban Affairs; Congress defeated his proposed measures on housing, medical care, and public education (however, he succeeded in increasing minimum wage to $1.25 per hour); thus, "New Frontier" seemed more applicable to his outreach to the world in the Peace Corps (By the time of his assassination, an assessment of the Kennedy presidency might be that he grew in his mastery of foreign policy but was still stalled on the domestic front )

Affirmative Action

JFK issued executive order in 1961 to remove race as factor for hiring for project paid for with federal money, and as idea developed as form of reparation for slavery, affirmative action led to preferential consideration for African Americans in hiring + promotions

"On the Road"

Jack Kerouac depicted the attitudes of the Beat Generation.

Body Count

Key to Westmoreland's "search and destroy" strategy of fighting guerilla forces in Vietnam War was belief that US would win if combat resulted in death ratio of four enemy soldiers to one American soldier; however, nature of warfare in thick jungles made it impossible to accurately gauge body count, and inflation of estimates led to false belief in progress; strategy neglected capacity of North Vietnamese to produce more soldiers indefinitely, and enemy forces in Vietnam War outlasted resolve of US to kill them

Point IV Plan

Name of this plan was taken from section of Harry S. Truman's inaugural address, in which he called for "bold new program: of assistance to developing countries; sought permission from Congress to allow dollar diplomacy + American technical assistance; Point IV Plan extended Truman Doctrine to include areas of world like Indochina that would play key roles in Cold War

Democratic Convention in Chicago

National nominating convention for Democratic Party in 1968 occurred during tumultuous year; MLK Jr. + RFK had been assassinated, Vietnam War was unpopular and thus LBJ did not seek reelection; and convention center was turned into fortification with National Guard placement as Antiwar protestors clashed with established leaders of Democratic Party who nominated Hubert Humphrey (LBJ's vice president), and riot ensued; after campaigning, Nixon's law-and-order campaign won him Election of 1968

Silent Majority

Nixon campaign coined this phrase to capture essence of their candidate's law-and order appeal; Nixon's victory in election of 1968 revealed that many voters wanted an end to a protest culture and still supported war in Vietnam

Daniel Ellsberg

Obtained the secret documents detailing the history of American involvement in Vietnam and were later printed by the New York Times, known as the Pentagon Papers. His psychiatrist's office was later raided for "dirt" on Ellsberg by a group of Richard Nixon's "Dirty Tricksters."

Civil Rights Act of 1968

Outlawed discrimination in the rental or sale of housing and apartments. It also provided further protection for civil rights leaders and penalties for rioters.

Economic Opportunity Act

Part of LBJ's Great Society, established an Office of Economic Opportunity to provide young Americans with job training and created a volunteer network devoted to social work and education in impoverished areas.

Taft-Hartley Act

Passed in 1947 over Truman's veto, designed to monitor + restrict activities of organized labor; made it more difficult to strike by imposing restrictions on unions, allowed states to pass "right to work laws" (banned union shops), and required union leaders to pledge that they were not communists; passed by conservative, Republican-dominated Congress, law was response to largest strike wave in their history

"Malaise" Speech

President Carter delivered televised speech in 1979, in which he criticized materialism and lack of unity in American society; while he intended it as an FDR-style appeal, the speech came across as critical and desperate, undermining Americans' faith in his leadership; Carter's response to the 1970s recession was most like Teddy Roosevelt's use of the presidency as a "bully pulpit"

Richard M. Nixon

Prior to presidency, was WWII vet, congressman, and member of HUAC, leading investigation of Alger Hiss; Defeated by JFK in 1960, won election of 1968; Republic president, served from 1969 until his resignation in 1974. He oversaw a moderately conservative domestic program, gradually pulled troops out of Vietnam, opened communist China to US relations to alienate Chinese from the Soviets, and improved relations with the nation's communist enemies. He was forced to resign after being implicated in the Watergate scandal.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Prohibited segregation in public accommodations; gave the federal government the power to pursue school integration; barred discrimination in employment; fulfilled some of the goals Martin Luther King Jr. outlined when he began his civil rights protests in Birmingham, Alabama.

Gideon v. Wainwright

Provide defense lawyers to felony defendants who are too poor to hire attorneys.

Ralph Nader

Published book Unsafe at Any Speed to decry the Ford Corvair supposed safety flaws; went on to make career as consumer advocate + encouraged more litigious society; entered politics and ran in the presidential election of 2000; the over 2.7% of popular vote he received reduced Al Gore's chance of winning

Baby Boom

Refers to the decade of post WWII to the 1950s when the US population swelled from 150 million to 180 million; as suburbia was born and consumerism was rampant, there was a significant urge to procreate, and 4.3 million babies were born in two separate years during the era; however, as baby boomers retire, gov't faces cumbersome burden in providing social security

Détente

Refers to the relaxation of tensions between the US and USSR in the 1960s and 1970s, spearheaded by Henry Kissinger. During this period, the two powers signed treaties limiting nuclear arms productions and opened economic relations (was expressed by JFK as goal for his policy of peaceful coexistence with USSR)

Gerald Ford

Republican (most athletic president) who took over the presidency from Richard Nixon, after the latter resigned. Ford was appointed to the vice-president under Nixon when Vice-President Spiro Agnew had resigned for accepting bribes while Governor of Maryland (Ford was appointed under 25th Amendment). Ford later pardoned Nixon and lost a close election to Jimmy Carter in 1976.

Selma, Alabama

Scene of series of marches, in which first march organized by SNCC leaders turned into a televised riot; as peaceful marchers approached Edmund Pettus Bridge in 1965, law enforcement used tear gas, and this TV coverage prompted MLK to bring support from SCLC + lead another march; over 3,000 people began march to Montgomery, Alabama, with others joining to help protestors petition their gov't with racial discrimination grievances

Segregation

Segregation was a key component of the Jim Crow Laws (mandated that Blacks + whites should not share transportation, playgrounds, restaurant facilities, and jails, while churches were segregated by choice); Racial segregation was sanctioned by Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), but, as a chief strategy of the civil rights movement was to break segregation laws through civil disobedience, the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education case called for desegregation of public schools after Truman desegregated US Army forces in Korean War; by 1971, Supreme Court banned all forms of segregation

Carter Doctrine

Stated that US would repel forces that attempted to gain control of Persian Gulf, reflecting concerns about protecting US oil interests

Voting Rights Act

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 primarily addressed the continued use of literacy tests (at time of its passage, 7 Southern states still used literacy tests) that were interpreted by southern voting registrars to favor white voters; the law removed all bars toward voting for Blacks in the South, and federal gov't was given task to supervise voting registration in state + local voting districts where fewer than half potential voters were registered and had voted

Ho Chi Minh

Vietnamese nationalist under French colonial rule who went to France for education and was converted to communism; During WWII, led guerilla attacks against Japan, and when war was over, sought to establish new Vietnamese nation; when French refused to relinquish Indochina, led an insurgency against them, and after French defeat and division of country, he founded the National Liberation Front, supplying Vietcong guerillas from within North Vietnam along trail through Laos

American Indian Movement

Was a civil rights organization founded in 1968, gaining enough traction to hold civil disobedience campaigns through the 1970s; some involved use of force (ex: seized Alcatraz island in 1970, conducted 71-day standoff at Wounded Knee, South Dakota); walks across America and several court battles were used to acquire new legal status and greater gov't services

Freedom Riders

Was a program led by the Congress of Racial Equality and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, in which black and white members of the two organizations rode through the South on public buses to protest segregation in interstate transportation.

Birmingham, Alabama

Was the site of 18 bombing of Black neighborhoods (nicknamed "Bombingham"), mob in the city attacked a Freedom Rider bus in 1961, MLK was invited to city, and was arrested after leading a march (wrote "Letter from Birmingham jail") while in custody; MLK organized walkout by school children after his release, and pictures of the violent confrontation by the police that ensured received worldwide attention, prompting JFK's famous speech "Race has no place in American life or law" (Birmingham business leaders thereafter agreed to desegregate lunch counters)

The Rosenberg Case

When Clause Fuchs (worked on Manhattan Project) admitted to divulging US secrets to USSR, his testimony led to arrest of American couple Ethel + Julius Rosenberg, who were accused in 1951 of orchestrating ring of spies that passed secrets of the atomic bomb of USSR; while they were members of Communist Party, insisted on innocence but were sent to electric chair in 1952 (evidence indicates the Julius was involved in espionage was Ethel was not)

Détente

While Cold War spanned from after WWII to 199s, relationship between Soviet Union and US fluctuated during this time; détente refers to the relaxation of tensions between the US and USSR in the 1960s and 1970s, spearheaded by Henry Kissinger. During this period, the two powers signed treaties limiting nuclear arms productions (SALT agreements), agreement with Soviets to accept independence of West Berlin and US recognized East Germany, and opened economic relations; in 1972, Nixon visited China (first time US President visited People's Republic of China), which was monumental in US-China relations

Silent Spring and the Environmental Movement

With publication of Rachel Carson's 1962 book, Silent Spring, environmental issues were brought to public's attention; attacked use of DDT (insecticide), reporting that it poisoned top predators, and by 1973 JFK established committee to investigate environmental issues (DDT was banned); concerns about pollution generated large-scale movement (many participants were veterans of New Left, critiquing corporate power and some came from counterculture movement, critiquing materialism)

Muhammad Ali

Won a gold medal in 1960, refused to serve in Vietnam, converted to Islam, changed his name and became a symbol for Civil Rights.