Section Bank Psych/Soc MCAT

Threshold

the smallest signal that can be detected.

social solidarity

the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict

Reminiscence bump

the tendency for older adults to have increased recollection for events that occurred during their adolescence and early adulthood. It was identified through the study of autobiographical memory and the subsequent plotting of the age of encoding of memories to form the lifespan retrieval curve Ex: Enhanced memory performance in otherwise decreasing retention function

Hawthorne effect

the tendency for people to behave differently when they know they are being studied

social loafing

the tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task you pitch in less effort on a group project than an individual project. ex; group project they got this

Echoic memory

the memory of a sound (very brief, lasting only as long as about 4 seconds). For example, the specific sound of a bird chirping.

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it "I knew it all along"

self-verification

the tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept or rating

exhaustion stage

the third stage of the GAS, characterized by weakened resistance and possible deterioration (Stop)

group dynamics

the ways in which individuals affect groups and the ways in which groups influence individuals

central route processing

think, analyze, then draw conclusions

iconic memory

the memory of an image (even more brief than echoic memory, lasting not even a full second). For example, the color of a stranger's eyes.

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it Ex: Median BMI -"Half" of the participants had a BMI over 25 and half had a BMI under 25

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests. Mean of 100

material culture

the objects or belongings of a group of people Ex: include cars, buildings, clothing, and tool. consists of things that are created by humans and physical pieces that makes up a culture

reticular activating system

the part of the brain that is involved in attention, sleep, and arousal

Sensory pathways

the pathways followed by a nerve impulse from a sensory organ (eg. eye, tongue, ear, skin) to the brain or spinal cord.

motion parallax

the perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste Or sensory interaction is the idea that one sensory modality (vision) may influence another (balance).

Perceptual organization (e.g., depth, form, motion, constancy):

the process by which our brains structure information into structural units that is easier to visually understand. Depth- we perceive how far away an object is, not just a flat 2-D image. Form- our ability to recognize an object's shape/outline. For example: In the dark you are able to see a car, not because you can see it's colors, but because you can recognize it's shape by piecing together outlines. Motion- motion perception is our ability to recognize that an object is moving. Constancy- the brain tends to maintain constancy of certain attributes of objects, such as color, size, and shape, even though some of these traits may have changed. For example, as you watch a car approach you from far away it may seem small at first, and increase in size as it approaches you. Even though this is what your eyes are seeing, you know that the car has remained the same size.

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

deductive reasoning

the process of applying a general statement to specific facts or situations

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

psychophysics

the psychological study of the relationship between a physical stimuli and mental response. For example, a series of different pitches played for a subject to test which he/she can detect (humans can detect pitches ranging from 20 to 20,000 Hz).

socioeconomic gradient in health

the recognition that socioeconomic status can influence health

manifest functions

the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern Ex: Ascribed status

negative reinforcement

the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus (taking away, avoidance). So after the behavior something was removed. Remember it strengthen the behavior. ex: the behavior and it's consequence. Have a headache Taking an aspirin to get rid of headache. Avoidance of body smell to get rid of body odor. Can possibly happen over and over again

Role

the role you play for a given status. Eg: treating patients when you're a doctor.

Elaboration likelihood model:

two extremes on how individuals respond to persuasion, most are somewhere in the middle "Persuasive"

Folkways

a casual social norm. Eg. Burping at a dinner table.

Reinforcement schedules:

fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval

self disclosure

introducing yourself doctor to a patient

Left brain functions include:

processing the right visual field, grammar, positive emotions, speech, and writing.

Ethnicity

A social division based on national origin, religion, language, and often race. Such as, Asians, Americans etc.

Media influence on aggressive behavior

Aggression is Situationally dependent from impact of media

aquisition

learning the association. Eg: dog learns to salivate because Pavlov always gives them food after ringing the bell

Light detection

light sensitive pigment

Mistakenly read the letter C as the letter O

"Closure" which refers to one of the gestalt principles of perceptual grouping occurs when people perceive objects that are incomplete.

intergenerational mobility

"changes from parent to kid." movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy from one generation to another

intragenerational mobility

"changes within your life time." movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career

horizontal mobility

"changing jobs within your own socioeconomic class" the movement of an individual from one social position to another of the same rank

social capital

"connections" cooperative relationships that facilitate the resolution of collective problems Ex: trust, norms, and networks of association representing any group which gathers consistently for a common purpose. People standing together on something they agree on

positive reinforcement

"increasing" behaviors by presenting positive reinforce-rs (adding) Ex: Hey here some candy for doing good keep it up you'll get more or, smoking, dog training, winning a trophy, or laughing at my jokes

cultural capital

"knowledge, skills, education." the symbolic and interactional resources that people use to their advantage in various situations. Ex: knowledge, skills, education and similar characteristics that are used to make social distinctions and that are associated with differences in social status. Oh since I'm the capital I have the knowledge and skills

economic capital

"money and property." the amount of risk capital, assessed on a realistic basis, which a firm requires to cover the risks that it is running or collecting as a going concern, such as market risk, credit risk, legal risk, and operational risk.

vertical mobility

"moving up and down the socioeconomic ladder." the movement of an individual from one social position to another of a different rank Ex: downward, social mobility after moving from a salaried professional position to an hourly position

negative priming

"slows" down processing Ex: Priming a negative stereotype interferes with performance such as being reminded of their gender identity. They would perform worst

Obedience

(PSY, SOC): Changing your behavior because of authority.

Context effects

(Retrieval cue) A given stimulus may trigger different perceptions because of the immediate context. Top down processing Ex: Seeing a word with a missing letter and being able to identify the word based on the sentence in which it was contained

Interoreceptor

(aka Viceroreceptors) located near visceral organs/blood vessels and is linked with the autonomic nervous system. For example, we know we are hungry when nerve endings in our digestive mucous membranes detect an increase of fatty acids in our stomach.

declarative memory

(also known as explicit memory) refers to the memorization of information to the point where the person is able to "declare" it. For example, when you remember a song and are able to sing along to lyrics. consciously recalled such as facts and events.

Procedural memory

(also known as implicit memory) is the memorization of how to complete a task. For example, one would exercise procedural memory when driving a car.

Elements of culture

(e.g., beliefs, language, rituals, symbols, values): these elements make up culture, which is passed down to the next generation.

Biological processes that affect associative learning

(e.g., biological predispositions, instinctive drift) (PSY, BIO)

Violence in the family

(e.g., child abuse, elder abuse, spousal abuse): abuse can occur to anyone, any age, any gender, and can be both physical and emotional

Perspectives on deviance

(e.g., differential association, labeling theory, strain theory)

Theories of identity development

(e.g., gender, moral, psychosexual, social)

Barbiturates (e.g. tranquilizers, Mebaral, Butisol, Nembutal)

Classified as a type of depressant Prescribed to aid with sleep, anxiety reduction, prevention of seizures Users feel relaxed and tired, sometimes confused Can cause slurred speech, slowed heart beat, and weakness Should never be mixed with alcohol, can be fatal

succinctly

Closed networks

social welfare

programs to help people in need

Hypothalamus

limbic system component that regulates hunger, body temperature and other functions Maintenance of homeostatic equilibrium

Anomie (SOC):

the lack or undermining of social norms. Eg. Individualism, social inequity, isolation.

Proprioceptor

located near tendons, ligaments, joints, and skeletal muscles. A specialized mechanoreceptor, detects position of the body.

By location: Exteroceptor

located near/at the surface of the skin, detects stimuli on the surface of the body.

Primary group

long-term relationship/interaction, such as family and friends.

Mechanism of hearing

1. Sound enters ear. 2. Hits ear drum (tympanic membrane) 3. Malleus (hammer) → Incus (anvil) → Stapes (stirrup) 4. Vibrates fluid in Cochlea. 5. Transmits to fluid in Cochlea. 6. Cochlear hair cells excited by vibrations, and sends signal to brain.

Population Pyramids

A bar graph representing the distribution of population by age and sex ex: older age groups being larger than the younger age groups the overall size of the population is likely to decrease over time.

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression. (Emotion) The amygdala (and the rest of the limbic system) is also involved with cognition. Its job is to arouse the necessary emotions, causing alertness and motivation necessary to complete tasks.

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables If the correlation is decrease, or low it will increase If the correlation is increase it will decrease

instincts (instinctive drift)

A mother's instinct. ex: mother goose will protect her eggs. If you try to teach a goose to abandon eggs, it won't work because it goes against their instinct, this process is called instinctive drift.

atypical antipsychotics

A newer class of drugs to treat schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders.

Eustress

A positive stress that energizes a person and helps a person reach a goal. However, Hassle, frustration, and distress are negative stressors.

Expectancy-value theory

A theory in social psychology that people decide whether to pursue a relationship by weighing the potential value of the relationship against their expectation of success in establishing the relationship.

inductive reasoning

A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations.

sensory memory

A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less. Ex: seeing squares light up on a computer screen would register with visual sensors forming a sensory memory before working memory is activated.

life course approach

looking closely at social factors that influence people throughout their lives Such as religion, early death, diseases etc

Fluid intelligence

Ability to acquire knowledge quickly and adapt effectively to new situations.. ex: solve problems using deductive and inductive reasoning. The key to "cognitive functioning" and it was "positively" correlated-with verbal fluency

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - A pyramid. We have needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top. These needs must be fulfilled in a specific bottomà top order. o Basic needs are most fundamental and at bottom. o There are 5 needs. § Acronyms: Please Stop Liking Stupid Shit § Please Safely Love (OR) Else Suffer • 1. Physiological - food, water, breathing, sleep. Essential to survive. Basic need • 2. Safety - safety of employment, health, resources, property. Can only be fulfilled after physiological needs are met. Basic need. o Safety needs are associated with stability, security, protection, and freedom from threats. • 3. Love - need to belong, acceptance from friends/family intimacy, love. Social needs/Belonging • 4. Self-esteem -feel confident and sense of achievement, recognition, competence of skill. Respect. • 5. Self-actualization - one reaching their maximal potential, achieving the most one can be. They were moral to their own principles and mastered the other needs. Differs from person to person. Different from person to person. Maximum Potential o One can want to be ideal-parent, or ideal athlete or ideal-artist

Cultural transmission

Addresses how culture is learned. Passed on from generation to generation through various childbearing practices including when parents expose children to music.

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal (aggression, specifically)

A patient treated for pain with morphine from one doctor which is effective and then goes to another doctor and receive morphine and it's ineffective what changed?

Always new environment (Making sense of the environment) nothing to do with the medication its the environment

exchange-rational choice (exchange theory)

An individual's acts = balance of costs and benefits to maximize the individual's advantage Example: incentive theory can be used here because this theory argues that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives. exchange theory: relationships form from exchange/negotiation of goods/services rational choice theory: people make everyday decisions based on rational choice (weighing the costs, benefits, probabilities)

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Habituation

An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it. Ex: administering a drop of lemon juice to the participants tongue and measuring the participants level of salivation.

Types of psychological disorders

Anxiety disorders- characterized by excessive amounts of fear or worry, includes phobias, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Obsessive-compulsive disorder- a type of anxiety disorder that is characterized by obsessive, recurring thoughts, often accompanied by routines or rituals. Trauma- and stressor-related disorders- characterized by anxiety and/or depression following a traumatic event. Includes post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Somatic symptom and related disorders- characterized by physical symptoms that are accompanied by negative thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that cannot otherwise be explained by substance use or any other psychological disorder. Includes hypochondriasis, pain disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, somatization disorder, and conversion disorder. Bipolar and related disorders- a type of mood disorder, characterized by extreme mood swings, from depressive episodes (low energy, sadness, low motivation) to manic episodes (elevated mood, irritability, excessive amounts of energy). Depressive disorders- a type of mood disorder, characterized by feelings of hopelessness, worthlessness, and sadness. Includes dysthymic disorder and major depressive disorder. Schizophrenia- a type of psychotic disorder, characterized by a loss of touch with reality, including audio and visual hallucinations, psychosis, and delusions. Dissociative disorders- characterized by memory loss, sense of detachment from self, and a skewed perception of identity. Includes dissociative identity disorder, depersonalization disorder, and dissociative amnesia. Personality disorders- characterized by long-lasting, negative/ maladaptive thoughts and behaviors that create an inability to adhere to what is considered "socially acceptable." Includes paranoid, schizotypal, borderline, antisocial, schizoid, histrionic, avoidant, narcissistic, obsessive-compulsive, and dependent personality disorder.

Generalization

Applicable to similar circumstances because of the predictable outcomes of repeated tests Explanation: tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli. For example, a dog conditioned to salivate to a tone of a particular pitch and loudness will also salivate with considerable regularity in response to tones of higher and lower pitch.

Behaviorist Approach

Approach to the study of cognitive development that is concerned with basic mechanics of learning Ex: classical conditioning which is most closely related to this approach

Progression of infancy motor development:

Baby is prone (lying face down, flat), can lift head (~2 months) Can use arms to lift chest and roll over (~3 months) Can sit alone (~6 months) Can stand with support (~7 months) Can crawl (~9 months) Can walk with support (~10 months) Can stand alone (~12 months) Can walk alone (~13 months)

Cerebellum

Balance and coordination Ex: involved in the execution of a coordinated motor task. Such as tapping fingers

Universal emotions include:

Fear, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust, and sadness

Expressing and detecting emotion

verbal and body language

Animal signals and communication

Bees: waggle dance to communicate location of pollen Baring of teeth = aggression Birds: fluff up their feathers to look bigger and more intimidating

fixed-ratio

Behavior is rewarded every time or every 9th time (consistent amount of responses)

Back Stage Self

Behavior that is employed when players are together, but no audience is present.

Primary Mental Abilities-

Belief is that we are born with seven primary mental abilities: Reasoning Numerical ability Associative Memory Spatial visualization Word fluency Perceptual speed Verbal comprehension

Social support

Biological explanations of social behavior in animals = genetic (hunger drives foraging, testosterone drives mating) and social (learning from those around you) Foraging behavior = seeks out food Mating behavior and mate choice = finding, attracting, and choosing a mate Applying game theory: game theory = decision making. Decisions have a benefit-cost ratio. Pick the choice of action that has the most benefit-cost ratio.

Biological and sociocultural motivators that regulate behavior (e.g., hunger, sex drive, substance addiction)

Biological motivators- includes hunger, thirst, sex drive, body temperature, etc. (e.g., If we are hungry, we look for something to eat. If we are thirsty, we seek out water to drink.) Sociocultural motivators- includes social constructs as motivators (e.g., what is socially considered the "ideal" body weight and appearance may affect how much you exercise and eat).

Biomedical vs. biopsychosocial approaches

Biomedical approach- this approach looks at psychological disorders from a biological perspective, including factors such as genetics, brain structure, and brain chemistry. Biopsychosocial approach- this approach looks at psychological disorders from a sociological/cultural perspective including factors such as education, socioeconomic standards, and expectations held by peers.

Factor g

verbal and spatial intelligence are only +0.38 correlated

actor observer bias

Blame our actions on situation, but blame actions of others on personality Ex: Max attend a party and does not make eye contact with or approach his acquaintance, Sam. In situational factors, max self judgement will be high and (not feeling well) judging himself. However, Sam judgement of max will make Sam feel (socially awkward) dispositional factors

extinction

losing the association. Eg: if Pavlov stops giving dog food after ringing the bell.

Neuronal communication and its influence on behavior

Dopaminergic neurons are stimulated by dopamine (a neurotransmitter that affects mood -> affects behavior) Defective neurons can cause Parkinson's disease (impaired motor movements, loss of feeling) and Alzheimer's disease (changes in mood, impaired movement and memory)

Types of religious organizations (e.g., churches, sects, cults)

Church = stabilizing, in alignment with government, mainstream religious teaching Sect = splits off from the church to promote a more traditional/orthodox version of the religion Cult = splits off from the church to promote a novel version of the religion. Usually led be charismatic leaders.

Comparative economic and political systems

Capitalism: private, profit-orientated Socialism: state-owned, distribution of resources Mixed-economy: mixture of capitalism and socialism

Inadequate sleep

Causes hunger. This is the relationship between sleep and hunger

Factors that affect attitude change

Changes in your behavior -> observed by others -> Changes attitude Message -> influences target -> affects attitude Social = environment -> influences individual attitudes

Schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease are characterized

Cognitive dysfunction such as tasks of verbal and negative priming Ex: negative effect performance on both verbal fluency and negative priming tasks

Components of attitudes (i.e., cognitive, affective, and behavioral)

Cognitive- involves someone's beliefs and knowledge. What someone knows to be true can affect one's attitude towards certain issues. E.g., If you know that lions are dangerous, your attitude towards them may be negative and fearful. Affective- involves someone's feelings or emotions, which largely shape our attitude. E.g., If you love someone, you will most likely address them with a positive, loving attitude. Behavioral- involves someone's actions. Our behavior is greatly dependent on our attitude. E.g., If we have a positive attitude, we are more likely to behave productively.

Satiety

Condition of being too full or too satisfied

approach-approach conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives or desirable

Conventional morality (adolescent): social roles

Conformity: seeks approval of others. Eg. Good boys don't steal. Law and order: social order. Eg. If everyone steals, then society wouldn't function.

Division of labor:

Construction workers do nothing but build houses. Doctors do nothing but treat patients. You are able to live in a house despite the fact that you know nothing about construction. Division of laber makes people specialized in their trade, they become really good and efficient at it, which would not be possible if they are required to know everything from every trade.

Gentrification and urban renewal.

Gentrification = arrival of wealthy people into poor urban areas, raising rent and property values. Urban renewal = clearing slums in cities and redeveloping it.

Mead's I

The spontaneous less socialized component of the self. Ex: An individual skipping work because they want to go to a concert. An individual ignoring the emotional needs of a significant other An individual dressing inappropriately for a job interview

Applications of observational learning to explain individual behavior

loving family makes someone a loving person. Abusive family makes someone an abusive person.

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Ex: memories of learning something so shocking or surprising that it creates a strong and seemingly very accurate memory of learning about the event--but not the event itself.

counterculture

a subculture that is radically different / opposes the mainstream culture. Eg: the hippie generation.

Theories that explain how motivation affects human behavior

Drive reduction theory- states that a physiological discomfort will cause someone to carry out a certain behavior to ease that discomfort. (i.e. you feel thirsty, so you drink water). Incentive theory- states that we can be driven/motivated to behave in certain ways by incentives (objects/events that encourage or discourage certain behaviors). Other theories (e.g., cognitive, need-based)

positive symptom

a symptom of schizophrenia evident by its presence: delusions, hallucinations, or thought disorders

Neuroleptics

Drugs that alleviate the symptoms of severe disorders such as schizophrenia. Ex: first antipsychotic drugs used to treat schizophrenia and through they are effective include cognitive dulling, which can "exacerbate" negative symptoms

Hallucinogens

Drugs that often produce hallucinations

Curvilinear

Curved lines

Bureaucracy:

a system of government where non-elect government officials make the decisions.

Class

lower class have poorer health in general. lower class have poorer access to healthcare and are more likely to be uninsured

race/ethnicity

Demographic characteristics: socioeconomic status, and cardiovascular risk factors

Depressants (e.g. alcohol, opiates, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates)

Depress the inhibition and reasoning areas of the brain Use leads to delayed reaction time, slurred speech, and poor motor skills Can cause short-term memory loss (blackouts) Affects dopamine (responsible for happy feeling) and GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric acid, responsible for calm feeling) systems

operant conditioning (motivational state)

Depriving the subject of some desirable stimulus item for a period of time.

Synesthesia

Describing one kind of sensation in terms of another Ex: Knit and kit

Social stigma

Disapproval of someone who differs from social norms

discrimination

Eg. Dog salivates only to Pavlov ringing the bell

generalization

Eg. Dog salivates to anyone ringing a bell

Types of Neurotransmitters:

Endorphins- released during extreme pleasure or pain, can have numbing effect on pain. Norepinephrine- regulates alertness, learning, and long-term memory (deficiency can lead to mood disorders). Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid (GABA)- reduces the excitability of neurons (deficiency can cause anxiety and depression). Serotonin- regulates mood, sleep, libido (deficiency can cause anxiety and depression). Dopamine- plays a role in learning and ability to concentrate. Acetylcholine- regulates memory, sleep, and plays a role in learning (deficiency is associated with dementia) Epinephrine (Adrenaline)- intensifies mood (released during fight or flight)

physical stressors

Environmental and physical conditions that elicit the stress response.

Escape and avoidance learning

Escape: you touch a caterpillar, it stings you, you jerk away. Avoidance: you learn to not touch a caterpillar

Ethnocentrism vs. cultural relativism

Ethnocentrism = placing yourself at the center of the universe = judging others based on the assumption that your culture is superior / most correct Cultural relativism = no one's at the center, everything's relative = perceiving differences in others with an understanding that no one's more superior or inferior

Aspects of collective behavior

Fad: a short-lived trend, a "thing". Eg. Beanie babies. Yeah like beepers them thangs long gone. Mass hysteria: rumors and fears affecting a group of people. Eg. Witch hunt. Riot: a group of people vandalize the streets because of they are not happy at society.

sympathetic arousal

Ex: Is associated with anxiety which also can increase electrical conductivity of the skin which is a physiological indication of increased sympathetic arousal

How perceptions of the environment shape our perceptions of others.

Examples: body language changes the way you feel about someone. You are also more likely to perceive someone positively if you are in a relaxed, comfortable environment.

Managing stress (e.g., exercise, relaxation, spirituality)

Exercise- aerobic exercise is said to be an effective method for relieving symptoms of depression. By exercising, the body releases hormones that are thought to relieve depression, such as serotonin, endorphins, and norepinephrine. Overtime, exercise also lowers blood pressure. Relaxation- a process known as "biofeedback" can be used to release muscle constriction, slow pulse, and control respiration. People also partake in activities such as guided meditation and yoga to help themselves relax. Spirituality- Religious groups are often beneficial with regards to relieving stress. They provide social support and guidance during stressful situations.

Education

Expect of socioeconomic status

Cognitive theories of motivation

Expectancy theory- states that our behavior is a result of conscious choices that we make to minimize pain and maximize pleasure. Goal-Setting theory- states that there is a link between goal setting and task performance, and that by setting and achieving small goals (and receiving positive feedback), we are more likely to accomplish more difficult goals later.

Stress group

Experience higher heart rate and skin conductance than a control group

When encountering a stranger an individual

Experiences a brief increase in heart rate before starting to relax

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence -Developed by Robert Sternberg, 3 components

Experiential intelligence- (also known as creative intelligence) the ability to familiarize oneself with new circumstances and form new concepts. For example: If you move to a foreign country and you are able to learn the new language, you are exhibiting experiential intelligence. Componential intelligence- (also known as analytical intelligence) the traditional idea of intelligence. Includes ability to logically reason and think abstractly. Also includes the ability to communicate and think mathematically. This type of intelligence can be evaluated by standard tests of intelligence (e.g. IQ tests). Contextual intelligence- (also known as practical intelligence, or "street smarts") this is the ability to apply one's knowledge base to the world around them. Example: You have learned that UV rays from the sun can give you skin cancer, so when the sunlight becomes intense, you move to sit in the shade.

Shadowing task (Shadow)

Experiment that studies selective attention. In this task you are wearing headphones and they have two different sounds in each. Left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing. Told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other.

Symbolic Interactionism (George Mead)-micro level

Explains social behavior in terms of how people interact with each other. interacting via symbols. Eg: the cross symbolizes Christianity, thumbs up symbolizes approval. Symbols can vary between cultures. Eg: the two finger peace sign is offensive in England. Ex: how healthcare establish rapport, show empathy, and navigate disagreements with their patients.

Hallucinations

False sensory experiences

Developmental changes in adolescence

Female changes: Growth of breasts, pubic hair, underarm hair, menstrual period, increased oil and sweat production (acne), overall body growth. Male changes: growth of pubic, facial, and underarm hair, deepening of voice, increased oil and sweat production (acne), ejaculation, development of testes, penis, seminal vesicles, and prostate gland.

selective attention

Focus on one ear and ignore the other

Drive Theory

Focuses on biological needs that produce unpleasant states of arousal. (Elimination of unpleasant states )

Processes by which behavior influences attitudes (e.g., foot-in-the door phenomenon, role-playing effects)

Foot-in-the door phenomenon- this occurs when someone convinces someone else to take small steps towards something before they introduce larger, more tasking steps. e.g., If a child wants to convince their parents that they should have a pet dog, they could use the foot-in-the door approach and first get a pet fish. Next they would get a hamster, then a larger animal, like a rabbit. The size and responsibility associated with the pet would slowly increase until getting a dog no longer seemed like a big undertaking. Role-playing effects- when people are assigned a "social script" in which they are told how to behave in a particular social situation. E.g., Philip Zimbardo created an experiment in which people were told to act out different roles, some as prisoners, and some as guards. The results: prisoners began to adopt the attitude of real prisoners, hopeless and helpless. The guards adopted the attitude of real guards, and behaved authoritatively towards the role-playing prisoners. Justification of effort- this occurs when people change their attitudes so that they will match how they behave. E.g., If someone was applying to graduate school for education, but during that process were offered a well-paying laboratory job, the person may feel pressured to justify the effort they put into getting into graduate school by deciding to attend the school, instead of taking the laboratory job. Public declarations- this involves publicly declaring a belief or idea, that may or may not have been influenced by outside social pressures. The more we declare something, especially publicly, the more likely we are to convince ourselves that we believe what we are saying. E.g., In the schoolyard a child might publicly announce to his friend "Short people are stupid." If this message is supported by his friends, he is likely to repeat it, increasing his chances of truly believing that short people are stupid.

Constructionist understanding (of gender)

Gender as dynamic, fluid, and subject to the processes of meaning -making (social processes) and collective definition building

Population growth and decline (e.g., population projections, population pyramids)

Growth: birth rate > death rate Decline: death rate > birth rate Population projection = estimate population at future date Population pyramids: bottom heavy = population growth. Top heavy = population decline. Side skew = gender imbalance.

Heuristics and biases (e.g., overconfidence, belief perseverance)

Heuristics, or mental shortcuts, are used so that we can make quick decisions. Approaches to problem solving: a combination of trial and error, algorithmic, and heuristics. Representative heuristic - we have a tendency to make judgments based on the probability of something happening based on our typical idea of a particular event. For example, we believe we will receive a cake rather than a salad when it is our birthday. This is because cakes are typically more representative of a birthday than a salad. Availability heuristic- tendency to believe that something is more common or more likely to happen just because it is more readily obtainable in our memory. For example, if everyone in your household has the flu, and someone at work coughs, you may jump to the conclusion that they, too, have the flu.Heuristics, or mental shortcuts, are used so that we can make quick decisions. Representative heuristic - we have a tendency to make judgments based on the probability of something happening based on our typical idea of a particular event. For example, we believe we will receive a cake rather than a salad when it is our birthday. This is because cakes are typically more representative of a birthday than a salad. Availability heuristic- tendency to believe that something is more common or more likely to happen just because it is more readily obtainable in our memory. For example, if everyone in your household has the flu, and someone at work coughs, you may jump to the conclusion that they, too, have the flu.

operational span testing

STM testing how much you can keep somethign in memory Math followed by a word

content analysis

a systematic analysis of the content rather than the structure of a communication, such as a written work, speech, or film Ex: Social movement presents its belief

The eight types of intelligence

Nature Intelligence- the ability to understand the biological aspects of the world. Linguistic Intelligence- the ability to write, read, and speak. Intrapersonal Intelligence- the ability to have insight; to understand one's inner self. Interpersonal Intelligence- the ability to understand and associate with other people. Mathematical Intelligence- the ability to perform in numbers (math). Spatial Intelligence- the ability to see and process the world (space) that surrounds you. Musical Intelligence- the ability to compose and/or perform musically. Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence- the ability to perform athletically (dance, sports, manual labor, etc.).

Conversion disorder

Neurological symptoms paralysid, blindness that are not explainable by a medical condition

Group size: dyads

an exchange of information between "two people" (less stabled group) dyad = pair relationships (eg: husband-wife, staff-customer).

Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy

Hierarchy of authority Impersonality Written rules of conduct Promotion based on achievement Specialized division of labor Efficiency

Evolutionary perspective of Human motivation

Hunger ratings for images for food

Components of the endocrine system

Hypothalamus- controls the actions of the endocrine system. Adrenal gland- release adrenaline during "fight or flight" situation. Hypophysis (Pituitary gland)- secretes growth and reproduction hormones. Also secretes neurotransmitters. Reproductive organs- Ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone, testes produce testosterone. Thyroid gland- regulates consumption of energy/ metabolism. Parathyroid gland- controls release of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and levels of calcium within the body (high levels of PTH cause the body to increase levels of calcium in the blood, where it becomes available to the bones). Pineal body (gland)- regulates levels of melatonin (hormone that plays a role in sleep cycles). Allows the nervous system to send signals to the endocrine system. Pancreas- secretes digestive enzymes (exocrine pancreas) and insulin (endocrine pancreas).

Strain theory

I am poor so I steal. EX: social structure can pressure people to commit crime. Eg. A lower class at the bottom of society, with all the discrimination associated with it, pressures that individual to steal.

Differential association

I started to steal when I was hanging out with my cousin that steal. This caused social change Explanation: associating with deviant people causes you to become deviant too. This can promote social change.

Processes by which attitudes influence behavior

Icek Ajzen's theory of planned behavior states that one's behavioral beliefs influences one's attitude towards the behavior, which then affects how someone decides to behave. e.g., If someone believes that they should behave quietly while attending church, they would feel happy to comply with this behavior, and, when in church, behave quietly.

Family: reproduce, socialize Forms of kinship

Primary kins = next to each other on a pedigree = husband-wife, parent-child, siblings Secondary kins = separated by one kin on a pedigree = your parent's parent (grandparents), your parent's sibling (aunts/uncles) Tertiary kins = separated by two kins on a pedigree = your parent's sibling's children (cousins)

Organization of social movements

Proactive = promote change Reactive = resist change Organizations = facilitate social movements = NAACP, PETA, etc

Influence of individuals

Imitation: we imitate role models, peers, especially those similar to us and those we identify with Looking-glass self: you're friends see you as funny. Your boss sees you as lazy. Your ex sees you as dumb. Your looking-glass self is a combination of all of these different perceived versions of you by other people.

Resistance

In psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material. (Rest and digest-Parasympathetic)

Stimulants (e.g. amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine, cocaine)

Increase the speed of bodily functions (breathing, heart rate, overall increased energy) Users feel energized and hyper alert Often used for purposes such as staying awake and improving physical abilities Prescribed to treat attention deficit disorders such as ADD and ADHD (Adderall).

stress generation hypothesis

Individuals actively influence the world around them. Ex: just as likely to experience independent stressors and more likely to experience dependent stressors(depressed person)

PET

Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of brain are more active at given point in time. (Measures increased levels of glucose)

Factors that influence motivation

Instinct- an unlearned, innate behavior that is present throughout an entire species. Arousal- there is a need to achieve the highest level of arousal (stimulation). This helps us avoid feelings of boredom. Drives (e.g., negative feedback systems) (PSY, BIO)- a drive is a sense of urgency, stemming from physiological feelings of discomfort, including, thirst, hunger, and tiredness. Needs- this includes drives as well as higher-level needs, such as self-actualization (realizing one's full potential, finding meaning outside one's self).

Primary appraisal

Interpret how to feel about something

Assimilation

Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas cognitive process that manages how we take in new information (fully understanding) and incorporate that new information into our existing knowledge. This concept was developed by Jean Piaget. "integrating into a different culture." Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas

Kholberg's Stages of Moral Development moral behavior highest level

Promote social welfare

Perspectives on bureaucracy (e.g., iron law of oligarchy, McDonaldization)

Iron law of oligarchy: government tend to shift toward being ruled by an elite group McDonaldization: shift toward being efficient and practical like McDonalds/fast food restaurants.

Influence of language on cognition:

It is thought that language can help broaden our understanding of the world. It enables us to share our thoughts and ideas. Speaking with one another can also expose us to new vocabulary and grammatical structure. Confounding factors include: environment, genetics, and culture.

Stage 1 sleep (theta waves)

Light sleep that occurs just after dozing off. This stage of sleep has mainly theta waves that are of low to moderate frequency (3-7 Hertz). During this stage of non-REM (rapid eye movement) stage of sleep there are slow eye movements.

Hippocampus

Long term memory, emotions, and motivation. *limbic system* The hippocampus, is responsible for forming new memories.

Amnesia

Loss of memory

Protagonist

Main character

Theories of demographic change (i.e., Malthusian theory and demographic transition)

Malthusian theory = population grows exponentially and will eventually outgrow its resources. War, famine, disease bring the population back down to a sustainable level (positive checks). Population control (preventive checks) such as later marriage also keeps the population from outgrowing its resources. Demographic shift = changes in population makeup, including birth and death rates (demographic transition) Demographic transition = changes in birth and death rates a society goes through as it develops

implicit memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously. Ex:Negative priming requires the use of implicit memory (Schizophrenia)

Effects of stress on psychological functions

Mild levels of stress can help increase one's psychological functions and serve to increase levels of motivation (e.g. preparing for a job interview) If someone is experiencing a high level of stress their functioning can be impaired by side-effects, including fatigue, anxiety, and inability to concentrate.

Fertility, migration, and mortality Fertility and mortality rates (e.g., total, crude, age-specific)

Mortality = death per population per year Total fertility rate = total number of babies the average woman has in her lifetime in a population Crude fertility rate = babies per population per time Age-specific rates = rates for an age bracket

Cocaine is a stimulate

Psychological effects similar to stress hence glucose metabolism increase in the brain

novel information

Novel stimuli is new or unfamiliar. -Conscious effort is needed here if none is present you are unlikely to visually process

birth rates

Number of births in a year for every 1000 people

Preconventional morality (preadolescent): centered on consequences

Obedience: fear of punishment Self-interest: desire to gain reward

Asynchronous

Occurring at different times

top down processing

Occurs when you use your background knowledge to fill in gaps in what you perceive. Explanation: refers to perception that is driven by cognition. Your brain applies what it knows and what it expects to perceive and fills in the blanks

Olfactory cells/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals

Olfaction (smell) begins with olfactory cells found in the roof of the nasopharynx, (our nasal cavity) The olfactory receptors within the nasopharynx detect chemicals in the air that dissolve the mucous-covered nasal membrane. The nasal membrane contains olfactory nerves, which extend into the olfactory bulbs/nerves (cranial nerve I).

Secondary appraisal

Once feeling is interpreted secondary is used to act on the way you feel

Opiates (e.g. opium, morphine, hydrocodone, oxycodone, heroin)

Opiates are byproducts of opium Classified as a type of depressant Opiates behave the same way as our own endorphins, causing users to feel relaxed and joyful Prescribed to relieve severe pain

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units Explanation: the process of taking individual pieces of information (chunks) and grouping them into larger units. By grouping each piece into a large whole, you can improve the amount of information you can remember. Ex: Phone numbers are not typically seen or remembered as a long string of numbers like 8605554589, but rather 860-555-4589. Birthdates are typically not recalled by 11261995, but rather 11/26/1995. Or XLETHIPSOXWHYMIX" is difficult to remember as a long string of letters, however if the letters are grouped or chunked, remembering them is easier. The breaking down of the letters into more "logical" chunks also makes it easier to remember. X LET HIP SOX WHY MIX

Experience and behavior (PSY)

Our experiences in life help shape our personalities and how we choose to behave.

temperament

Our personality is largely defined by our temperament, or our nature (how "moody" we are).

Sensory adaptation

Our sensory neurons adapt to (become less sensitive/ignores) stimuli that are constantly there. For example, our inner ear uses this process to make recurring loud noises sound softer.

Psychophysical discrimination

Over or understate the size of an item Ex: you see two images differently because one is far back and the other is close up and you think is different sizes but their actually the same in size

Genes

Part of our personality encoded for in our genes, the rest is influenced by environmental factors

Foeva

Part of retina that contains a high density of cones for daytime vision. The periphery of the retina contain high density of rods which are more photosensitive and can detect dim light Ex: shifting gaze moved the image of the "dim" star

Immigration status

Patterns of immigration: immigration is increasing, most of which is from Mexico, Caribbean, and India. Intersections with race and ethnicity: race and ethnicity are different things that can overlap or be different. Eg: being Caucasian can mean you are Greek, French, Irish, etc. If you are Black, but you are born in France and lived your whole life there, you can also call yourself French.

bottom up processing (sensory information)

People are generally encouraged to think before acting; however, you may have found that sometimes you make good decisions without thinking about them first For example, if someone offered you your favorite flavor of ice cream, but it was topped with pickles and hot sauce, chances are you'd be able to turn it down right away without first having to give it a thought (unless you like that sort of thing). The reason you could reject that ice cream without first having to stop and think is because of a strategy called bottom-up processing. is simply about the process moving in the opposite direction. First comes the response in the body (eyes see the bowl and contents; nose smells chocolate, pickles, and hot sauce; stomach churns; face grimaces; head turns away). This leads to emotion (repulsion, disappointment) and the brain's cognition and directive for action (thinking, 'That's nasty,' and saying, 'No thank you.').

Janowitz &Grossman 1950

People whose stomachs have been removed still experience hunger.

Depression

People with depression demonstrate abnormal levels of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. High levels of cortisol, secreted by the adrenal glands, are often present in the blood. There may also be a genetic predisposition.

Push and pull factors in migration

Push = why you want to leave this place = lack of jobs, natural disasters, descrimination, etc Pull = why you want to go to the other place = better paying jobs, promise of a better life, etc

Need-based theory of motivation- "Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs", developed by Abraham Maslow, states that there are five levels of human needs (from low-level to higher-level needs). Levels include:

Physiological needs- includes the need to maintain homeostasis (food, water, body temperature, oxygen, ability to reproduce). Safety needs- includes the need to feel safe and protected in one's environment. Social needs- includes the need to feel like you belong (feelings of love and appreciation, avoidance of loneliness). Esteem needs- includes the need to achieve independence, self-esteem, and to receive respect from peers. Self-actualization- when all these needs are met, one can realize one's full potential, and find external meaning.

The role of gender in the expression and detection of emotion:

Popular belief is that girls are more emotional and they are also more sensitive to detect emotion. Research shows that society has particular expectations of how boys and girls express emotion. Eg: girls can cry, guys should act tough, girls should be gentle, guys can be aggressive. This shapes how guys and girls express emotions differently.

Benzodiazepines (e.g. Lorazepam, Clonazepam, Xanax, Valium)

Prescribed to alleviate excessive anxiety Classified as a type of depressant Can also be used to prevent seizures Stimulates GABA system, creates feeling of calm Should never be mixed with alcohol, can be fatal

decay theory

proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time

Different types of identities (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, class)

Race/ethnicity = color/culture Gender = your masculinity/femininity Sexual orientation = who you are attracted to Age = how old you feel Class = how rich you are

Intersectionality

Race/ethnicity and social class Identity categories intersect in systems of social stratification Ex: (sexual orientation, race, gender, age): intersectionality = the study of having more than one of racisim, ageism, sexism. Eg: the unique experience of being a black woman examined by black feminism rather than mainstream feminism.

Dishabituation

Recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation Ex: as more trials are conducted the researcher finds that the magnitude of salvation declines. The researcher switches to administering like juice

Lifespan motor development:

Reflexive movement- (0-1 year) include involuntary movements (e.g. blinking, grasping, sucking) Rudimentary movement- (0-2 years) these are the first voluntary movements (e.g. crawling, sitting, standing) Fundamental movement- (2-7 years) child is beginning to coordinate his limbs (e.g. running, catching a ball) Specialized movement- (7-14 years) fundamental movements are mastered and applied to completing specific actions (e.g. playing sports, riding a bike, gymnastics) Application of movement- (14+ years) movements are applied and refined throughout the span of one's lifetime

Regulatory genes and behavior (BIO)

Regulatory genes- control the expression of other genes (e.g. encoding for various proteins and microRNAs). Epigenetics- Genes that modify their expression without changing the overall genetic code. This changes the phenotype without changing the genotype. Epigenetics are largely influenced by the environment, but can also be inherited. Example: DNA methylation, the process by which a methyl group is added to a strand of DNA, preventing the expression of some genes.

Relative and absolute poverty

Relative poverty = being poor compared to most people around you. Absolute poverty = being poor such that your basic needs are not met (food, shelter, clothing, water).

Religion: meaning of life/death, spirituality

Religiosity = religiousness = how religious you are

Chemoreceptors

Respond to chemicals, blood pH (Co2), total solute concentrations(osmoreceptors), nocireceptors(Prostaglandins) Location: Tongue, blood(dissolved chemicals), nose(vaporized chemicals), and tissue

The sick role

Rights: it's not your fault that you're sick, and while you're sick, you're exempt from work (your normal social role) Obligations: You should try to get well. You should see a doctor and cooperate/comply Issues with the sick role: pushing a sick role on someone who doesn't think so (homosexuality used to be considered a disease entity. Some patients wants to avoid the sick role due to stigmatization/HIV or because they want to continue to work). Sometimes we blame people it's their fault for being sick (obesity and lifestyle).

The Thomas Theorem

situations we define as real become real in their consequences

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

Sensorimotor (ages: 0-2 years): Involves learning to perceive the world using senses. During this stage they learn object permanence, the concept that even if you hide a ball under the rug, the ball continues to exist. Preoperational Stage (ages: 2-7 years): The child learns that objects and ideas can be shown using symbols, such as images and words. They also learn to speak. During this period of time the child is very egocentric, and do not understand other people's perspectives. Concrete Operational Stage (ages: 7-11 years): During this period of time the child learns the principle of conservation, which is the concept that a tall slender cup can hold the same amount of fluid as a short wider cup, even though the cups are different. The child is also able to think logically about actual events. Formal Operational Stage (ages 12- adulthood): During this period of time people learn how to reason based on morals, how to form hypotheses, and other forms of abstract reasoning. ex: learn that one's actions can affect the world around them

Sensory memory

Sensory memory is the first recall of sensory information; it is quick and short-term. For example, if you touch a pan on the stove, you will remember it was hot.

Diversity in family forms

Single parents, homosexual parents, step parents, grandparents, etc.

Postconventional morality (adult): social rules

Social contract: individual rights. Eg. Everyone has a right to live. Universal human ethics: abstract principles. Eg. Bribing the teacher for a good grade just feels wrong...

Me component of the Self (Mead)

Socialized and confirming aspect of self Ex: An individual studying for an exam instead of going to a party.

Cornea

The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye Ex: is in direct contact with the eyelid and damage from flaking skin

Auditory processing (e.g., auditory pathways in the brain)

Sound → ear drum → vibrations in cochlea → vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII) → brain The auditory nerve then sends the message to an area of the brain called the brainstem At the brainstem details of the signal such as frequency, location, duration, and intensity are deciphered. Next, the signal passes through the thalamus and into the auditory cortex, a specific region found in the temporal lobe of the brain. Here the signal is translated by neurons into a message that we can understand

Rods

Specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision.

Motor development Infancy reflexes

Stepping reflex- if the sole of an infant's foot touches a flat surface, they will place one foot in front of the other (also known as the "walking reflex") Tonic neck reflex-if a baby's head is turned to the side, the baby will extend its arm on that side, and bend the opposite arm. Blinking reflex- if a baby sees a bright flash of light or experiences a gust of wind, it will blink its eyes Rooting reflex- if you stroke a baby's cheek they will turn in that direction and open their mouth (seeking mother's nipple) Babinski reflex- if you stroke a baby's foot, its big toe will extend upward, and the toes on its other foot will spread apart. Palmar grasp reflex- if you stroke a baby's palm their fingers will close and their hand will grasp your finger (or whatever is stroking its palm). Swimming reflex- if a baby is placed face down in water it will make coordinated swimming movements. Startle (moro) reflex- if a baby hears a loud noise or sees a sudden movement they will become startled. It will then cry and extend its neck and limbs.

Taste (e.g., taste buds/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals)

Sweet (sugar, e.g. glucose): "T1R2" and "T1R3" receptors. Salty (salt, e.g. NaCl): sodium channels Bitter (basic, e.g. Quinine): T2R receptors Sour (acidic, e.g. HCl): TRP (transient receptor potential) channel. Umami (meaty, e.g. glutamate, amino acids and nucleotides): a combination of T1R1 and T1R3 receptors.

Thermoreceptors

Temperature stimuli: Heat, cold, certain food chemicals(e.g capsaicin) Location: external stimulus(skin), internal stimulus (hypothalamus)

temporal information

Temporal lobes responsible for hearing. Right hear goes to left brain.

Reliable test

Test questions get the same results each time they are used. Questions are clear and unambiguous. (Stable and consistent results) Ex: students scores are different each time he/she take it

Schizophrenia

The Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia states that the condition stems from an irregular, hyperactive dopaminergic signal transduction. As a result, people with schizophrenia tend to have abnormally high amounts of dopamine in their brain. It has been discovered that the overactivation of the brain's D2 receptors is another common thread among schizophrenics. There is also a genetic predisposition.

Adaptive role of emotion

The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that people tend to perform at their optimum ability when they are moderately emotionally stimulated. This is to say that when people are extremely emotional, or totally non-emotional, they are less likely to perform at their best.

cognitive aging

The ability to retrieve information (semantic memory, crystallized intelligence) is unaffected by aging

Interaction between heredity and environmental influences

The characteristics of someone's personality that are encoded by genetics collaborate with the person's environment to create their behavior (and more long-term, personality). Studies have shown that when twins were raised separately (in different environments), they behaved more similarly than a pair of randomly chosen people, but still exhibited different personalities.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Photoreceptors

The light-sensitive cells in the retina- the rods and cones. Light(visible wavelengths), Electromagnetic - location: eyes(cones and rods). Photoreceptor cells located on the back of the retina. Rods = senses light and dark (no color), more sensitive. Cones = senses color, less sensitive. Rhodopsin = chemical responsible for light reception = Retinal (chemical) + Opsin (transmembrane protein) Light converts cis-retinal → trans-retinal. trans-retinal then causes hyperpolarization of photoreceptor cell, which prompts the chain of events that sends signal to the brain. Sends signal to brain via a bundle of nerves on the back of the retina (where the blind spot is)

synaptic cleft

The narrow gap that separates the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic cell.

postsynaptic cell

The neuron, muscle, or gland cell that receives the signal from a neuron. (Messages)

Interposition

The overlapping of objects signifies positioning relative to one another. A monocular cue

Egocentrism

The preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view. the inability to differentiate between self and other. More specifically, it is the inability to untangle subjective schemas from objective reality and an inability to understand or assume any perspective other than one's own. Ex: the egocentric child assumes that other people see, hear, and feel exactly the same as the child does.

Weber's Law

The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage. The threshold for detecting a stimulus-change is a constant ratio. Eg. You are holding a dumbbell, and someone puts a stone on that dumbbell, can you detect it with your eyes closed? For humans, the stone must be at least 2% of the dumbbell for you to detect that change.

social construction

The process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction (emotions: in non-biological) ex: money (it's just paper, but society made it worth more than paper). Explanation: is an invention or artifact of a particular culture or society which exists solely because people agree to behave as if it exists, or agree to follow certain conventional rules. observes how the interactions of individuals with their society and the world around them gives meaning to otherwise worthless things and creates the reality of the society. how the "society" has "constructed" the knowledge in your brain (i.e it is society who give value to money, or else, physically speaking, money is just a piece of paper with some drawing on it). Strong Social Construction-ism highlight this idea.

Functionalism

The study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment. -study of structure and function of society Founder: Emile Durkheim Macrosocial perspective -Factions of society work together to maintain stability. Society is a system that consists of different components working together, with distinct institutions that contribute to functioning. Seeks to understand what different structures in society contribute to society at large. When disruptions occur, the interacting systems respond to get back to a stable state. Explains societal stability but NOT societal change (assumes stability is the ideal)

The Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember the first and the last items in a list (not the middle) Ex: Primacy and recency (recall)

recency effect

The tendency to show greater memory for information that comes last in a sequence. (the finish; you remember the end the best.)

positive correlation

The values increase together

Demographic transition theory

Theory that population growth is a function of the level of economic development in a country Explanation: Begins with a drop in the death rate leading to population growth followed by a drop in the birth rate leading to population stabilization. So, the graph will be in an increase position and then death rate will drop on graph first and followed by death rate.

Stress 3: Daily Stressor

These are stressors that are experienced on a regular daily basis throughout one's day. Examples of daily stressors include paying bills, mowing the lawn, getting stuck in a traffic jam.

Stressor 2: Personal events

These are stressors that involve significant life changes, and are experienced especially in young adulthood. Examples of personal events include starting or ending a relationship (or marriage), moving, losing or getting a job, and the death or birth of a loved one.

Stressor 1: Cataclysmic

These include stressors caused by catastrophes. They are difficult to predict, and occur on a wide scale. Examples of cataclysmic events include wars and natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, etc.

positive punishment (PUNISHERS)

This works by presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future. "decrease behavior by giving (adding) a speeding ticket so a person want speed again" Ex: "I am terrified of having a panic attack at a meeting. I dread the thought of others noticing how nervous I am. I'm worried that others will think I am weird. I don't go to meetings anymore." more ex: Spanking, deodorant give me a rash, getting a paper cut. So less likely you'll do the thing that brings a consequence (one time occurrence) addition: while, doing something as an addition

operant conditioning

To know the difference and to determine whether it is a good or bad or positive or negative you must remember that positive is adding but don't make it good and negative is taking away and don't mean it's bad. However, you determine if it's good or bad by the outcome meaning what happens last. Ex: Reinforce-rs and punishers

Perceptual maladaptation

Trait that is more harmful than helpful.

Recovered memory

Type of memory that may be constructed or false recollections of events.

Independent stressor

Unidirectionally connected to depression

Hallucinogens (e.g. Marijuana, LSD, Psilocybin mushrooms)

Users see images that do not exist in reality Colors may appear more bright Can cause euphoria and state of relaxation Sometimes user can experience extreme fear (depending on what user is seeing) Not normally prescribed as a therapeutic drug

Deviance

Violations of social norms

heredity

We are likely to think and behave like our parents, due to the inheritable factors of personality.

self fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment. ex: if a race is stereotyped a certain way, people will have those expectations from you and create conditions to fit those stereotypes. Eg: if the stereotype is your race being good at basketball, people will expect you to be good at it without even knowing you, TV ads will show your race playing basketball / wearing Air Jordans. In the end, this makes it easy for you to become that stereotype, thus, a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Race health disparities

Whites: cystic fibrosis, skin cancer Blacks: sickle cell disease, sarcoidosis. Also more likely to have diabetes, stroke. They also develop hypertension earlier. Asians: stomach cancer (nitrates in food preservatives) blacks and Hispanics are less access to healthcare and have poorer healthcare outcomes.

CT

X-rays to create image of the brain tumor/abnormal swelling/bleeding...but it can't tell us anything about what areas of the brain are active in a given time.

Adaptive value of traits and behaviors

Your traits and behaviors are capable of changing and adapting in response to different experiences and environments. Example: If you move to a city that has a high level of crime you may become more wary of strangers, and decide to walk your dog during the day, instead of at night.

subculture

a culture within the predominant culture. Eg: wearing Hijab in America.

correlational study

a descriptive study that looks for a consistent relationship between two phenomena

hunger drive

a desire to eat either out of habit, because you see good food around you, because you are emotional or upset, or because it tastes good and is "fun"

false memory

a distorted or fabricated recollection of something that did not actually occur

nucleus accumbens

a dopamine-rich area in the forebrain that is critical in the physiology of reward

delusions

a false belief

majority group

a group in a dominant position along the dimensions of wealth, power, and prestige

reference group

a group whose standards we refer to as we evaluate ourselves Ex: individuals often emulate the attitudes and behaviors of groups that they admire and would like to join. Sociologist refers to this as reference groups which are self evaluation and identity formation. Ex: dressing, speaking and acting in ways that relate to other cultures.

Repression (Freud)

a mental process that removes unacceptable thoughts and memories from consciousness

major depressive disorder

a mood disorder in which a person feels sad and hopeless for weeks or months Ex: one of more depression disorder

Mores

a more coercive social norm than folkways. Eg. Going out naked.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon Only generated in postsynaptic neurons when the depolarization stimulus exceeds threshold

Mirror neurons

a neuron that fires both when you perform an action and when you see another perform the same action. Thus, it's also responsible for empathy: if you see someone else hurting, you hurt also

serotonin

a neurotransmitter that is responsible for feelings of happiness and well-being. High levels of serotonin would likely cause someone to behave happily (high levels of self-care, socializing, etc.)

spreading activation

a principle that explains how information is retrieved in semantic network theories of memory. People often remember Unpresented members of a category when tested on their memory for a series of presented concepts from that category. Such as "Recalling objects"

Understanding psychological disorders

a psychological disorder is a mental disorder that includes thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that cause significant amounts of stress to the self or others. Stressful situations include inability to function/ meet personal needs, and putting themselves and/or others in danger.

looking glass self

a self image based on how we think others see us. Ex: The person will internalize the perceived stigmatization against him or her

Role confusion

a situation in which an adolescent does not seem to know or care what his or her identity is

In-Group Dynamics

a social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty and more likely to trust Ex: stress condition are more likely to trust the others. Looking at at graph it will show stress bar at the same university higher than the rival university. And compared to a control bar it will not be equal to stress but same university will be higher.

out-group dynamics

a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition and not trust so much

critical period

a specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned

achieved status

a status into which one enters; voluntary status Ex: Doctor, nurse, parent, spouse, criminal, thief, or a university professor. These are the things you chose to become it's an achievement

ascribed status

a status into which one is born; involuntary status Ex: Race, ethnicity, and the social class of our parents. You didn't asked for this but this is you involuntarily

cessation

a stopping

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another Ex: researchers applied goal orientation theory to medical students sense of self efficacy and confidence regarding their patient interactions and their ability to tolerate frustration. Explanation- the MCAT just mostly looking for cross sectional study as a comparison not only by differ age

Teacher expectancy

a teacher's expectancy of a kid influences how that kid will perform. Eg: a teacher expects less from a minority student, lowers the bar for the kid, subsequently the kid did not develop his full potential.

confirmation bias

a tendency to look for information that supports and agrees with your idea, instead of seeking out new information that may disprove or go against it.

conflict theory

a theory that looks at society as a competition for limited resources. a theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance. Marxist theory = groups/classes within society have differing amounts "power and wealth." The upper class use their power to exploit the lower class. Further explanation: Founder: Karl Marx Macrosocial perspective Views society in terms of competing groups that act according to their own self-interests, rather than according to the need for societal equilibrium. Society is a competition for limited resources. Explains societal changes but NOT societal societal stability (assumes stability is undesirable to societal groups that are oppressed) Views human actions in terms of larger forces of inequality, but leaves motivations choices of individuals unexamined. Ignores the non-forceful ways in which people reach agreement, and approaches society more from those who lack power. Tends to be too economically focused.

conscientiousness

a trait associated with being hardworking and organized instead of impulsive,

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events goes with associate learning such as salt and pepper Ex: blinking, salivating, or fear

Sensory encoding

a type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less

dependent variable

a variable (often denoted by y ) whose value depends on that of another.

recall memory

ability to reproduce stimuli that one has previously encountered (no cues) free cues... Ex: retrieval of information from the past

Processes

acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination

coping strategies

actions that people can take to master, tolerate, reduce, or minimize the effects of stressors

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly

Meritocracy

advancing the socioeconomic ladder based on merit and achievement.

Movement strategies and tactics:

advertising, protests, formation of organizations, etc

aligning actions

aligning/justify your actions by making excuses

Kinesthetic sense

also known as "proprioception" senses position/movement of ligaments, muscles, and tendons.

conservation tasks

although the substance has changed shape it is still the "same" amount piaget Ex: The majority of the 11-years olds will stare that the amount of water in the taller beaker is the same as in the original beaker.

Genetic predisposition

an inherited genetic pattern that makes one susceptible to a certain disease (from a parent). Ex: Monozygotic twins who were raised in different states, one twin inside the SB and one twin outside, both have excess recess risk of stroke in adulthood

social movement organization

an organization that has been created to help maintain and lead social movement activity over time Single social movement that attract new members Ex: methodological approach would be appropriate is "content analysis"

negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

Racialization:

ascribing a racial identity onto someone. Predominantly black/white neighborhoods racialize newcomers, and will either welcome them or reject them based on their race. Corporations racialize employees and promote/limit their advancement up the corporate ladder.

positive stereotype

asians are smart Explanation: ethnic identity was a central part of their self concept

frontal lobe

associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving *Executive functioning* Processes that occur in the frontal lobe include organization and planning.

spontaneous recovery

association returns after extinction, but never as strong as before.

dispositional attribution

assuming that another's behavior is due to personality factors, not situational ones Ex: A person judgement on another due to the way their acting

insecure attachment

attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence A child with the anxious-avoidant insecure attachment style will avoid or ignore the caregiver - showing little emotion when the caregiver departs or returns.

situational attribution

attributing behavior to the environment Ex: acting a certain way because he/she self judgement and think someone else thinking negative toward them

performance avoidance

avoiding failure Ex: avoid negative feedback

interplay

back-and-forth action; action and reaction

Gender segregation:

bathrooms, sports, etc.

Negative reinforement

behavior -> less punishment -> more of that behavior. Eg: study for your exam, and I'll stop giving you bad grades

Positive reinforcement

behavior -> reward -> more of that behavior. Eg: study for your exam, and I'll reward you with a good grade

fixed interval

behavior is rewarded again only after a fixed time interval, like 60 seconds (consistent time)

health behaviors

behaviors undertaken by people to enhance or maintain their health

practice effects

better test-taking skills and increased familiarity with the test *I pray I have this for the day of the MCAT*

gender stereotypes

broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males

Different types of stressors

cataclysmic events, personal

positive priming

causes an increase in speed or accuracy of the response to the test stimulus

Cultural assimilation

changes made by a group to "adopt" the ways of the dominant culture. Ex: cultural adaptation, cultural norms, and relinquishing old norms. Consequences of assimilation: is the influence that cultural changes have on an individuals health

illness anxiety disorder

characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition For example: the person is preoccupied with fears that he has—or will come down with—a serious disease, and these fears continue even after medical exams and tests have returned negative results.

Pheromones

chemicals that behave as signals to the brain that cause a response common to members of the same species. They serve as important chemical messengers, and help animals to prepare for events such as danger, a discovered food source, and when it is time to mate.

Class consciousness and false consciousness

class consciousness = awareness of your class and the interests of your class as a whole. False consciousness = awareness of yourself and your interests only. The communist revolution is based on promoting class consciousness of the lower class.

Stimulants examples

cocaine and caffeine

The role of cognition in prejudice:

cognitive level prejudce = prejudice based on rational thinking. Eg: racial profiling - if you observe that a certain race commits crimes more often, you will treat everyone of that race with prejudice. prejudice = pre-judge = you're judging someone based on their race before even getting to know them.

Intellectual functioning Theories of intelligence Intelligence Quotient - ("IQ")

created by German psychologist William Stern. The first tests to measure intelligence were created to measure a "mental age", marked by a collection of abilities/disabilities that children of a certain age group possess General intelligence (also referred to as the "G factor") is the type of intelligence that underlies all types of intelligence. It is arguable whether this factor is quantifiable. Emotional Intelligence is a type of intelligence that refers to one's ability to understand, sympathize/empathize, regulate, and express one's emotions.

Conformity

compliance(comply) with standards, rules, or laws. Ex: obedience, synchronous behaviors (PSY, SOC): Changing your behavior because of peer pressure.

repetitive behaviors

compulsions

avoidance-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose between two undesirable goals

Structure and function of peripheral nervous system (PNS)

consists of all outside nerve fibers that are not included within the brain or spinal cord. The PNS functions to send nerve impulses from our limbs (skin, muscles) and trunk (organs) to the central nervous system for processing.

Structure and function of the central nervous system (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord. Its function is to receive and process nerve impulses from the PNS. It is also responsible for thought processing and body movement.

hindbrain

consists of the cerebellum, pons, and medulla. Responsible for vital bodily functions (motor control, respiratory and digestive reflexes) as well as sexual arousal.

Forebrain

consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, the limbic system, and hypothalamus. Responsible for abstract thinking, logic, and emotions.

midbrain

consists of the tegmentum, tectum, and cerebral peduncles. Responsible for the production of dopamine, which regulates habituation and motivation. Also plays a role in vision and hearing.

Group size: Triad

consists of three people and is considered "more stable" than a dyad because the third group member can act as the mediator during conflict. Ex: adding a cultural liaison creates a triadic group which is "more stable" 3 members (eg: parents and single child).

Vestibular sense:

controlled by hair cells in the inner ear. Responsible for our sense of balance (how we perceive gravity) and movement.

cultural evolution

cultural change over time

Cultural lag

culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, and that social problems and conflicts are caused by this. material culture (technology) changes faster than symbolic (beliefs, values). Eg: we can clone humans, but we feel it's unethical to do so.

mortality rates

death rates

Stage 3-4 sleep

deep sleep characterized by low frequency, high amplitude delta waves this is the stage at which we sleep the deepest, and we transition into slow wave sleep (SWS). It is characterized by the presence of delta waves. Delta waves are low frequency (0.5-3 Hertz) but high in amplitude. During this stage of sleep there is no eye movement, and growth hormones are secreted.

Parkinson's disease

degeneration of substantia nigra cells in the brain leads to low levels of dopamine. (The substantia nigra cells produce dopamine that facilitates the communication of the substantia nigra with the corpus striatum). There is often a genetic predisposition present.

Neuroticism

degree of emotional instability or stability Ex: high emotional arousal in stressful situations, so being able to keep calm in an emergency is a sign of low neuroticism.

Urbanization

dense area of population where people migrate to = cities

Information-processing model

describes how our brains work as machines that pay attention to and perceive our surroundings. Once this information has been processed it is stored in our brains so that it can be drawn upon later. Adults over the age of 60 have delayed reaction times and slowed speech because their information-processing capabilities have become slower.

Behavioral genetics

describes the relationship between behavioral traits and inherited genes.

Chemoreceptor

detect chemicals

Photo-receptor/ Electromagnetic

detects light/electromagnetic waves (ie. rods and cones in the retina)

Nocireceptor

detects pain (specialized chemoreceptor)

Baroreceptor

detects pressure (ie. blood pressure within vessels)

Mechanoreceptor

detects touch and sound (mechanical stimuli such as vibrations, as well as pressure applied to skin)

developed by Carl Rogers, says that the human nature is inherently good, and that we have free will (our behavior is not determined or based on the past).

developed by Carl Rogers, says that the human nature is inherently good, and that we have free will (our behavior is not determined or based on the past).

Psychoanalytic perspective

developed by Sigmund Freud, says that our personalities are comprised of unconscious memories, emotions, and thoughts. It is thought that our dreams reveal elements of our unconsciousness.

Patterns in fertility and mortality:

developed nations have low fertility and low mortality. Underdeveloped nations have high fertility and high mortality.

Global inequalities

developed vs underdeveloped nations. These inequalities are reinforced by unfair trade practices in globalization.

Moral = Kohlberg =

development of moral thinking by cognitive reasoning, resolving moral dilemmas and the concept of right and wrong.

disorganized speech

difficulties organizing thoughts and focusing attention

risk adversion (risky behaviors )

disinclined or reluctant to take risks. A group of risk averse individuals can become more risk averse after interacting with each other which mean that risky behavior score would be lower. Ex: Group polarization-lower scores in the DMQ in a group than alone. In economics and finance, risk aversion is the behavior of humans, who, when exposed to uncertainty, attempt to lower that uncertainty

DIssociative disorders

disruptions in memory and identity

Front stage vs. back stage self (Dramaturgical approach)

dramaturgical approach = using theater performance as an analogy to impression management front stage: when you're being observed, you act to conform to society's expectations back stage: when you're by yourself, you can be yourself

Social significance of aging

elderly = needs social security and medicare = taken care of by young workforce. Baby boomers = large aging population.

Schachter-Singer Theory

emotion states that in emotion, we first experience physiological stimulation, then we cognitively interpret what is happening, which then leads us to the emotion we are experiencing. For example, if a stranger breaks into your house, your heart rate might increase. Then you might cognitively examine the details of the situation, and experience fear and decide you are scared. So, the physiological (heart pounding, sweating) happens at the same time as cognitive(I'm scared) and the emotion (fear) come last.

James-Lange theory

emotion states that the behavioral and physiological aspects of emotion are what lead to the cognitive aspect of the emotion. if a stranger breaks into your house, your heart rate might increase, and you may scream. These physiological and behavioral cues are what lead you to understand the situation as scary. So, physiological (heart pound, sweating happens first and then emotions (fear) happens next. Which is at seperate times.

Cannon-Bard theory

emotion states that the physiological and cognitive aspects of emotion occur independently and simultaneously. Once these have occurred, the behavioral aspect will be carried out. For Example: if a stranger breaks into your house, your heart rate might increase, and you may interpret the situation as scary. This would then lead you to scream. So, physiological(heartbeat, sweating) happens at the same time as emotions (fear)

The role of emotion in prejudice

emotional level prejudice = prejudice that leads to arousal of emotions. Eg: if you were robbed by someone of a certain race, you'll learn to associate those negative emotions with that race even if the next guy you meet didn't do anything.

Social epidemiology

epidemiology = public health = incidence, demographics, and control of disease social epidemiology = how society affects health. Eg: poor socioeconomic status is associated with poor healthcare. Ex: Social network analysis can be used sometimes in a study for communicable diseases

specific events

episodic memory

homogeneity

evenness; uniformity, sameness

Specific phobia

excessive, irritational fear of specific situation like flying or spiders

Social exclusion (segregation and isolation)

excluding/blocking off someone or a group of people from society's opportunities, rights and resources that other groups have access to.

social norms

expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior

Illness experience:

experiencing symptom -> assuming sick role -> seeking care -> establish doctor-patient relationship -> recovery

Cognitive dissonance theory

explains that we feel uncomfortable when we hold two conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. E.g., A person knows that smoking cigarettes is bad for your health, but they decide to smoke anyway. In this example the belief conflicts with the person's behavior.

Somatic symptom disorder

extreme concern regarding one or more physical symptoms (fatigue or pain)

Stigma

extreme dislike of a person or group based on a difference such as belief, HIV, etc.

Structure and function of the eye

eye structure Light first travels through the cornea Then through the pupil (hole in the iris muscle) Lens = focuses light on retina. Ciliary muscles: changes the shape of the lens to focus light Vitreous humor = fluid. Retina = screen on the back of the eye = contains photoreceptors.

Factitious disorder

fabricated illness

Cultural shock

feelings of disorientation, uncertainty, or even fear when they encounter unfamiliar culture practices. going to a different culture and be shocked at the differences Ex. Moving countries, move social environments, or travels to another type of life (urban to rural).

Microsociology

focuses on individual face-to-face, everyday social interactions

macrosociology

focuses on populations, social systems and structure

social network analysis

focuses on power relationships in a community by looking at who people turn to in times of need Can be used in some epidemiology studies when studying communicable diseases. It involves the mapping of social relationships among individuals

selective forgetting

forgetting only things that are very traumatic

Factor Model (Big 5 Personality Traits) -

found in all people of all populations. o Openness - independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical), o Conscientiousness - careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulse, organized or not o Extroversion - talkative or quiet, fun loving or sober o Agreeableness - kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfriendly o Neuroticism - stable vs. tense, calm vs anxious, secure vs. insecure

dizygotic twins

fraternal twins

long-term potentiation

gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation

synchronous

happening at the same time as

excitable cells

have the ability to generate changes in their membrane potentials.

Network Redundancy

having multiple backups to ensure reliability during cases of high usage or failure

Gestalt principles

he Gestalt (German word for "whole") principle states that the "whole" object surpasses the singular details that make up an image. Eg, when you look at a flower, you do not first notice the defining lines of the flower, then the pieces that make up the flower, and then the color of the flower, but instead, you see the whole flower as a single image.

Health Disparities (SOC) (e.g., class, gender, and race inequalities in health) Top 5 mortalities in the US:

heart disease, cancer, chronic lower respiratory (COPD), stroke, accidents

Altruism (Social support)

helping others at the cost of yourself = evolutionary helps you indirectly as you share genes with those you help Altruism = help others at the cost of yourself. Alternatives: spite (harms both), cooperation (benefits both), selfishness (help yourself at the cost of others). Inclusive fitness = explains altruism = when you help others who share genes with you, you indirectly help yourself

Sexual orientation:

heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual

Impression management = self presentation =

how we act in order to influence how others perceive us.

Medicalization

human conditions becoming disease entities that are then studied and treated under medicine

social cognitive theory (social learning theory)

idea that people learn through observation and modeling their actions Ex: smoking prevention by establishing norms against tobacco use

monozygotic twins

identical twins

Stereotype threat

if you have a negative stereotype against you, you'll be overly-defensive about it. This causes anxiety that may impede performance.

anterior cingulate cortex

immediate emotional reaction to pain

alter casting

imposing an identity in someone. ex: as a doctor, you should

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus Explanation: Mild changes in bodily sensations "fear response"

random sample

in this type of sample, every individual has a known and equal chance of being selected

ethnographic study(methods)

in-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation

autonomy (n)

independence; self-determination

Individual vs. institutional discrimination

individual discrimination = it's just you doing the discrimination institutional discrimination = the society doing the discrimination. Can be subtle, such as providing different access to opportunities, promoting positive/negative stereotypes in the media. Discrimination = action = you are prejudiced against a certain race and because of that, rejected them from med school.

The role of culture in the expression and detection of emotion

individualistic cultures (Western): individualistic emotions predominate, such as pride and anger collectivist cultures (Asia, Africa): emotions that promote interconnectedness predominates, such as friendliness and shame

Industrialization and urban growth:

industrialization = more manufacturing = more need for workforce concentrated in one area = more jobs = urban growth

Socioeconomic gradient in health:

inequalities in healthcare exists. The lower socioeconomic class has worse health than the upper class.

variable ratio

instead of rewarding exactly every nth time, its rewarded maybe the 1st, 4th, then 2nd time etc. (Inconsistent amount of responses)

variable interval

instead of waiting exactly 60 seconds, the time interval may be 90 seconds then 20 seconds (inconsistent time)

Social anxiety disorder/social ohia

intense fear of scrutiny or rejection in social situations eg social speaking asking someone on a date etc

globalization

interaction and integration of nations Factors contributing to globalization (e.g., communication technology, economic interdependence): globalization is made possible by technology, and driven by the need to trade. Perspectives on globalization: proponents: economic growth and development criticisms: colonialism, inequality, cultural assimilation Social changes in globalization (e.g., civil unrest, terrorism): cultural assimilation, colonialism, inequality can cause civil unrest and terrorism.

Attraction

interpersonal attraction = like/dislike. Causes include physical attractiveness, proximity, similarity, familiarity, complementarity (opposites attract), reciprocity physical attractiveness = how good someone looks sexual attractiveness = how much sexual desire they arouse

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

is a genetic disease in which the afflicted individual is unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine, leading to extreme mental retardation. The treatment: create an environment that completely avoid all foods containing phenylalanine.

Polysomnography (PSG)

is a test used to test measure physiological processes during sleep. The test includes a series of smaller tests, including: Electrooculogram (EOG)- measures movements of the eyes during sleep. Electroencephalogram (EEG) Electromyogram (EMG)- measures musculoskeletal movements.

source amnesia

is the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge. Ex:attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

Belief perseverance

is the tendency for us to hold on to our pre-existing beliefs, despite being presented with evidence that contradicts our beliefs. Another way that information can be skewed is by how it is "framed". This is how the information is presented (ie. in a negative or positive).

Belief bias

is the tendency to cast judgment on issues using what someone believes about their conclusion, regardless of the logic that was used to support the argument.

Ethnocentrism:

judging others based on our own culture and perspective. Eg: you may look at face paintings of tribes and find them weird, but if you step outside your ethnocentrism, you realize that the tribes probably look at you and think your lack of face painting is weird.

culturally competent

knowing and understanding the cultural standards from diverse communities

Labeling theory

labeling people affects their self image, and can lead to either more conformity or deviance. For example, labeling someone as a pothead can either cause them to stop smoking because they are ashamed of being a pothead. Or, they can embrace the label and say, yep, that's what I do. "LMAO the last sentence is hilarious I will never forget this"

symbolic

language, beliefs, etc

corpus callosum

large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them Severed corpus callosum causes verbalized sides language centers that shows two different words beginning with the right hemisphere then the left

observational learning

learning by watching others

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Such as hidden curriculum which can be combined with latent functions "unknowledgeable purpose"

Marriage and divorce:

marriage from a healthcare/legal standpoint makes your spouse your next-of-kin. If anything happens to you and you can no longer make decisions, your spouse have the legal authority to do so on your behalf.

Mass media and popular culture

mass media = media that targets the masses. Often exaggerated and modified for effect. Has a heavy influence on pop culture. popular culture = pop culture = mainstream culture

hair cells are

mechanoreceptors (mechanically) sound induced vibrations depolarize hair cells of the cochlea by ion channels Ex: Stimuli- pressure(baroceptors), gravity, mechanically stress, and sound waves Location-Ear, blood vessels, and skin

Multiculturalism

melting pot, like New york

dual-coding theory

memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall

autobiographical memory

memory of particular events from one's own life

Age cohorts

millennials, generation x, baby boomers, etc

Biological processes that affect observational learning

mirror neurons and role of the brain experiencing vicarious emotions

source monitoring error

misidentifying the source of a memory Further explain: A source-monitoring error is a type of memory error where the source of a memory is incorrectly attributed to some specific recollected experience. For example, individuals may learn about a current event from a friend, but later report having learned about it on the local news, thus reflecting an incorrect source attribution. This error occurs when normal perceptual and reflective processes are disrupted, either by limited encoding of source information or by disruption to the judgment processes used in source-monitoring

culture as driver of evolution:

modern technology means we're no longer subject to the same selection pressures as animals. Eg: we have less body hair, we have smaller jaws, smaller muscle mass than our ancesters. culture evolves over time

Taboo

most severe social norm. Eg. Incest.

drive reduction theory

motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states

status-seeking

motivation to obtain products that will let others know that you have "made it" "I finally made it"

social mobility

moving up/down in the socioeconomic ladder

primary reinforcer

natural rewards = food, drink, pleasure

Right brain functions include:

processing the left visual field, negative emotions, recognition of emotions, and spatial skills (e.g. facial recognition).

negative stereotype

negative description of an individual based on group membership

negative effect

negative emotions such as anger, guilt, and sadness

sensory pathways

nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS consisting of afferent neurons

autonomic nervous system

nerves that control involuntary body functions of muscles, glands, and internal organs etc, heartbeat, blood pressure Ex: panic attack

sensory receptors

neurons that respond to stimuli and trigger electrical signals

zero correlation

no relationship

cultural relativism

not judging a culture but trying to understand it on its own terms

negative punishment

occurs when something already present is removed (taken away) as a result of a behaviour and the behaviour that led to this removal will increase in the future because it created a favourable outcome "decrease a chance that a behavior will occur again (take away license for speeding) taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior. EX: time out, no tv. losing your driving license after a DUI,

global ischemia

occurs when there is inadequate blood supply to meet the needs of the brain tissue However, hippocampus is vulnerable during this stage because the high level of NMDA receptors is more abundant in hippocampus than cortical neurons. Therefore, excess release of glutamate occur

independent stressor

occurs without the person's influence (ex. death of a loved one) Ex: there would be no difference between a depressed and non depressed individual.

inversely related

one variable decreases as the other increases

directly related

one variable increases as the other increases

semantic memory

our knowledge of facts about the world. common knowledge, such as the names of colors, the sounds of letters, the capitals of countries and other basic facts acquired over a lifetime. For example, knowing that football is a sport

Psychosexual = Freud

our sexuality and libido (sex drive) influences our psychology, and manifests differently as we develop. Fixation (overindulgence or frustration) during a stage leads to problems later on Oral state (0-1): we like to feel orally, like sucking, biting, putting things in our mouth. Fixation at this stage leads to excessive dependency later on. Anal stage (1-3): we like to feel anally, like defecating. Fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or sloppiness. Phallic stage (3-5): males love mom and envy dad (Oedipal conflict). Females love dad and envy mom (Electra conflict). To resolve these conflicts, the child identifies with the same-sex parent and focuses energy on other things like school. Latency stage: upon resolution of the Oedipal/Electra conflict Genital stage: enters heterosexual relationship starting at puberty. Sexual traumas in early stages lead to homosexuality, asexuality or fetishism.

cerbral cortex

outer layer of the cerbrum of a mammal's brain; center of thinking and other complex behaviors

support-seeking

overcome stress by seeking support, seeking information Ex: coping strategy

Prenatal development

ovulation/conception -> zygote -> blastocyst -> embryo -> fetus -> born baby

Somatosensation (e.g., pain perception)

pain, pressure, temperature, proprioception/position, and whether a muscle group of the body is being contracted.

Parallel processing

parallel processing is what allows our brains to quickly process visual information such as color, depth, motion, and size, simultaneously, instead of one by one.

prefrontal cortex (working memory)

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language

Superego

part of the personality that acts as a moral center

divided attention

paying attention to more than one thing at a time

Social facilitation

people perform simple tasks better when in the presence of others. Eg. you can hike longer when with other people, or you study better when you have a study buddy. This rule does not apply for complex tasks since you might get nervous and mess up.

out group members

people who come from a different social group

Evolution and human culture culture as product of evolution:

people with culture have stronger attachments and communicate better, thus more fit.

Schema

perceptions, and understanding.

Trait

personality characteristics that are stable, long-lasting, and within oneself. Traits are generally present consistently, and do not depend on the situation.

State

personality characteristics that are unstable, short-term and subject to change according to the environment.

Educational segregation and stratification

poor areas have poor schools which have lower quality education

Environmental justice (location and exposure to health risks):

poor neighborhoods are cheap due to factors such as pollution, crime rate, lower access to quality healthcare, crowded conditions. Poor people can't afford expensive housing, so they reside here and are exposed to more health risks. Infectious disease rates are higher in people of lower socioeconomic status.

Neighborhood safety and violence

poor neighborhoods have high crime rates.

Residential segregation:

poor neightborhoods (bad schools, high crime rate, poor healthcare, cheap housing) vs rich neighborhoods (good schools, low crime rate, good healthcare, expensive housing). Relocation is difficult both ways (poor people can't afford to relocate, rich people don't want to relocate), so segregation occurs.

social status

position in the community

Positive effect

positive emotions such as joy, happiness, and interest

cultural competency

possessing knowledge, awareness, and respect for other cultures

spatial intelligence

potential to recognize and use patterns

Human Stress Response

predictability, perceived control, perceptions of improvement , and outlets for frustration.

social stressors

pressures in our social, cultural, and economic environments

Delivery of health care

primary care doctor (firstline) -> specialist referal medical staff: doctors (diagnose, treat/prescribe), nurses (administer, bedside monitor), EMS (stabilizing the patient long enough to reach the hospital)

Social norms (PSY, SOC) Sanctions (SOC):

punishment for not conforming to social norms. Eg. Shame and ridicule of the individual.

role exit

quitting a role

Race and ethnicity

race = your outward appearance. Ethnicity = the culture you identify with.

interoceptive awareness

recognition of internal cues, including hunger and various emotional states sensitivity to stimuli arising from within the body, such as heart rate, blood pressure Ex: autonomic nervous system

episodic memory

recollection of events in our lives (from past personal events) EX: Birthdays, my first day at work, etc.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

records electrical brain wave activity measures the electrical impulses of the brain, these high frequencies and low amplitudes are known as alpha waves (collectively referred to as neural synchrony).

Influence of groups (e.g., reference group):

reference group = who we compare ourselves to. If your reference group is a bunch of over-achievers with 40+ MCAT scores, you'll never be happy with yourself. However, if your reference group is the average med school applicant, you'll be happy with a 30+ MCAT score.

role engulfment

refers to how a person's identity becomes based on a role the person assumes, superseding other roles Labeling theory

subjective interpretation

refers to things that are more clear-cut.

Stem cell-based therapy

regenerate neurons in the central nervous system (BIO)- brain cells (neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes) can be regenerated from neural stem cells. Regeneration of neural cells within the central nervous system can repair damage caused by degenerative diseases (e.g. Parkinson's Disease, Lou Gehrig's Disease).

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time

Thalamus

relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex including consciousness, sleep, and sensory interpretation.

reproductive memory

remembering something exactly (not generally how we process things)

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

panic disorder

repeated, unpredictable panic attacks Pounding heart, chest pain, shortness of breath, sweating, and feeling dizzy.

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

survey method

research technique in which information is gathered from people

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Hans Selye, is a theory used to explain how we respond to stress

responses to stress. When an individual enters the stage of exhaustion for prolonged period of time three stages of stress: the alarm, resistance and exhaustion stages Occurs..

Brain areas that control language and speech Broca's area:

responsible for forming speech. Located in the left frontal lobe. If this area is damaged, the person can't speak properly but can understand you just fine.

Wernicke's area:

responsible for language comprehension. Located in the left temporal lobe, in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus. If this area is damaged, the person can speak fluently, but the words are gibberish.

informal sanctions

rewards or punishments that can be applied by most members of a group

Power, prestige, and class:

rich vs poor, have vs have-nots. Eg: you come across a poor person, prejudice kicks in, and you classify that person as being a hobo. You come across a rich person, prejudice kicks in, and you classify that person as a snob. -power (ability to obtain goals), prestige (respect), and class (socioeconomic status) divides people into haves and have-nots. This leads to prejudice and discrimination. Power = control over other people Privilege = perks Prestige = reputation, how much respect people have of you

Rates of psychological disorders

roughly 25% of Americans have been diagnosed with a some form of mental illness at one point in their life. About 450 million people have suffered worldwide.

Biological perspective

says that at least part of our personality is predetermined by our genetic make-up.

The Social interactionist theory

says that language is acquired and perfected by interaction (particularly interaction between a developing child and a linguistically experienced elder).

Behaviorist perspective

says that our personalities are produced by patterns of behavior that we learn according to our environment. (e.g. If we grow with parents that behave supportively, we are more likely to be supportive parents ourselves).

Trait perspective

says that our personality is determined by the presence and absence of differing levels of traits (characteristics).

Social cognitive perspective

says that our personality is formed through various environmental and cognitive experiences, and through observational learning, we are likely to mimic positive behaviors that we observe in others. EX: If you see someone going to the gym everyday, and the result is a fit, muscular body, you may copy this behavior in hopes of attaining the same result).

Attachment = parent-child relationship = develops during first 2 years of life

secure attachment = normal = caring parent, child upset if parent leaves, comforted when parent returns, child prefers parent to stranger, good social skills later on avoidant attachment = uncaring parent = child treats parent like any stranger ambivalent attachment = inconsistent parent = child upset if parent leaves, but may not be fully comforted when parent returns disorganized attachment = child abuse = disorganized response to presence and absence of parent, such as avoidance, resistance, confusion, repetitive behaviors such as rocking

narcissistic personality disorder

seeing oneself as the center of the universe, self importance

quantitative methods

seek to obtain information about the social world that is in, or can be converted to, numeric form rely on tests, rating scales, questionnaires, and physiological measures and yield numerical results

self concept

self construction, self identity, self perspective, self structure = who am I = gender, race, status, etc

vestibular sense

sense of balance

social processes

series of steps leading to change on a societal level

Gender Sex versus gender:

sex = biological male/female. Gender = behavioral/psychological male/female.

Secondary group

short-term relationship/interaction, such as classmates, colleagues. For ex: Formal organization: For secondary groups that serve a specific need/goal. Eg: governments, corporations, universities, hospitals.mal organization:

Social class and socioeconomic status:

social class = your background, status = your current situation. Eg: a homeless person who just won the lottery comes from a low social class, but is now of high socioeconomic status. A millionaire who just went bankrupt comes from a high social class, but is now of a low socioeconomic status.

Psychosocial = Erikson

social interactions shapes psychology. Conflicts caused by social demands causes problems later on. Trust/mistrust (0-1): can I trust others? Conflict leads to later paranoia Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3): can I be myself? Conflict leads to external locus of control. Initiative vs guilt (3-6): can I act? Conflict leads to either being too afraid to act or overcompensating by showing off Industry vs inferiority (6-12): can I be competent? Conflict leads to low self esteem and self efficacy Identity vs role confusion (12-20): who am I? Conflict leads to lack of personality/identity. Intimacy vs isolation (20-40): can I love? Conflict leads to isolation and inability to form true relationships. Generativity vs stagnation (40-65): can I make a difference? Conflict leads to boredom or self-centeredness. Integrity vs despair (65+): did I live a good life? Conflict leads to bitterness and fear of death.

formal sanctions

social norms enforced through the laws of the criminal justice system Ex: performance approach outcomes

Government and economy

social order power and authority

social networks

social relationships among people with common interests such as -Peer network -Family network -Community network Explanation: teenager shifts from listening to music parents like to listening to music chosen by themselves or peers

optimal arousal theory

some motivated behaviors "increase" arousal This theory states that optimal performance requires optimal arousal and that arousal levels that are too high or too low will impede performance. Ex: is compatible with this theory because it suggests that poor performance is a consequence of increase arousal level resulting from negative stereotype activation

Lateralization of cortical functions

some of our bodies' functions occur predominantly by one side of the brain.

spacing effect

spread out learning over time Ex: learning is greater when studying is spread out over time, as opposed to studying the same amount of content in a single session. (Really work for the MCAT)

socialization agents

the individuals, groups, or institutions that teach us how to participate effectively in society Such as the media relaying behaviors, values, or beliefs.

Demographic transition

stage 1: preindustry society = both birth rate and death rates are high stage 2: better conditions = death rate decreases stage 3: better population control = birth rate decreases stage 4: industrialized society = both birth and death rates are low

One sleep cycle:

stages are passed through in sequence (Stage 1, 2, 3, then 4), then rise back through the stages (Stage 4, 3, 2, then 1), before entering REM sleep. One cycle takes the average person 90 minutes to complete.

The trait vs. state controversy (also known as the "person-situation controversy)

states that the severity of someone's reaction in any given situation is dictated by their traits (personality) or by the situation itself (state).

Saphir-Whorf Hypothesis

states that the structure of a language determines or greatly influences the modes of thought and behavior characteristic of the culture in which it is spoken. Language and thoughts

secondary reinforcer

stimulus such as money that becomes reinforcing through its link with a primary reinforcer unnatural rewards = money, grades

dependent stressor

stressful event he or she influences Reassurance is need because the individual can go into isolation. "Depression is reciprocally related to dependent stressor"

case study

study of one individual in great detail

Formal control

stuff you can be prosecuted for. Such as vandalism.

Your behavior is attributed to / caused by attributional processes:

such as persons (yourself, other people) or situations/environment. Internal attribution = your disposition. External attribution = your situation.

synopsis

summary

peripheral route processing

superficial details like how likable the speaker is, catchphrases, slogans

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

technique for revealing "blood flow" and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans Increase neural activation of specific regions

ingratiation

telling your interviewer that his research is fascinating, even when you couldn't care less

biographical sketch

tells the story of a person's character, life, and achievements in a short and specific way

fundamental attribution error

tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional influences on other people's behavior

state dependency effect

tendency to recall info when your in the same state as you were when you learned info

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well Ex: the beginning; you remember it because that is where you started. Like "serial condition," the objects are presented to the participants one at a time..which results in better memory for events at the beginning of the series .

role strain

tension among the roles connected to a single status. Conflict with a role. Role strain = conflict between requirements within the same role (Eg: patient care vs patient autonomy. Jehova's witness refusing blood transfusion, which may save their life. Parents refusing vaccination of their kids.)

standardized test

tests for which norms are based on the performance of a range of individuals

object permanence

the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

Feature detection

the Feature Detection Theory describes why a particular part of our brain is triggered when we look at something (ie. looking at animals trigger one part of the brain, and looking at words trigger a different part.)

eidetic memory

the ability to perfectly recall images, sounds, or objects without the use of memory aids, such as mnemonics; also called photographic memory

spatial memory

the ability to recall where objects are in relationship to each other in space "hippocampus"

crystallized intelligence

the ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience

verbal intelligence

the ability to use and produce words

negative symptom

the absence of appropriate behavior/emotion Ex: emotional flattening

explicit memory

the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences

impression management

the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen Ex: "manifest" their sense of self in social interaction

non material culture

the beliefs, practices, aesthetics, and values , of a group of people Ex: abstract ideas and ways of thinking that make up a culture.

stage 2 sleep

the body goes into deep relaxation; characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles There is a decrease in heart rate, respiration, and body temperature. During stage 2 the EEG measures moderate brainwave activity. This stage of the sleep cycle is defined by the introduction of k-complexes and sleep spindles that blend in among the theta waves.

Alarm

the body releases adrenal hormones, sympathetic nervous system is activated (fight and flight-Sympathetic)

Accommodation

the cognitive process of revising existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding so that new information can be incorporated.

generalized other

the common behavioral expectations of general society Ex: Media function

Long-term potentiation

the consistent process of strengthening neural synapses according to various activation patterns. As a synapse strengthens, the signal transmission time becomes quicker. For example: a mouse is placed in a maze, and in one of the corners is a piece of cheese. Assuming the mouse is successful, and finds the cheese, the mouse will more easily find the cheese (if put in the same place), next time he is placed in the maze.

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information (retro=backward) occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier learning - where new memories disrupt old memories.

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information (pro=forward) occurs when you cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been learnt. When what we already know interferes with what we are currently learning - where old memories disrupt new memories. Ex: when you memorize a list of information (words, names, ideas, formulas, and just about anything else that can be made into a list), and when remembering a later part of the list, an earlier memorized part of the list gets in the way.

social stratification

the division of society into groups arranged in a social hierarchy it is perfectly clear that some groups have greater status, power, and wealth than other groups. These differences are what led to social stratification.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles Voluntary

stereotype activation

the extent to which a stereotype is accessible in one's mind

bystander intervention effect

the failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need when other people are present Ex: someone get's attacked, and all the bystanders do nothing. The more bystanders there are, the less likely someone helps out.

Barriers to effective problem solving: fixation

the failure to see an issue from a new perspective. Sometimes fixation occurs because of a mental set.

Agents of socialization

the family, mass media, peers, workplace): you learn the norms of society by interacting with these agents.

strange anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age Ex: own race face vs other race face

Alzheimer's disease

the formation of plaques around brain cells cause them to die. This is accompanied by the formation of tangles, long strands of proteins that prevent brain cells from receiving proper nutrients. There is often a genetic predisposition present.

control group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events subject endures repeatedly painful or otherwise aversive stimuli which it is unable to escape or avoid. Emotions

place theory

the idea that different sound frequencies stimulate different locations on the basilar membrane

activation-synthesis theory

the idea that dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity

symbolic culture

the ideas associated with a cultural group

Deindividuation

this is basically mob mentality. When you're in a mob, you're not longer an individual thinker, and you'll end up doing bad stuff that you won't if you were alone. Eg. You usually don't steal, but one day you're in the middle of a mob looting a store, you are more likely to loot also. "Yeah you probably right lol"

Component of emotion: Cognitve

this is how you choose to interpret your emotion. For example, if your father is having heart surgery, you may understand this to be a dangerous situation, and dangerous situations make you nervous.

Component of emotion: Behavior

this is how you express your emotion. So, if you are nervous, perhaps you will bounce your legs, tap your pencil, pace back and forth, etc. Behavioral: People behave differently when presented with stressful situations. Some choose to deal with the stressor head-on, while others decide on avoidance of the stressor. In an effort to avoid or numb stressful emotions and situations people may choose to consume drugs or alcohol.

Cognitive of emotion: Physiological

this is how your body physically reacts to any given emotion. For example, if you are nervous, you may feel your heart beat faster, have sweaty palms, etc.

REM (rapid eye movement)-

this is the last stage of sleep, characterized by swift eye movements and the presence of dreams. The brainwaves measured by the EEG are low intensity and erratic frequency, and look like the waves that are observed in someone who is awake. REM sleep is also characterized by a lack of muscle movement. This type of motionless sleep is called paradoxical sleep.

Nativist

this perspective reinforces the idea that language is an innate feature of our being. Supporting ideas include: Every human society known to man has had its own language. Every human (without injury/disease) is able to speak its primary fluently by the age of 5. Despite being able to speak a language fluently, we cannot describe the reasons for using particular sentence structures, principles of grammar, etc.

Insomnia

this refers to the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep for lasting periods of time. It can be caused by chronic stress, and is often treated by sleeping pills. Irregular Sleep-Wake syndrome is an extreme form of insomnia, with only 1-4 hours of sleep in a period of 24 hours. Someone with this syndrome does not feel sleep deprived, and is able to function normally.

appraisal (Nature of stress)

this term refers to the way someone interprets any given event. This interpretation will determine how someone decides to feel, and later act.

Sensitive period

time when a particular "development" occurs most easily

moral behavior

to behave in ways that are acceptable to society and family

Recall cues are used

to direct participants' attention to the issue in which the researcher is interested

stigmatize

to mark with a disgrace

Classifying psychological disorders

to officially diagnose someone with a psychological disorder, clinicians reference the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5, fifth edition). Categories include: Substance related disorders, sleep disorders, eating disorders, mood disorders, psychotic disorders, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, somatoform disorders, dissociative disorders, neurocognitive disorders.

Transmission and diffusion

transmission = vertical = passing culture down from generation to generation diffusion = horizontal = spreading culture to other places. Eg: westernization of the world.

Social reproduction

transmission of social inequalities from one generation to the next. Eg: poor families give birth to kids in poor neighborhoods, with less access to education and opportunities, and they grow up to be poor also.

Optic nerve

transmits signal from the photoreceptors to the brain function: take in light, focus it, form an image on the retina, which is trasmitted to the brain via the optic nerve

Health and medicine:

treats the sick

Role of the brain in experiencing vicarious emotions:

vicarious emotion = feeling what other feel. Empathy = feeling an emotion that you share. Vicarious = feeling an emotion even if you don't share it. Eg: seeing someone skateboard, you're like wow that must be so fun, even though you never skateboarded before.

Racial formation:

we construct/form races to justify treating people differently. Eg: slavery, genocide, who to be friends with, etc.

Social control (SOC):

ways to prevent anarchy

The social construction of gender:

we can't tell directly if someone is XX or XY. Therefore, use have an agreed-upon set of characteristics that define male and female. Eg: wearing a skirt is a female characteristic constructed by society.

The social construction of race:

we classify people into races based on outward appearance.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequence

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

uncontrollable worry, muscle tension, sleeping concentrating, restless

informal control

unenforced social norms. Eg. You don't tell jokes at a funeral.

conversion disorder

unexplained symptoms affecting motor or sensory function

Signal detection theory

used to predict when and how a signal will be recognized amidst other sensory information. There are four possible outcomes: Hit - signal present and detected Miss - signal present, but not detected False Positive - signal absent, but detected (eg. hallucinations) Accurate Rejection - signal absent and not detected

experimental study

uses a deliberate treatment to observe the response and measure its effect

Counterbalancing

usually thought of as a method for controlling order effects in a repeated measures design (see the notes on variance and experimental design). In a counterbalanced design to control for order effects, we use separate groups of subjects, each group receiving treatments in a different order.

choroid

vascular layer beneath the sclera that provides nourishment to the outer portion of the retina "Skinlike"

Verbal and nonverbal communication:

verbal = things you say. Nonverbal = body language

Role conflict occurs when:

we have multiple roles that are in conflict with each other. occurs when there are incompatible demands placed upon a person such that compliance with both would be difficult. Persons experience role conflict when they find themselves pulled in various directions as they try to respond to the many statuses they hold (Eg: being a doctor and a soldier at the same time).

social cognitive theory

we learn how to behave by observing others in society instead of "trial and error" Trial and error is when repeated test are done to come up with a successful conclusion

Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation:

we observe things around us, imitate it, and identify with it. Thus, culture and socialization shapes who you are.

Fundamental attribution error:

we tend to attribute someone else's behavior to their personality/disposition rather than their situation. Eg: we tend to jump to the assumption that fat people are lazy and over-eat, rather than more situational attributions such as a health problem.

Actor/observer difference:

we tend to make excuses for ourselves and blame others. Eg: if we or our friends make bad grades, we say the material is hard and the professor sucks. If it's someone else making bad grades, we blame it on laziness.

managing appearances

wearing a white coat looking compassionate

culture

western cultures = individualist = attributes behavior to internal/dispositional factors (personality). Eastern and African cultures = collectivist = attributes behavior to external/situational factors (like society, your tribe, your team mates).

Social movements Relative deprivation:

what is considered poor in the US is different than what is considered poor in Africa. We compare our haves and have-nots to those around us.

Hidden cirriculum

what schools teach kids by accident. Eg: a rich-kids only school teaches kids the expectations and priviledges of being upper class.

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others:

when put ourselves in other people's shoes and assume they feel the same way we feel. Bem's original experiment: test subjects see a video of a man raving about doing a boring task. If Bem told the subjects the man was bribed $20 to do this, the subjects came to the conclusion that the man hated the task in reality. On the other hand, if Bem told them the man was only paid $1, the subjects assumed the man actually enjoyed the task. Note, all these are assumptions based on self-perception, as the subject never met the man in the video.

Groupthink

when you're in a group, you tend to go with the flow and shut away your individual reasoning. This leads to poor decision making as a group.

group polarization

when you're in a group, you tend to make more extreme decisions, do more extreme things. For example, a group of liberals discussing over issues - the conversation will get more and more liberal.

Sclera

white of the eye

Locus of control

who controls your fate Internal locus: I control my own fate External locus: A man control my fate

cultural values

widely held beliefs that affirm what is desirable

Suburbanization and urban decline:

with better transportation and the ability to work at home, many people prefer to live in the suburbs (city outskirts), where there is less crime, noise and pollution. This depopulation leads many areas of the city abandoned, contributing to urban decline.

Gender

women live longer, but suffer more non-life-threatening illnesses (arthritis, fibromyalgia, depression). Men die younger, from accidents and serious illnesses (heart disease, cancer, COPD, diabetes). Men are also less likely to seek help and are less compliant. women are more likely to seek help and see the doctor on a regular basis. LGBT are less likely to seek care due to fear of discrimination.

performance approach

working for ends not means; goal is to attain better performance than others Ex: receive rewards not recognition

valid test

written test that accurately measures what it is intended to measure

Influence of social factors on identity formation:

you are influenced by those around you

In-group vs. out-group:

you identify with/belong to your in-group. Groups that you don't identify with/belong to is called an out-group

self efficacy

your confidence in succeeding I have confidence that Im going to pass the MCAT