Short Answer for Geography
6. Discuss the types of plate boundaries (divergent, convergent, transform) to include all three types of convergent plate boundaries. Be sure to indicate/discuss the types of crustal material, and other features formed or associated with the interaction of the two plates. Then, how does this compare to the three (3) types of earthquake faults?
1) Divergent: where plates are moving apart from each other. It happens under tensional stress. It is created by up welling of magma (ridge push) and slab pull. These are areas of abundant earthquake activity and relatively mild volcanic activity * sea floor spreading along mid oceanic ridges 2)Convergent: where plates are moving together. It happens under compressional stresses. It creates subduction zones, where one plate slides under the other plate,& are areas of high earthquake activities** 3 types of convergent plate boundary: a) Continental - Oceanic: oceanic crust (O is denser) is subducted (forced) under the continental crust (which is less dense) & re-melted in the Asthenosphere. This creates underwater trench along plate boundary. Continental crust is compressed, forming folded mountains and volcanic mountains where magma reaches the surface thru cracks and weak points. High earthquake and volcanic activity. b) Oceanic-Oceanic: subduction of one plate and remelting of it, deep trenches created at boundaries, high level of volcanic & earthquake activity. Formation of volcanic island archipelagos (chains) c) Continental-Continental: * areas of great compression and mountain building * high earthquake activity, but little or no volcanism * little or no subduction of continental crustal material Ex: Appalachians formed some 250-300 MYBP when North American and Eurasian plates converged, and the Himalayas, formed by Indian plate currently converging with Eurasian plate Transform or Lateral: where plates are sliding past one another * areas of shear stresses * transform faults created * high earthquake activity & some crustal deformation (creation of hills or small mts.) * no subduction or volcanism EX: San Andreas Fault Zone in southern California *** How do the plates move? * 1928 Theory of Thermal Convection was developed, which suggested that the continents were driven by huge convective cells within the asthenosphere, BUT this is not the only current theory for the driving mechanism. ** another view is that gravity pulls down on the leading, or subducting edge, which drags the rest of the plate with it ** a third view is a combination of the two ideas types of earthquake faults Types of Faults: Tensional, Compressional, and Shear Tensional or Normal Fault: * Normal fault: a steeply inclined fault in which the hanging wall has moved downward in relation to the footwall * hanging wall: the surface or block of rock that lies above an inclined fault plane * footwall: the block or surface of rock beneath a dipping fault plane * DOES NOT CREATE OVERHANGING FAULT SCARP Compressional or Reverse Fault: compression of crustal rock into smaller horizontal space; shortening of crust * Reverse fault: where the hanging wall has moved upward in relation to the footwall and thus overrides it along a steep fault plane; *creates overhanging fault scarp: know what it looks like!!!!!! * thrust fault: compressional (reverse) fault with a very low angle of the fault plane (45º or less) Echelon faults: a series of nearly parallel normal faults; often form a landscape known as horst & graben topography horst: elongate fault block that has been uplifted in relation to blocks on either side graben: elongate fault block that's been lowered in relation to blocks on side Shear or Strike-slip Faults: blocks of crustal rock that move laterally (horizontally) along the fault plane it just goes side by side, and thus no fault scarp. Fault scarp only occurs during vertically movement * Strike-slip fault: a fault in which movement has occurred parallel to the strike of the fault * these faults may be described as right-lateral or left-lateral * transform fault: special strike-slip fault which marks the boundary of 2 lithospheric plates sliding past each other ** another feature of earthquakes: *tsunami: seismic sea wave set by earthquake whose epicenter is on sea floor * creates crested waves (in shallow water) tens to hundreds of feet high, sometimes thousands of miles from the epicenter * may travel at speeds up to 630 mph EX: 1960 Chile quake caused tsunamis & floods in Hawaii & Japan; Alaska quakes of 1946 & 1964 caused tsunamis in Hilo, Hawaii with 100 ft. waves. The Indonesian quake of 2004 and quake off Japan in 2011 are more recent examples.
12. There are 5 factors involved in soil formation. Name each of these and explain its' role in soil formation.
1) PARENT MATERIAL: type of rock and minerals the soil was formed from; residual soil is made form underlying rock; transported soil is made from material not found in underlying rock and is transported by rivers, glaciers, winds, etc. 2) CLIMATE: if the temps and precipitation differ, it will yield different soil, even from the sam apparent material 3) BIOLOGICAL AGENTS: decomposers, microorganisms, bacteria, fungus, etc. 4) TOPOGRAPHY: flat vs steep slopes, windward vs leeward slopes, sun exposure 5) TIME: for a given place, more time means more complete development and increased thickness of soil
1. Select five (5) of the controls on temperature and climate at the Earth's surface and describe how each may control temperature, precipitation, climate and overall weather patterns.
1) Receipt of Solar Radiation is the amount of solar radiation a location receives, based on latitude position; the primary control of temperatures at the Earths surface 2) Differential Heating of Land and Water Surfaces: land cools and warms more quickly than water, and to lower & higher T° because the specific heat of water is 3X greater than land * water is more transparent (SW can pass thru it), while land is more opaque (thus SW does not pass thru it) * specific heat of water is 3X greater than land; specific heat is the heat needed to raise 1 gm of a substance 1° C * evaporation from water is greater than land, so energy is used to evaporate the water and not just raise the T * water turbulence and convection; no soil turbulence (mixing) or convection occurs while water moves horizontally SO, it takes more energy (sunlight) to heat up water than it does the same amount of land * water has a moderating effect on T°: * average monthly T°s of a location near a large water body will not vary as much between summer and winter compared to a location far away from an ocean * inland locations show greater T° variation between winter and summer; This is the idea of continentality. 3) Geographic Setting & Position: * Proximity to water has a moderating effect as mentioned earlier.The idea of continentality. * a locations relationship to wind patterns, windward vs. leeward side of a continent * is the wind coming off a water surface or a land surface3 * for North America windward is the West Coast (wind comes off a water surface) and leeward is the East Coast (wind comes off a land surface) * barriers to wind or moisture, i.e. mountains 4) Ocean Currents: * will influence air temperatures of both the ocean area and adjoining land area where the current is located * warm currents: will help keep the T higher than it would be without the current EX: Gulf stream and British Isles * cold currents: will help keep the T lower than it would be without the current EX: California current and US west coast * will also influence precipitation patterns 5) Elevation: * as you go higher in elevation /altitude, T decreases, BUT the amount of solar radiation actually increases * higher elevation often yields greater daily T range 6) Cloud Cover & Albedo: ** clouds trap-in terrestrial radiation keeping the surface warmer, BUT also reflect solar radiation coming in * cloudy day vs clear day; cloudy night vs clear night (Know the differences in temps due to these situations.) · a cloudy day is usually cooler than a clear day a cloudy night is usually warmer than a clear night
13. Discuss the possible effects on the local/native organisms if a foreign or exotic species is introduced into their area. Use examples discussed in class.
Often foreign species that are introduced are generalists species meaning they tend to outcompete the native species. This may cause a reduction in the native species numbers and /or extinction of the native species IF the exotic species becomes an invasive species *exotic species often do not have natural predators outside their natural habitat, therefore nothing is controlling their population from flourishing as long as basic needs are met. which can also result in a decline of the local species kudzu in southern US was introduced with the purpose of cattle feel, soil erosion protection, but it grew uncontrollably over powering and killing local organisms such as trees and other foliage. The mongoose in Hawaii, Argentine fire ant into US, rabbits into Australia had similar effects.
11. Compare/contrast primary and secondary succession, as discussed in class.
Primary Succession and Secondary Succession are differentiated by the 'starting' condition of the site 1) Primary is development of communities in a bare area that has never been occupied by a community of organisms, OR an area that has been recently denuded of an existing community & the associated soil and is thus starting in a condition of bare rock EX: a recently glaciated area that has been stripped bare of soil down to the bedrock or an area of new volcanic flow 2) Secondary isl development of communities in an area in which vegetation has been removed or destroyed but the soil is not destroyed; some plants and seeds may still exist in the soil EX: an old farm field that has been left fallow & on which new and different vegetation begins to take hold
3. Describe the development of a thunderstorm, to include the stages, and the associated events of how lightning and thunder are formed and a tornado. Describe both ways in which a tornado may form, as discussed in class.
Requirements for Formation: * Warm, moist air: which releases Latent Energy when lifted and condensation occurs; this provides buoyancy, maintains lift develops updrafts * need continuous supply to overcome dry air & evaporation* High surface temperatures: enhances instability, air parcel warming and uplift Stages of Formation: * Cumulus stage: initial build-up of cumulus clouds fueled by updrafts of warm, moist air cooling adiabatically; droplet formation by Bergeron process & Collision-Coalescence * Mature stage: raindrops start to fall initiating downdrafts; process of entrainment, the influx of cool, dry surrounding air helping to fuel the downdrafts; heavy rains, lightning, & thunder are most intense during this stage. It is also during this stage that hail or a tornado may occur. * Dissipating stage: downdrafts dominate; light rain; cooling with loss of warm air source & energy; storm breaks up & clouds evaporate What causes lightning? * positive charges near the top, & negative charges at the base * lightning is the clouds way of trying to equalize this charge imbalance The Lightning Stroke: * first, an invisible step leader of electrons is formed from the cloud baseto the ground, which usually consists of several pathways * then this path is illuminated as the electrons move back cloud-ward in return stroke Thunder: this heated air quickly and explosively expands, and you hear the pressure or shock waves as thunder
4. List the requirements for the formation of a hurricane, describe the sections of a hurricane, the stages of the Life Cycle and describe the potential damage caused by a hurricane.
Requirements for a hurricane: warm moist air( yield greater instability and lift),ocean water temperature > 27C (81F); Uplift initiated by an easterly wave (trade winds at the ITCZ), must form between 5 & 20 degrees latitude for sufficient Coriolis Force to initiate rotation Once created the parts are 1) Eye: center of low pressure, calm wind 2) Eye Wall: area of strongest pressure gradient and thus most intense winds greatest vertical cloud development & concentration of T-storms, and heavy rain; may also produce tornadoes 3) Spiral rain bands: primarily stratus and nimbostratus clouds, with light to moderate rain- in here you often find T-storms imbedded with these bands AND it's largest part of the storm in terms of areal coverage Stages of the Life Cycle: 1) Tropical disturbance: the initial mass of thunderstorms with weak, if any,cyclonic circulation. Usually originates in conjunction with an easterly wave which is a large undulation or ripple in the normal trade wind pattern 2) Tropical depression: stronger cyclonic circulation, greater development. Sustained winds near the center of the system between 25-37 mph(40-60 kph) (know winds speeds). At this stage it is given a number. 3) Tropical storm: well developed cyclonic circulation, with the beginnings of an eye wall, & rain bands, but usually no distinct eye as yet. It sustained winds in the eye wall between 38-74 mph. At this stage the system is given a name 4) Hurricane: fully developed system with strong cyclonic circulation,a distinct center or "eye", eye wall & spiral rain bands Potential Damage: 1) Winds: From the strong, fast winds of the eye wall and also tornadoes within the system; even tropical storm strength winds can do damage. Damages foliage, damages houses ect. 2) Storm surge: abnormal rise of sea level and high waves along the coast as a result of the strong winds and low pressure associated with the system. It is the most severe on the right side of the storm as it makes landfall, because the winds here are blowing onshore & thus pushing even more water against the coastline 3. Flooding: due to heavy rains and the storm surge . Ruins crops on land, destroys houses, kills animals All of these( storm surge, flooding, and wind damage) are usually more severe on the right side, especially the upper right quadrant, of the system
15. In class we discussed 5 physical (abiotic) and 4 biotic factors which may control the distribution of plant and animal species. Select two (2) of each of these and explain how it may control a species' distribution. Use examples discussed in class
TEMPERATURE (abiotic factor): certain species, plants and animals, will only thrive in warm climates, or only in cold climates, some in both; megatherm organisms adapt to higher temperatures and microtherm organisms adapt to withstand low temperatures WATER (abiotic factor): no water means no photosynthesis and no photosynthesis means no plants or animals; xerophytes adapt to low moisture conditions and hygrophytes adapt to high moisture conditions PARASITISM: (biotic factor) situation in which an organism of one species (the predator) preys on another organism (the host) by living on or in the host; EX: tapeworms, ticks, fleas, mosquitoes, mistletoe, some fungi INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION (biotic factor): members of two or more species trying to use the same limited resources in an ecosystem; examples of resources include nutrients (food), water, sunlight, space, mates, "building supplies" etc.
2. Explain the significance of Greenhouse Gases (carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) and ozone to temperature conditions on the Earth's surface and its relation to Global Warming.
The Ozone layer protects the earth from harmful uv rays and solar radiation. When greenhouse gasses such as CO2 increase in the atmosphere, the temperatures rise increasing the earth's surface temperature. Greenhouse gases are absorbers of Longwave radiation, which causes the atmosphere to heat. As the ozone hole grows the short wave and long wave radiation reaching the earth's surface increases. This increase in temperature has resulted in polar ice caps to melt causing seal levels to rise. So the melting caps from the rise of greenhouse gases has caused precipitation to increase in North America, South America, Northern Europe, and Northern Asia, but it has decreased in Southern Asia and Africa. The greenhouse gas effect is natural and healthy for the environment, however because are now such a high number of greenhouse gases, it is beginning to have an adverse effect and cause Global warming. "Global Warming is basically an enhanced Greenhouse Effect or what could be called, the Greenhouse Effect on 'overload'."