SLHS 513 Exam #1

T or F: Individual differences in brain organization • 80-98% of people are left-hemisphere dominant for language • Variation in the degree of dominance • Left-handed people and women= More likely to show bilateral

T

T or F: Modularity • How the human mind is organized within the structures of the brain

T

[Cognitive foundations ] *To learn language, infants must have: -___________ understanding - __________ abilities - __________ capacity

conceptual; processing; memory

What are the four types of cerebral lobes? Hint: F O T P

• Frontal lobe (1) • Occipital lobe (1) • Temporal lobes (2) • Parietal lobes (2)

What are the three critical features of language include?

• Symbols that stand for things • Productive rules for combining symbols • Intentionality (wants; desires; needs)

Infant speech perception *At _____ weeks, babies can distinguish some speech sounds • /u/ vs /I/, /I/ vs /a/ • /p/ vs /b/, /d/ vs /g/ • Contrasts used in Hindi but not English = can contrast Hindi speech sounds and English • Infants who are not yet learning words devote more attention to the phonetic details of speech whereas older children concentrate their efforts on word learning at the expense of fine phonetic details -Younger than __ months : trying to learn what language is important and pays attention to phonetic details - Older than 8 months : pays attention to learning word _____

4; 8; forms

Social cognitive skills: Joint attention • The simultaneous engagement of 2+ individuals in mental focus on a single external object of focus -Examples of Mature way of getting what baby wants: Pointing or gaze-following • Birth - ____ months: Development of patterns of attending to social partners • 6 months - ____ year: Emergence of _____ attention - Supported joint attention: baby points at toy > parents are reciprocating the joint attention > parent want to keep the baby's attention > parent labels the toy and talks about it: "this is a cup. you drink water w/ a cup" > baby pays attention to the toy more and is probably learning more of the object they want • Critical for word learning -Guide attention to object being labeled • Time in joint engagement increases with age - Good predictor of language outcomes - not a lot of early joint attention = _______ language outcomes - many early joint attention = greater language outcomes * @ 3months baby can look at adult and then look at object * @ 9months baby understands that the adult's gaze means that there's something __________ about the object * concrete early ______ are words young children learn first

6; 1; joint; poorer; important; nouns

Continuity vs Discontinuity in development * Does what a child knows early in development stay the same conceptually during development (continuity) or does it change (discontinuity)? *Regarding grammar: • Continuity position: children's grammars are fundamentally _________ to adults' grammars - Children lack the detailed knowledge and processing skills of adults. • Discontinuity position: children's grammars are built out of different elements from adults' grammars • Children do not just get _______ with their language, they must change what they consider the essential basis of language as they develop *look at 3a*

similar; better

[Infant speech perception] • 6-7 months with better discrimination in native language show more rapid language development - Better at distinguishing non-native sounds are ________ at learning native language vocabulary • 11 months with better discrimination in native language have larger vocabularies

slower

[Components of Language] Pragmatics • Rules governing how language is used for ______ purposes • Considers the transmittal of information to others in communicatively appropriate ways • 3 important aspects of social language: 1. Communication intentions - using language for different functions or intentions 2. Conversation - organizing language for discourse 3. social ___________ - knowing what to say and when to say it • Falls in _______ [one of the three domains of language] Ex: Turn-taking strategies - ppl with autism have pragmatic deficit

social; conventions; use

Domain- ___________ • Modules can only process specific types of information • Regions of the brain developed to process specific types of information • Language is composed of unique elements (phonemes, syntactic rules) not found elsewhere in cognition *Ex: Common phrase used= "language area of the brain"

specific

From gesture to language • Why does early gestural communication lead into language? 1. Gesture may be a leading indicator of children's communicative abilities 2. Gesture may support communicative interactions that support language learning 3. Gesture may elicit _____ from others which facilitates language learning

speech

neuromuscular process by which humans turn language into a sound signal that is transmitted through the air to a receiver

speech

[Cognitive foundation] ___________ learning: the ability to track distributional information in the input signal and organize it -Based on frequency and co-occurrence -Used to analyze language input, and structure into patterns -Contributes to phonology, lexicon, and syntax -Not language specific > include cognition development * Example of lexicon: child knows the word "give" > when mom says "give ball" > baby knows that word after give is a new word **learning the patterns in an input and calculate how often these occur ex: Stimuli= eat food *infant assumes that whenever "eat" occurs, they will tie it with the word/concept of "food"

statistical

[Sources of Environmental Support] What are the characteristics of Infant-Directed Speech? What is it also called?

-Also called motherese and child-directed speech: speech we use with young language learners *Higher pitch, and wider range of pitches *Longer pauses, and shorter phrases (Often single-word utterances) *Slower *More prototypical, prolonged vowels *Helps with infants' speech perception - Infant-Directed Speech helps with infants' speech perception

Which kind of research (basic or applied) is this? 1. A study investigating whether infants can segment words from fluent speech 2. Evaluating the efficacy of recasts for language intervention 3. Studying children with Specific Language Impairment to identify areas of weakness 4. Research looking at the effects of different treatment intensities 5. Researching similarities and differences between children with Specific Language Impairment, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and Pragmatic Language Impairment

1.Basic 2. Applied 3. Basic 4. Applied 5. Both

Critical period: Age of Exposure • Deaf children of hearing parents - Grammar production and comprehension, ASL fluency: *Exposure as infants > young children > ____+ - earlier input = better grammatical output/development • Second first language - Language outcomes affected by age of adoption and preadoptive experiences • Earlier exposure = better proficiency later • Children adopted from China early * Normal range on standardized measures within 2 years of adoption * Still lag behind native learners of English Ex: Pre-adoptive language: Chinese ; Post-adoptive language: English * started w/ a language > when kid who came from China is adopted by English speaking parents, kid learn English (2nd first language) and knows English proficiently within _____ years of adoption

12; 2

Critical period: Second language acquisition • Phonology: age-of-exposure effects on accent • Grammar: age-of-exposure effects on proficiency - Before _____ = native abilities > 8-15 > 15+ - ____-30 years = no differences on grammar abilities • Why are there age-of-exposure effects? - Different mechanisms in learning a second language if you are already learning or already have learned a first language - Different language-learning opportunities • Immersion in classroom vs in environment • Social factors - Self-consciousness = being confident in the 2nd language - Cultural identification *earlier input = language grammar is _____

7; 17; better

*Age ____ is the latest age of critical period to learn language * learning language closes at ________ * left hemisphere = specialization in _________

7; puberty; language

__________ research * Tests different approaches and practices as they pertain to real world settings • Contributes to specific societal needs by testing the validity of certain practices and approaches -Causal relationship between a specific approach, program, or practice, and a specific language outcome • Tests practices concerning language development relevant to three main contexts: - Homes: effectiveness of specific practices or approaches parents can use to help their children develop language during home activities - Clinics: effectiveness of different approaches that clinical professionals may use with specific populations of patients •-Schools: effectiveness of different approaches that educators may use in the classroom to build children's language skills. • Example: Is prelinguistic milieu teaching more successful than scaffolding as an intervention technique with toddlers with language delay?

Applied

____________ Research *Focuses primarily on generating and refining our knowledge base • Advances fundamental understanding of human learning and development • When outcomes consistently confirm a theory, the theory becomes an accepted principle • Fuels applied research • Example: At what age can babies no longer differentiate between sounds not in their native language?

Basic

What are the two types of research Hint: B & A

Basic Research and Applied Research

___________ methods: Examples • Parent report, checklists, questionnaires - mostly used w/ young kids • Sentence _______ tasks: child hears sentence > child will repeat the sentence -Taps into underlying grammatical knowledge -Children can't repeat grammar that they don't have in their repertoire Ex: child only knows "her" > researcher says "she walks" > child will say "her walks" > researcher says "she eats" > child will say "her eats" • Grammaticality judgment tasks - Listen to sentences that are either correct or have an error and say whether they sound good or not good - looking at what they understand • Act out tasks -Children act out a sentence or series of sentences using toy props • Picture selection tasks -Present a language target and ask the child to choose the picture that corresponds to that target • Elicited production tasks -Prompt the child to produce a specific target Ex: Researcher says " The boy was walking. yesterday the boy ........." > child is supposed to say __________

Behavioral; imitation; walked

Theory: _____________ • Person associated: B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) • All learning is the result of operant conditioning • Language is not a special behavior but is just like every other behavior • Basic tenet: • Language is learned as adults positively reinforce children's approximations to correct productions *Empiricism/Nurture view: all input (what the child hears)

Behaviorist

• outer layer of the brain • Control higher-level functions such as planning and reasoning • 40% of the brain's weight and contains over 100 billion neurons • Gyrus-fold or ridge • Sulcus-groove or fissure

Cerebral cortex

Theory: _____________ • Person associated: Jean Piaget (1896-1980) • Genetic epistemology - the study of the development of knowledge • Basic tenet(s): • Emphasizes stages of learning and development - One stage must occur before a child can move onto the next stage • Certain cognitive abilities must be in place for language to emerge -cognition is going to perceive language development Ex: object permanence: if cup is on table and then removed > child will say the cup does not exist at all while adult says cup exists even though it's not present because they have cognitive ability (understanding conceptually) • Language is domain-general, follows child's general cognitive ability **Interactionist view & Discontinuity

Cognitive

[Sensory and perceptual foundations: methods commonly used to study speech perception in infants] *Train the baby to turn its head when it hears a different sound

Conditioned Head Turn

Theory: ____________________ • Basic tenet(s): - Language is a system of patterns among smaller elements of sound or meaning *Repeated experience hearing examples of patterns results in an abstraction from those patterns - Attempt to visually approximate the inner-workings of the brain * Model and simulate the mechanisms responsible for language growth in relationship to input *There are stron relationships and weak relationships • Nodes - simple processing units likened to neurons • Connections - come from input from external sources *Empiricism/Nurture view: I can take child's input and I can show you that there are patterns based on what the child is taught -This theory does not really deal with children and only uses models based on input (what they learn from their environment) **look at 3b

Connectionist

[Domain of language] • Meaning of language; the words we use and the meaning behind them • Includes the vocabulary system

Content

[Creation of a language] • Children born to a community that primarily uses a pidgin • Add grammatical complexity to the pidgin • Passed down through generations as a first language • Some remain non-dominant and some become official languages

Creole

*Addition can change the word's meaning; changing word class Ex: Happy (adj) + -ness = Happiness (noun) Ex: Wonder + -ful = Wonderful Ex: walk (v) + -er = walker (n) *type of Bound morpheme

Derivational morpheme

[Neurolinguistic methods] ________ listening • Used to investigate hemispheric dominance in language • Subjects listen to different input in each ear and completes task related to what they hear

Dichotic

Interaction between genes and environment

Epigenetics

Why do we care about research? • Stay current on best practices • Old practices • 1910-1920: Speech-sound therapy - have the patient recline on a couch and gradually fall into a semidoze while repeating sentences or conversing • ______________ (EBP) -"the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values"

Evidence-Based Practice

[Domain-General Mechanisms of Learning and Development ] T or F? 1. Behaviorism: associative mechanisms = 2. Children do make use of foundational cognitive skills = 2. Domain-general cognitive mechanisms play a critical role to play in language acquisition =

F; T; T

[Domain of language] • How words, sentences, and sounds are organized and arranged to convey content • Includes sentence structure, clause and phrase usage, word prefixes and suffixes, and the organization of sounds into words • rule based aspects of language

Form

What are the three domains of language? Hint: FCU

Form; Content; Use

What are the four basic processes of communication? Hint: FTRC

Formulation; Transmission; Reception; Comprehension

__________ Lobe • Most anterior part of the brain, behind the forehead • Key functions: -Activating and controlling fine and complex motor activities, including speech output -Controlling human "executive functions" (attention, memory, processing, planning) • Primary motor cortex: Skilled, delicate, voluntary movements • Premotor cortex: Control of skilled motor functions • Broca's Area: motor cortex of the left frontal lobe - Responsible for the fine coordination of speech output (output of language) * is affected when you have a concussion or whiplash from car accident

Frontal

[Neurolinguistic methods] ________________________ • Images of activity in the brain by tracking blood flow • Increased blood flow to areas of the brain that are "working" • Good spatial resolution = know where things are happening - Answers the question "What part of the brain is functioning while giving patient a stimulus" but doesn't tell us what order (which part of the brain is working first) • Sensitive to movement • Noisy *looks at brain structure

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Theory: __________________ • Person associated: Noam Chomsky • What are the internal mental structures that create language? • Focus on child language development to examine this question • Basic tenet(s): • Universal Grammar • Contains the universal properties of language and is innate • Language experience triggers innate knowledge and sets language-specific parameters • The language-learning mechanism is specific to language • Children are born with linguistic competence -Mistakes and errors are indicative of performance difficulties and not a lack of competence *using what they produce (surface form) to understand what they know (underlying form) * Nature viewpoint: language experience doesn't drive language development *Continuity

Generative

Identify chromosome areas that may be associated with specific traits

Genetic linkage

*Adds grammatical information to words Ex: Walk + -ed = walked (past tense) Ex: -s ; -ing * type of Bound morpheme

Grammatical morpheme

Behavioral methods: Examples • Habituation-Dishabituation Tasks -_____________: presenting the same stimulus repeatedly to an infant until his or her attention to the stimulus decreases by a predetermined amount -___________: infant's renewed interest in a stimulus according to some predetermined threshold *Used to determine whether infants detect differences in stimuli and to determine how infants organize these stimuli categorically • _________ preference procedure Ex: - "Ba" w/ flashing light in right side > baby will look at the stimuli [we look at how long they will look at the stimuli] > this is repeated multiple times > "pa" with flashing light in the left side > this is repeated multiple times > can baby distinguish "pa" and "ba" • Language samples • ______ the speech that children produce, as well as the speech directed to them • Spontaneous language (play), answering questions, story (re)tell • 50 utterance minimum • Can be transcribed and coded for whatever you are interested in e.g., MLU, TNR, turn-taking

Habituating; Dishabituation; head-turn; record

[Sensory and perceptual foundations: methods commonly used to study speech perception in infants] *Present one sound until the baby gets bored then change the sound and assess whether the baby responds Ex: as baby becomes habituated to sound, sucking rate goes down > * if baby sucks faster when they hear new sound = able to distinguish different sound *if baby's sucking doesn't change = baby can't distinguish different sounds

Habituation

What are the three methods commonly used to study speech perception in infants? Hint: H C I

Habituation; Conditioned Head Turn; Intermodal Preferential Looking Paradigm

What are the 4 Sources of Environmental Support for Language Acquisition? Hint: Information _______ in speech; __________ speech; F; MR

Information Available in Speech; Infant-Directed Speech; Feedback; Maternal Responsiveness

[Sensory and perceptual foundations: methods commonly used to study speech perception in infants] * Baby looks to video that matches what they hear

Intermodal Preferential Looking Paradigm

What are the 7 Neurolinguistic methods? Hint: LM; DL; f; P; N; E; M

Lesion methods; Dichotic Listening; fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging); PET (Position Emission Tornography); NIRS (Near-Infrared Spectroscopy); EEG (Electrencephalogram)/ERP (Event Related Potential); MEG (Magnetoencephalography)

[Components of Language] • meaning of the words • falls in Content • Rules of language governing the meaning of individual words and word combinations • Have to consider the variety of meanings for words and phrases Ex: different uses of bank: bank of knowledge; river bank

Lexicon and semantics: vocabulary

[Neurolinguistic methods] • Magnetic field changes • Good spatial and temporal resolution • Noiseless *most expensive

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

*One of the Sources of Environmental Support *Teaches infants that others value their behaviors and communicative attempts * increases children's motivation to communicate *Promote child's ability/desire to sustain joint attention *Children with more responsive mothers tend to acquire vocabulary more quickly *not all cultures engage babies this way - children still acquire language

Maternal Responsiveness

Is this Nature/Nativism or Nurture/Empiricism? • Development is driven primarily by children's innate nature • Focuses on 3 critical facts of language development: 1. Children learn their native language very quickly 2. Children learn their native language very easily 3. Children do not require direct instruction to learn their native language *children come to the table READY to learn language

Nativism/Nature

Innate or Nativism

Nature

________ Sign Language (NSL) • 1978 - Nicaragua opened schools for the deaf and brought together deaf children from around the nation who had been born to speaking parents • Children developed their own signed communication system • Increased grammatical complexity • Now considered a fully fledged Creole language * started as a pidgin > kids added grammar and _______ to NSL and it was passed down from generation to generation > NSL is a creole

Nicaraguan; syntax;

Is this Nature/Nativism or Nurture/Empiricism? • Humans gain all experience through experience • Extreme take is "blank slate" • All knowledge comes from experience • No innate language abilities

Nurture/Empiricism

___________ Lobe • Posterior portion of the brain • Key function: • Visual reception and processing • Primary visual cortex • Receives and processes visual information received from the eyes

Occipital

_________ Lobes • Sit posterior to the frontal lobe on the left and right sides (above the ears) • Key function: - Perceiving and integrating sensory and perceptual information • Primary somatosensory cortex (primary sensory cortex) - "sensory strip": receives and processes sensory experiences

Parietal

[Components of Language] * the sound system of the language • Rules of language governing the sounds used to make syllables and words • Phonemes - meaningful sounds • Allophones - subtle variations of phonemes -(i.e. pop) < different sound of /p/ • Phonotactics - rules governing how sounds are organized in words -/narg/ can be an English word but /ngar/ can't because "ng" can't be at the begining of a word * falls in Form

Phonology

[Creation of a language] • Communication system (not a language) • Emerges when a community doesn't have a common language • Limited linguistic structure • No native speakers Ex: Hawaiian creole pidgin > created when Hawaiian workers were working in sugar can field and doesn't speak English

Pidgin

[Neurolinguistic methods] _________________ • Tracks blood flow - Absorption of a small quantity of radioactive material *More active brain cells consume more radioactive material • Good spatial resolution • Sensitive to movement • Noisy

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

[Components of Language] • Rules governing how language is used for social purposes • Considers the transmittal of information to others in communicatively appropriate ways • 3 important aspects of social language: 1. Communication intentions - using language for different functions or intentions 2. Conversation - organizing language for discourse 3. Social conventions - knowing what to say and when to say it • falls in Use Ex: Turn-taking strategies - ppl with autism have pragmatic deficit

Pragmatics

What are the two characteristics of input?

Quality of parental input and Quantity of parental input

[Characteristics of Input] *_______ of parental input -Consistent responses from the mother that are related to the child's previous speech or gesture, fluent topics *______ attention *Depth of information (explaining things to kids) * ______ of parental input -Large amount of input, with varying degrees of complexity = different syntactic structures, and extensive vocabulary **look at 8a

Quality; joint; Quantity

[Cognitive foundation] ________ Learning *Infants are also able to find abstract patterns in their input *Rules can be quite complex -Essentially small, simple artificial grammars *Infants can also generalize to novel instances (things they _______ heard before) **learning the patterns and applying an abstract rule Ex: Stimuli: eat food * (verbs require a noun) > baby will apply this pattern and turn it into an abstract rule *Infant Rule Learning - Can infants identify a rule-based pattern * ABA (wo-fe-wo) vs ABB (wo-fe-fe) - Infant prefer novel stimuli that are _______ w/ the pattern Ex: if infant was familiarized w/ wo-fe-fe > any stimuli w/ ABB pattern (po-lo-lo), the baby will be able to distinguish and prefer the new "non-words" w/ the ABB pattern than wo-fe-wo

Rule; never; consistent

Theory: _________________ • Person associated: Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) • Importance of social _________ for children's language development • Basic tenet(s): • Children acquire language because they want to communicate with others • Social/communicative interaction with others, not just language input, is a critical mechanism for language acquisition • Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - the difference between a child's actual developmental level and his/her level of potential development - What's in the process of developing versus what does the child already do? *Interactionist view

Social Interactionist; interaction

What do children bring to the process of language learning? Hint: there are 3 foundations of language development

Social, perceptual and cognitive foundations of language development

T or F: [Sources of Environmental Support] Infant-Directed Speech *Infants prefer to listen to Infant-Directed Speech even as newborns *This preference even extends to unfamiliar languages * Intonational contours contain important emotional information, and are similar across many languages

T

* below the cortex * more primitive functions: eating, breathing, fight or flight response

Subcortical structures

[Components of Language] • Rules of language governing the internal organization of sentences •falls in Form • e.g., Knowing the difference in meaning between "Man bites dog" and "Dog bites man"; knowing that "Man bite dog" and "Bite man dog" are both ungrammatical Ex: Colorless green ideas sleep furiously -semantics > no -syntax > yes

Syntax

T or F *Homunculus • A map that illustrates the location of specific functions - somatosensory strip: mostly associated w/ face - motor strip: mostly associated w/ face and hands • not everything is equal *Twin Studies = Monozygotic vs. Dizygotic * Animals have communication, not language

T

T or F Is language universal? (not the same as Universal Grammar) • 2 takes on "universal" 1. All communities of the world have at least one language 2. Same infrastructure applied to the task of learning language across communities

T

T or F Natural communication in other species *Primates • Vervet monkeys: 3 alarm calls (eagles, leopards, snakes) - responses to alarms will be different from each other • Chimpanzees: communication system involving calls, gestures, and expressions * Birds & Bees - Bees: waggling dance to signal to other hive members where food can be found - Birds: complex songs

T

T or F [Components of Language] *Literacy and preliteracy • The knowledge of how to read and write a language • Knowing that the sound at the beginning of cat is spelled with the letter "c"

T

T or F: *Infants are fine with all languages * Infants are sensitive to all languages b/c they process all of sounds in all languages

T

T or F: *Language is a Human Universal *Language is universal • 2 takes on "universal" 1. All communities of the world have at least one language 2. Same infrastructure applied to the task of learning language

T

T or F: *Rule Learning applied to Language acquisition -infants and children can pick up patterns on input they are receiving and then make rules for them Ex: Creolization * when infants are exposed to input that's highly irregular and has no rules (such as pidgin)., they impose rules on the input

T

T or F: *Shared communication • Doesn't mean anything if no one can understand you *Who uses language? : humans and animals

T

T or F: *The Relation of Early Foundational Skills to Later Language - Individual differences in foundational cognitive skills predict several language outcomes *Severe problems in any of these domains is often linked to language disorder -Developmental cascade: problems with a foundational skill affects the development of higher-order skills Ex: child w/ phonological memory problem > difficulty requiring words or learning vocab > difficulty learning syntax

T

T or F: *bees waggle to communicate to other bees so they can find where the food is * human communication is unique due to its use of language and speech in the communication process

T

T or F: Relation to Socioeconomic Status *Socioeconomic status (SES) based on parents level of education, income, and occupational prestige *Generally, children in lower SES homes hear less speech, and lower quality input *Low SES children have smaller vocabularies, and these differences increase with age * Quantity and Quality of input is important

T

T or F: The Relation of Environmental Support to Language Acquisition * Language acquisition depends on the input the child receives, to an important degree > This leads to individual differences in the rate of language acquisition

T

T or F: Who studies language development? • Early philosophers • John Locke (1632 -1704) - Importance of experience in the formation of ideas • Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889 - 1951) - Focus on language use and association with meaning • W. V. Quine (1908-2000) - Gavagai problem • Disciplines: psychology, linguistics, psycholinguistics, anthropology, speech-language pathology, education, sociology, neurobiology • Lack of area "ownership" by a given discipline **look at 4a for more info

T

T or F: Why do ppl develop language? - necessity: need to - expressions: express their need and wants -social need - geographical reasons

T

T or F: [Sources of Environmental Support] *The Role of Feedback: Implicit Feedback -Parents do o]en provide implicit feedback by responding differentially to grammatical vs. ungrammatical sentences *For ungrammatical sentences, parents are more likely to ask for clarification, or repeat with corrections

T

_______ Lobes • Two lobes • Sit posterior to the frontal lobe but inferior to the parietal lobes (behind the ears) • Key functions: -Processing auditory information - Language comprehension • Heschl's gyrus: Small region of the left temporal lobe - Appears specialized for the processing of speech, particularly the temporal aspects of speech • Wernicke's area: Superior portion of the left temporal lobe near the intersection of the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes -Associated with language comprehension

Temporal

[Infant speech perception] • baby is considered to be "__________ listeners" - Young infants can discriminate among a wide range of phonemes - those use in their native language and those that are not - @ 12 months: Perceptional narrowing (only able to discriminate among phonemes in their _______ language) - _______ perception affected before consonant perceptions *reason: b/c there's fewer vowels than consonants & babies hear more constantly of the vowels • Tuning of speech perception - only able to discriminate the sounds in their native language

Universal; native; vowel

Theory: ____________ • Person associated: Michael Tomasello • Emergence of intentionality during the first year of life *goal driven: children talk to achieve their goal • Basic tenet(s): • Children learn language because they have reason to talk • Knowledge of language (form and meaning) emerges from the child's pattern-learning abilities and use of language • Relies on child's recognition of the intentions and mental states of others *Empiricism/Nurture view: pattern based learning ; language is not innate, they learn language from input *discontinuity

Usage-based

[Domain of language] • Draws upon language functionally for meeting personal and social needs • Includes the intention behind the utterance and how well it is achieved, requires an understanding of the context in which language is occurring • has to do w/ pragmatics

Use

What is Explicit Feedback?

[Sources of Environmental Support] *when parents tell children what they are saying is incorrect, and tell them what to say instead *Parents do provide explicit corrections to children, but only in a few situations (not typical) Ex: factual errors or "naughty words" *Parents do not correct most grammatical errors Little negative evidence for children: that what they're doing is incorrect

subtle variations of phonemes -(i.e. pop) < different sound of /p/

allophones

Frontal Lobe • Most _________ part of the brain, behind the forehead • Key functions: -Activating and controlling fine and complex motor activities, including speech output -Controlling human "__________ functions" = attention; memory; processing; planning • Primary motor cortex: Skilled, delicate, voluntary movements • Premotor cortex: Control of skilled _______ functions • __________ Area: motor cortex of the left frontal lobe - Responsible for the fine coordination of speech ________ (output of language) * is affected when you have a concussion or whiplash from car accident

anterior; executive; motor; Broca's; output

Temporal Lobes • Two lobes • Sit posterior to the frontal lobe but inferior to the parietal lobes (behind the ears) • Key functions: -Processing ________ information - Language ____________ • _______ gyrus: Small region of the left temporal lobe - Appears specialized for the processing of speech, particularly the temporal aspects of speech • ___________ area: Superior portion of the left temporal lobe near the intersection of the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes -Associated with language comprehension

auditory; comprehension; Heschl's; Wernicke's

Types of Methods *Behavioral methods • primary type of method • What we learn is based on the _________ that the child/adult provides - Button-push, (non)verbal response, looking time, head-turn, acting out sentences/scenes • The most common in child language development research, used with almost all of the designs previously discussed *Neurolinguistic methods

behavior

Sensory and perceptual foundations • Infant hearing - Adequate for hearing speech from birth - Shortly after ______, infants can differentiate: • Mother's voice from strangers' voices • A familiar passage from an unfamiliar passage • Native language from another language • Early preference for speech - Speech > non-speech sounds * @ ___ months, baby prefer speech than non-speech sounds • Human non-speech (coughs, hiccups); Rhesus monkey calls; Environmental noises (running water) • Matching sounds to what they see - ____month olds expect speech to come from human faces - 4 month olds prefer an animal that bounces in ______ with the sound

birth; 2; rhythm

[Infant speech perception] • __________ perception - range of stimuli that differ continuously are perceived as belonging to only a few categories; kids forming sound category -looks at voice onset time • Adults show consistent sound categorical perception - 4 month old infants do too!

categorical

[Cognitive foundation] Infant Statistical Learning * Segmenting the speech stream > Infants exposed to stream of speech > Infants able to distinguish between words and part words - how many times the words _______ = skill infants use to distinguish words and part words

co-occur

the process of sharing information among individuals

communication

The creation of a language 1. Pidgin • ___________ system (not a language) • Emerges when a community _______ have a common language • Limited linguistic structure • No native speakers • Ex: Hawaiian creole pidgin > created when Hawaiian workers were working in sugar can field and doesn't speak English 2. Creole • Children born to a community that primarily uses a pidgin • Add _________ complexity to the pidgin • Passed down through ________ as a first language • Some remain non-dominant and some become official languages

communication; doesn't; grammatical; generations

Are the components of language in Form, Content, and/or Use? 1. Lexicon and Semantics (Vocabulary) : _________________ 2. Phonology : ______________ 3. Morphology: _________________ 4. Syntax: ________________ 5. Pragmatics: ________________

content; form; more on content but an be form; form; use

Form, content or use? 1. What vocabulary a child knows = ____________ 2. How a child interacts with her class mates = __________________ 3. Complex syntax = ________________

content; use; form

[Infant speech perception] __________ learning - Frequently-occurring sounds ex. if the difference between /la/ and /ra/ is meaningful (form different words and sounds differently) and clear examples of each, it will occur more - Maye, Werker & Gerken (2002) • ___-8 month old infants can better distinguish sounds (e.g.,/d/,/t/) that have clear examples versus sounds that are more similar to each other

distributional; 6

How do children develop language? - statistical learning (based on what they hear) -Taught to them? * parents ______ teach the child his/her language * language are not taught to them - By listening? * do they reproduce by what they hear?: _______ *kids are actually formulating language *Why do we care? : to figure out milestones; social indications * Most children achieve major milestones at similar ages, and in the same order

don't; no

Theory: Cognitive • Person associated: Jean Piaget (1896-1980) • Genetic _________ - the study of the development of knowledge • Basic tenet(s): • Emphasizes ________ of learning and development - One stage must occur before a child can move onto the next stage • Certain cognitive abilities must be in place for language to emerge -cognition is going to perceive language development Ex: object permanence: if cup is on table and then removed > child will say the cup does not exist at all while adult says cup exists even though it's not present because they have cognitive ability (understanding conceptually) • Language is domain-__________, follows child's general cognitive ability **___________ view & Discontinuity

epistemology; stages; general; Interactionist

* Hemispheres • Left and right • Separated by the longitudinal _________ • Connected by the corpus callosum •Connections are contralateral (left hemisphere,right side) or ipsilateral (left hemisphere, left side) *Neurons - cells in the brain • Work together when doing a particular task

fissure

*Phonological Memory - Short term memory: how well can children remember a newly encountered sound sequence *Tested using the nonword repetition task -Phonological memory predicts: * Current and future vocabulary * Grammatical development * For adolescents: their vocabulary learning in a foreign language. **good phonological memory = do better learning a _______ language -b/c they have more resources to map the words -Phonological memory develops with _______

foreign; experience

Early left-hemisphere specialization for language in young infants: The evidence • fMRI and ERP - greater left vs right activation to acoustic signals • NIRS - forward speech elicits greater left hemisphere activation than reverse speech • Brain injury -After developing language: left hemisphere damage more likely to result in aphasia -Before developing language: right hemisphere more involved in language acquisition; left hemisphere more involved in language __________

functioning

Domain-____________ • The brain is a generalized module in which all parts work together to process information • Language elements are just special cases of general cognition (i.e., memory, reasoning) *language is not special > it uses working memory and cognition; there's no distinct areas of the brain

general

Unique genome that can be revealed by personal genome sequencing

genotype

How much variation in a phenotype trait is due to genetic variation in the population

heritability

Why can't chimpanzees acquire language? • Two prominent explanations: 1. Language is an ______ ability that is part of human biology 2. Humans and chimps differ primarily in their social-communicative abilities - chimps has no cultural-communicative drive

innate

Theory: Usage-based • Person associated: Michael Tomasello • Emergence of __________ during the first year of life *goal driven: children talk to achieve their goal • Basic tenet(s): • Children learn language because they have _________ to talk • Knowledge of language (form and meaning) emerges from the child's ________-learning abilities and use of language • Relies on child's recognition of the intentions and mental states of others *__________________: pattern based learning ; language is not innate, they learn language from input *discontinuity

intentionality; reason; pattern; Empiricism/Nurture

Theory: Social Interactionist • Person associated: Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) • Importance of social _________ for children's language development • Basic tenet(s): • Children acquire language because they want to communicate with others • Social/communicative interaction with others, not just language input, is a critical mechanism for language acquisition • Zone of ___________ Development (ZPD) - the difference between a child's actual developmental level and his/her level of potential development - What's in the process of developing versus what does the child already do? *_________________ view

interaction; proximal; interactionist

Nature vs Nurture: Interactionist views *Several different specific interactionist approaches, but all emphasize the importance of input to children • Social ___________: focuses on the importance of interpersonal relations ex: babies need to want to social interact • Constructivism (cf. Piaget) : focuses on how children build their ___________ -babies build knowledge combining nature and nurture • Emergentism (also called _____________): focuses on how knowledge emerges from simple innate mechanisms in combination with _______ -statistical system • ___________ Systems (also Epigenetic): focuses on the interaction between ________ and the environment - biological based system - experience + environment + genes

interactionist; knowledge; Connectionism; input; Developmental

Theory: Generative • Person associated: Noam Chomsky -What are the _______ mental structures that create language? - Focus on child language development to examine this question • Basic tenet(s): • Universal Grammar - Contains the universal properties of language and is innate - __________ experience triggers innate knowledge and sets language-specific parameters - The language-learning mechanism is specific to language • Children are born with linguistic ___________ - Mistakes and errors are indicative of performance difficulties and not a lack of competence *using what they produce (surface form) to understand what they know (underlying form) * ___________ viewpoint: language experience doesn't drive language development *Continuity

internal; language; competence; nature

*Central Executive Function in Working Memory -Allocates resources to competing demands - Children have limited capacity * Performance on tasks is not just about __________, but also ______ to handle the multiple demands ex: reason for children making mistakes = children knows of rule but can't apply it regularly b/c of lack of resources -Children with language disorders often have difficulties with Central Executive Function Ex: children w/ speech language impairment has difficulty telling a story b/c they lack some of these resources ( sequences; linguistic knowledge; working memory; vocabulary)

knowledge; resources

__________ is the systematic and conventional use of spoken, signed, or written symbols for the purpose of shared communication or self-expression.

language

[Cognitive foundation] The Piagetian Account of Language Acquisition * How children come to understand their world - Through symbolic function - Ability to use symbols arises from sensorimotor interactions * ___________ is one example of symbolic function -Language is connected to symbolic play[ex: playing house] (___________ milestone) *Does not explain: Learning mechanisms (does not explain how children acquire language)

language; cognitive

Communication • Must involve at least a sender (speaker) and a receiver (listener) • Four basic processes: 1. Formulation - process of pulling together thoughts or ideas for sharing with another -involves _______________ - error/breakdown in formulation happens if you have a stroke 2. ______________ - process of conveying ideas to another person - involves speech - error/breakdown in __________= neuromuscular system isn't working due to a stroke 3. Reception - process of receiving information from another person - involves hearing - error/breakdown in reception = not being able to hear 4. ________________ - process of making sense of the message -involves language - error/breakdown = happens if there's a language barrier

language; transmission; transmission; comprehension

Is it left or right hemisphere? *Evidence: • Lesion studies - Aphasia • Split-brain studies - Can't say what they saw in their left field of vision • Dichotic listening tasks - Right-ear advantage • May be further organized (i.e., Broca's and Wernicke's areas) *Function: more specialized for language

left

[Neurolinguistic methods] _________ methods • Associate behaviors (i.e., language abilities/disabilities, processing) with damage to a particular area of the brain Ex: Phineas Cage - In the past, researchers would chart the behaviors of patient > when patient dies, they look at the brain and see what area of the brain is damaged - Now, we see brain through MRI while paitent is doing activities or are doing their behaviors • Split-brain patients = corpus callosum severed b/c it's not properly developed or b/c it's cut intentionally Ex: doctors damage corpus collosum to help w/ seizures and epilepsy - we don't depend on corpus callosum for contralateral connections; non-conscious process are important

lesion

Communicative foundations • Gesture use • Early gesture use is predictive of language outcomes • Iconic gestures - gestures that represent _________ - Gestures for objects often lead to referential words for those objects * this shows that the baby has a symbol for the object - The size of a child's gesture repertoire predicts their later vocabulary size - Gestures can be combined into utterances with words; these gesture-word combinations often lead to the 2-word stage

meaning

*Conceptual Understandings -Understand the _________ language encodes * e.g., things are separate, stable things * Objects can be organized into categories * Properties of, and relations between, objects - Children have conceptual understanding of much of the world * Not adultI-like Ex: Object Permanence

meanings

[Neurolinguistic methods] Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) • Transmission of light through brain tissue • Measures of light transmission used to examine oxygenation of the blood -__________ oxygenation = that area is "working" • Good spatial resolution • Less demanding • Sensitive to movement • Noiseless

more

Input as a Source of Individual Differences in Language Development * In addition to caregiver input, children are also influenced by input from teachers and peers * Better outcomes if teachers use _____ vocabulary items and more varied sentences structures *Children with _____ expressive language skills develop more slowly if they are in pre-school with other low expressive children - ties w/ quantity input

more; low

• _____________ - the smallest unit of language that carries meaning • ___________ morpheme - can stand independently as a word (e.g., cat) • __________ morpheme - appear as parts of words, must be with a word (e.g., plural -s on cats) - Derivational morpheme - Addition can change the word's meaning Ex: Happy (adj) + -ness = Happiness (noun) -Grammatical morpheme - Adds grammatical information to words Ex: Walk + -ed = walked (past tense)

morpheme; Free; Bound;

[Components of Language] * Rules of language governing the internal organization of words • Morpheme - the smallest unit of language that carries meaning • Free morpheme - can stand independently as a word (e.g., cat) • Bound morpheme - appear as parts of words, must be with a word (e.g., plural -s on cats) - Derivational morpheme - Addition can change the word's meaning Ex: Happy (adj) + -ness = Happiness (noun) -Grammatical morpheme - Adds grammatical information to words Ex: Walk + -ed = walked (past tense) * falls more in Content but can also be Form

morphology

Critical period • Biologically determined timeframe under which development ______ take place - Time of active neuroanatomical and neurophysiological change - Time of opportunity as well as time of risk • Different species -Chicks and ducklings must imprint on their mothers within a few hours of birth * critical period isn't only associated w/ language development - kids are really good at learning language

must

__________ methods: *Brain imaging • Look at structures of the brain • fMRI (look at blood flow), MEG, etc. Ex: Aphasia Research -look at structure of brain and how the brain functions *Brain function • Looks at _________ in how the brain functions • Brain function technologies (EEG, ERP)

neurolinguistic; changes

[Sources of Environmental Support] *The Information Available in Speech -Chomsky believe that there's _____ enough environmental support for children to learn language; child needs something innate to support this -Large amount of information available in speech, including patterns that can be exploited by _________ learning mechanisms * Syntactic categories, and word classes, appear in different distributional frames Ex: Jabowakee poem > we don't know what the non-words mean but based on its different distributional frames, we are able to find out

not; statisitcal

[Sources of Environmental Support] *The Information Available in Speech -Regularities in phonology and prosody *______ class elements (ex: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) are more likely to receive stress than ________ class elements (ex: pronouns and determiners) * In English, ______ usually receive first syllable stress while verbs receive ______ syllable stress * Pauses are more likely to appear at syntactic clause boundaries - The use of these cues has been called Prosodic and Phonological Bootstrapping.

open; closed; nouns; second

Theory: Behaviorist • Person associated: B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) • All learning is the result of ________ conditioning • Language is not a special behavior but is just like every other behavior • Basic tenet: • Language is learned as adults positively reinforce children's approximations to __________ productions *___________ view: all input (what the child hears)

operant; correct; Empiricism/Nurture

Theory: Connectionist • Basic tenet(s): - Language is a system of ________ among smaller elements of sound or meaning *Repeated experience hearing examples of patterns results in an abstraction from those patterns - Attempt to visually approximate the inner-workings of the brain * Model and simulate the mechanisms responsible for language growth in relationship to input *There are strong relationships and weak relationships • __________- simple processing units likened to neurons • Connections - come from input from external sources *________________ view: I can take child's input and I can show you that there are patterns based on what the child is taught -This theory does not really deal with children and only uses _______ based on input (what they learn from their environment) **look at 3b

patterns; nodes; Empiricism/Nurture; models

Physical (cognitive, linguistic, personality, etc.) characteristics

phenotype

meaningful sounds

phonemes

[Infant speech perception] Detection of ___________ regularities • Identify permissible and impermissible combinations of phonemes in their language - /ps/ must occur syllable-final, not syllable-initial • Present by around 9 months • Helps infants segment words from continuous speech

phonotactic

rules governing how sounds are organized in words -/narg/ can be an English word but /ngar/ can't because "ng" can't be at the begining of a word

phonotactics

Individual Differences in Language *4 main areas that exhibit substantial variability -_________ and expressive language development -________ of language development -Infants' learning _______ -Variations at the extremes of the typical range Ex: at 2 years old, they can either produce 200+ words or produce 50+ words

receptive; rate; styles

Symbols: Arbitrary relationship between a symbol and its referent -picture of dog = __________ - dog; sign language of dog; perro = symbol

referent

Is it left or right hemisphere? *Evidence: • Lesion studies - Intonation - Pragmatics (i.e., sarcasm, figurative language) • EEG studies - Semantics • Hemispherectomy - Semantics and pragmatics *Function: intonation; prosody; pragmatic

right

Parietal Lobes • Sit posterior to the frontal lobe on the left and right sides (above the ears) • Key function: - Perceiving and integrating sensory and perceptual information • Primary somatosensory cortex (primary ______ cortex) - "sensory strip": receives and processes sensory experiences

sensory

4 characteristics of language 1. Language is a system of ___________ -Rule-based system -Often considered in terms of morphemes (smallest meaningful unit) *Relationship between words and their referents is arbitrary 2. Language is ___________ -Shared by the members of a community or culture 3. The language system is conventional -rule-governed; _______________ Ex: English = Subject Verb Object; need to follow set of rules for language to make sense - The cows in Blue, Texas sang. +The blue cows in Texas sang 4. Language is a representational tool -Cognitive tool that provides symbolic representations of linguistic concepts that are organized in a vast network -Provides formal syntactic rules that organize these concepts into orderly surface-level representations (Bickerton, 1995) -Store ________ and carry out cognitive processes

symbols; shared; non-random; information

Critical period: "Wild children" • Victor of Aveyron • Genie -Developed a reasonably large vocabulary and could combine words - Never mastered syntactic rules or grammatical morphemes - Right hemisphere dominance for language *This study shows that lexicon (learning words) doesn't seem to be affected but ______ seems to be affected - no word-order errors but is missing major syntactic rules

syntax

Can other species learn language? • Spoken language - Chimpanzees' vocal tract makes producing human speech mostly impossible • Signed language - Washoe, Koko, Nim Chimpsky • Could acquire signs and produce sign combinations • Sign combinations contingent on communication partner's utterances - No _______ - can't create own ideas Ex: "yesterday..."; "Tomorrow..." - Intentionality limited to needs • Artificial language - Kanzi • Learned an artificial language from birth (mom was being taught lexigram but Kanzi was not being taught; he was exposed to it) • Not sure whether he used the language referentially or simply as an instrument to receive rewards • Limited syntax comprehension *Genie has ______ word-order combinations and easier to understand while Nim's utterances has word-order errors and is harder to comprehend

syntax; correct

Why do we care about genetics? • Heritability - 25-50% in typical language development, 50-97% in language impairment - Variability based on language domain (_________ > lexicon) * genetic variability impacts more on syntax than lexicon • Genetic linkage - Chromosome areas that have been identified as associated with language- related traits; looks at language phenotype *FOXP2 (KE family), CNTNAP2, KIAA319 - speech sound disorders, language impairments; reading impairments are associated w/ these genes • Epigentics -Changes/differences in the environment and _______ factors may be responsible for language disorders Ex: Increase in pollution; increase in chemicals

syntax; external

Neural plasticity • Plasticity: The ability of parts of the brain to ________ functions they ordinarily would not serve • Children recover better than adults from brain injury • Not all areas created equal • Neural architecture initially redundant • Peak of synaptic connections between 2-5 years, more connections than necessary •________ pruning - elimination of unused connections

take over; synaptic

[Neurolinguistic methods] Electrencephalogram (EEG)/Event Related Potential (ERP) • Electrical activity in the brain • Uses scalp electrodes • Voltage changes associated with performance on a task • Good ___________ resolution • Sensitive to movement • Noiseless *EEG = stream of continuous data * ERP = time-locked info (looks at continuous data in a time-locked form) **look at 5a

temporal

Study designs • ___________ studies: examine how well a treatment works - case studies: one person is being studied ex: Genie • Observational studies: use recording in a _________ setting for language ex: Lena system • ___________ studies -most researchers use this study; involves some kind of manipulation • Tracking change with age: -______________: tracking same kids overtime -Cross-sectional: different age groups and being tested using same methods ex: track 9 month old, 12 month old, and 15 month old are being studied at the same time • Computational modeling Ex: how different words connect to each other? [connectionism] - create a language > feed the computer and treat it like a baby > use only data from _________ to get results **look at 4b for more info

treatment; naturalistic; experimental; longitudinal; computer

Social foundations * Social Interactionist theory: - Children acquire language because they ____ to communicate with others. - Social/communicative interaction with others, not just language input, is a critical mechanism for language acquisition * Human desire to share one's thoughts as a motive for language acquisition -Support: • Children raised in isolation do not create their own language, but groups of children without language input do create one • Younger siblings typically acquire conversational skills earlier than older ones - Opposition: • Even babies with little need to communicate verbally (e.g., because all their needs are attentively met by their parents) still learn language • Even if communication is a motivation for learning, it doesn't explain ______ the learning happens

want; how

[Neurolinguistic methods] Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) • Images of activity in the brain by tracking blood flow • Increased blood flow to areas of the brain that are "working" • Good special resolution = know ______ things are happening - Answers the question "What part of the brain is functioning while giving patient a stimulus" but doesn't tell us what order (which part of the brain is working first) • Sensitive to movement • Noisy *looks at brain _______

where; structure