SOC 202 002 Exam 4 (Chp 19, 20, 21)
value-added theory
a perspective within the functionalist tradition based on the idea that several conditions must be in place for collective behavior to occur. Each condition adds to the likelihood that collective behavior will occur. The first condition is structural conduciveness, which occurs when people are aware of the problem and have the opportunity to gather, ideally in an open area. Structural strain, the second condition, refers to people's expectations about the situation at hand being unmet, causing tension and strain. The next condition is the growth and spread of a generalized belief, wherein a problem is clearly identified and attributed to a person or group. Fourth, precipitating factors spur collective behavior; this is the emergence of a dramatic event. The fifth condition is mobilization for action, when leaders emerge to direct a crowd to action. The final condition relates to action by the agents. Called social control, it is the only way to end the collective behavior episode (Smelser 1962). see this in BLM protests
population pyramid
a picture of population distribution by sex and age
universal healthcare
a system that guarantees healthcare coverage for everyone. Germany, Singapore, and Canada all have universal healthcare. People often look to Canada's universal healthcare system, Medicare, as a model for the system. In Canada, healthcare is publicly funded and is administered by the separate provincial and territorial governments. However, the care itself comes from private providers. This is the main difference between universal healthcare and socialized medicine. The Canada Health Act of 1970 required that all health insurance plans must be "available to all eligible Canadian residents, comprehensive in coverage, accessible, portable among provinces, and publicly administered" (International Health Systems Canada 2010).
exurbs
communities that exist outside the ring of suburbs and are typically populated by even wealthier families who want more space and have the resources to lengthen their commute.
human ecology
functionalist field of study that looks at on the relationship between people and their built and natural physical environments (Park 1915). Generally speaking, urban land use and urban population distribution occur in a predictable pattern once we understand how people relate to their living environment. For example, in the United States, we have a transportation system geared to accommodate individuals and families in the form of interstate highways built for cars. In contrast, most parts of Europe emphasize public transportation such as high-speed rail and commuter lines, as well as walking and bicycling.
internally displaced person
is neither a refugee nor an asylum-seeker. Displaced persons have fled their homes while remaining inside their country's borders.
fertility rate
measure noting the number of children born. The fertility number is generally lower than the fecundity number, which measures the potential number of children that could be born to women of childbearing age. Sociologists measure fertility using the crude birthrate (the number of live births per 1,000 people per year).
mortality rate
measure of the number of people who die. The crude death rate is a number derived from the number of deaths per 1,000 people per year. When analyzed together, fertility and mortality rates help researchers understand the overall growth occurring in a population.
concentric zone model
model views a city as a series of concentric circular areas, expanding outward from the center of the city, with various "zones" invading adjacent zones (as new categories of people and businesses overrun the edges of nearby zones) and succeeding (then after invasion, the new inhabitants repurpose the areas they have invaded and push out the previous inhabitants). In this model, Zone A, in the heart of the city, is the center of the business and cultural district. Zone B, the concentric circle surrounding the city center, is composed of formerly wealthy homes split into cheap apartments for new immigrant populations; this zone also houses small manufacturers, pawn shops, and other marginal businesses. Zone C consists of the homes of the working class and established ethnic enclaves. Zone D holds wealthy homes, white-collar workers, and shopping centers. Zone E contains the estates of the upper class (in the exurbs) and the suburbs.
anxiety disorders
most common mental disorders in the United States, anxiety disorders are feelings of worry and fearfulness that last for months at a time. Anxiety disorders include obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and both social and specific phobias.
e-waste
obsolete, broken, and worn-out electronics—from computers to mobile phones to televisions. The challenge is that these products, which are multiplying at alarming rates thanks in part to planned obsolescence (the designing of products to quickly become outdated and then be replaced by the constant emergence of newer and cheaper electronics), have toxic chemicals and precious metals in them, which makes for a dangerous combination. So where do they go? Many companies ship their e-waste to developing nations in Africa and Asia to be "recycled." While they are, in some senses, recycled, the result is not exactly clean. In fact, it is one of the dirtiest jobs around. Overseas, without the benefit of environmental regulation, e-waste dumps become a kind of boomtown for entrepreneurs willing to sort through endless stacks of broken-down electronics for tiny bits of valuable copper, silver, and other precious metals. Unfortunately, in their hunt, these workers are exposed to deadly toxins. Governments are beginning to take notice of the impending disaster, and the European Union, as well as the state of California, put stricter regulations in place. These regulations both limit the amount of toxins allowed in electronics and address the issue of end-of-life recycling. But not surprisingly, corporations, while insisting they are greening their process, often fight stricter regulations. Meanwhile, many environmental groups, including the activist group Greenpeace, have taken up the cause. Greenpeace states that it is working to get companies to:
stigmatization of illness
often has the greatest effect on the patient and the kind of care he or she receives. Many contend that our society and even our healthcare institutions discriminate against certain diseases—like mental disorders, AIDS, venereal diseases, and skin disorders
climate change
refer to long-term shifts in temperatures due to human activity and, in particular, the release of greenhouse gases into the environment. The planet as a whole is warming, but the term climate change acknowledges that the short-term variations in this process can include both higher and lower temperatures, despite the overarching trend toward warmth.
white flight
refers to the migration of economically secure white people from racially mixed urban areas and toward the suburbs. This occurred throughout the twentieth century, due to causes as diverse as the legal end of racial segregation established by Brown v. Board of Education to the Mariel boatlift of Cubans fleeing Cuba's Mariel port for Miami. Current trends include middle-class African-American families following white flight patterns out of cities, while affluent whites return to cities that have historically had a black majority. The result is that the issues of race, socio-economics, neighborhoods, and communities remain complicated and challenging.
mass
relatively large number of people with a common interest, though they may not be in close proximity, such as players of the popular Facebook game Farmville, share an interest
individual mandate (of obamacare)
requires everyone to have insurance coverage by 2014 or pay a penalty
cornucopian theory
scoffs at the idea of humans wiping themselves out; it asserts that human ingenuity can resolve any environmental or social issues that develop. As an example, it points to the issue of food supply. If we need more food, the theory contends, agricultural scientists will figure out how to grow it, as they have already been doing for centuries. After all, in this perspective, human ingenuity has been up to the task for thousands of years and there is no reason for that pattern not to continue (Simon 1981).
mood disorders
second most common mental disorders in the United States, Major mood disorders are depression, bipolar disorder, and dysthymic disorder. A true depressive episode, however, is more than just feeling sad for a short period. It is a long-term, debilitating illness that usually needs treatment to cure. And bipolar disorder is characterized by dramatic shifts in energy and mood, often affecting the individual's ability to carry out day-to-day tasks. Bipolar disorder used to be called manic depression because of the way people would swing between manic and depressive episodes.
Revolutionary movements
seek to completely change every aspect of society. These include the 1960s counterculture movement, including the revolutionary group The Weather Underground, as well as anarchist collectives. Texas Secede! is a revolutionary movement
resistance movements
seek to prevent or undo change to the social structure. The Ku Klux Klan, the Minutemen, and pro-life movements fall into this category
demographic transition theory
suggests that future population growth will develop along a predictable four-stage model. In Stage 1, birth, death, and infant mortality rates are all high, while life expectancy is short. An example of this stage is the 1800s in the United States. As countries begin to industrialize, they enter Stage 2, where birthrates are higher while infant mortality and the death rates drop. Life expectancy also increases. Afghanistan is currently in this stage. Stage 3 occurs once a society is thoroughly industrialized; birthrates decline, while life expectancy continues to increase. Death rates continue to decrease. Mexico's population is at this stage. In the final phase, Stage 4, we see the postindustrial era of a society. Birth and death rates are low, people are healthier and live longer, and society enters a phase of population stability. Overall population may even decline. For example, Sweden is considered to be in Stage 4.
suburbs
the communities surrounding cities, typically close enough for a daily commute in, but far enough away to allow for more space than city living affords. The bucolic suburban landscape of the early twentieth century has largely disappeared due to sprawl. Suburban sprawl contributes to traffic congestion, which in turn contributes to commuting time. And commuting times and distances have continued to increase as new suburbs developed farther and farther from city centers. Simultaneously, this dynamic contributed to an exponential increase in natural resource use, like petroleum, which sequentially increased pollution in the form of carbon emissions.
morbidity
the incidence of disease
existing social movement sector
the multiple social movement industries in a society, even if they have widely varying constituents and goals.
Contested illnesses
those that are questioned or questionable by some medical professionals. Disorders like fibromyalgia or chronic fatigue syndrome may be either true illnesses or only in the patients' heads, depending on the opinion of the medical professional. This dynamic can affect how a patient seeks treatment and what kind of treatment he or she receives.
religious/redemptive movements
"meaning seeking," and their goal is to provoke inner change or spiritual growth in individuals. Organizations pushing these movements include Heaven's Gate or the Branch Davidians
Costs of medical care in the United States
-18 percent of our gross domestic product -3rd leading industry in the U.S. -U.S. spends 2x per capita as United Kingdom and Sweden
bureaucracy
-An organizational model rationally designed to perform tasks efficiently -Bureaucratic officials are constantly creating and revising policy to increase efficiency 6 key elements 1.High degree of division of labor and specialization 2.Hierarchy of authority 3.Rules and regulations 4.Impersonal relationships 5.Career ladders 6.Efficiency Weber identified two major problems with bureaucracy 1.Dehumanize 2.Alienation Bureaucratic ritualism -Focusing on rules and regulations to the point of undermining an organization's goals -Rules and regulations should be a "means to an end" and NOT the "end in themselves"
Conceptualizing social movements
-Collective or joint action -Change-oriented goals / agents of change -Movements as organizations and organized activity -Some degree of continuity -Some extrainstitutional collection action
the study of population
-Demography defined: Scientific study of population -Important subfield in sociology -Demographers collect and analyze data -Make important predictions and policy implications
Emergence of the environmental sociology subfield
-Early Pioneers: Dunlap, Catton, Schnaiberg, Buttell, Freudenberg -Increased environmental awareness 1960s & 1970s: Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, Passage of Environmental Legislation, Resurgence of Environmental Movement, Earth Day - April 22, 1970 -Mainstream Sociology's Neglect of Biophysical Environment: Exceptional features make us "exempt" from environmental constraints (e.g., language, technology, science, culture), Human Exemptionalist Paradigm (HEP) -Environmental Sociology as Critique of HEP: New Ecological Paradigm (NEP)
Ecological modernization
-Emphasizes the ways technology can improve environmental conditions (key scholars: Mol, Spaargarten, Cohen) -Modern science and technology central to ecological reform: Advanced environmental technology redirecting production processes, Technology is key to environmental improvements -Increasing importance of economic and market dynamics: Role of innovators, entrepreneurs and other economic agents as "social carriers" of ecological restructuring -Environmental regulation shifting to private economic actors: More cooperation between industry and the state
Environmental injustice
-Environmental Justice: Bullard (1996): "all people and communities are entitled to equal protection of environmental and public health laws and regulations.", EPA: "the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies." (2007:1) -Environmental Injustice / Environmental Inequality: Refers to a situation in which a specific group is disproportionately affected by negative environmental conditions brought on by unequal laws, regulations, and policies. -Environmental racism: Specific form of environmental inequality that involves targeting of minority communities -Expanding the concept of environmental justice
environmental sociology
-Environmental problems: from "technical to social problems" -Sociology = scientific study of society: it is a way of viewing and understanding the social world, It allows us to better understand social organization, inequality, and all sorts of human interaction -Environment: from Air we breath to household cleaners we use -Environmental Sociology Studies: Societal sources of environmental problems, Cultural beliefs and institutional practices -Environmental Sociology Summarized: Examines people's beliefs and behavior about the environment, and The ways in which the structure of society contributes to environmental problems
McDonaldization of Society
-George Ritzer -Society is becoming "McDonaldized" Examples of McDonaldization -Ten-minute oil change -Vacations take the form of resorts and tour packages -College admissions Organizational principles of McDonaldization -Efficiency -Predictability -Uniformity -Control Downside of McDonaldization? -The McDonaldization of everything?
conflict theory and health
-Health and health care reflects broader inequalities in society -Emphasizes lack of access to health care -Comparing health care access in United States to other industrialized countries
Most sectors of health care system are for-profit businesses
-Hospitals -Pharmaceutical companies: Spending on prescription drugs has increased from $40 billion (1990) to $326 billion
importance of environmental issues
-Impacts of climate change -Technological disasters -Deletion of natural resources -Fresh water -Wildlife management -Air pollution -Local toxins and environmental health and justice -Energy and the environment
US healthcare
-Inequality is at the heart of the differences in health among different segments of the population -Disease Model: Patients are first diagnosed and then treated for illness, Critics argue there is lack of emphasis on prevention -Prevention: Evidence that prevention of many illnesses is possible, Focusing on health rather than illness
functionalism and health
-Key is to keep society's members health -Illness is "dysfunctional" because it reduces people's ability to perform their roles in society -"Sick Role": Society responds to illness not only by providing medical care, but by allowing people a "sick role", Defined as patterns of behavior defied as appropriate for people who are ill, Must "look the part", Sick role releases people from everyday obligations such as going to work
life expectancy
-Life expectancy: Defined as the average life span of a country's population Life expectancy by country -Japan, Ranked #1, Overall 84 years, Females 87, Males 80 -United States, Ranked #34, Overall 79 years, Females 81 years, Males 76 years -Lower life expectancy countries: Sierra Leone - 46 years (ranked 194)
Health and inequality
-Overview of inequality and health: Health care institutions recreate structural inequality of society, Medical options are not equally available to all Americans -Unequal distribution of health care by social class, race, and gender: Health care is more readily available to whites than to others -Adults with no regular source of heath care (Source: CDC): Whites - 19%, African Americans - 22%, Asian Americans - 21%, Hispanics - 34%, American Indians - 24% -Unequal distribution of health care by region: Annual deaths due to people living too far from a doctor or hospital
fee for service health care
-Patients are responsible for paying the fees the health care provider charges -Insurance companies may cover part or all expenses -Costs health care services is very high in the U.S.
social change
-Social change is the transformation of culture and social institutions over time, Gradual versus rapid changes Microchanges -Refer to the more subtle changes in day-to-day interactions Macrochanges -Refer to more gradual transformations that occur on a broad scale
symbolic interaction and health
-Symbolic interaction analysis: Illness is partially "socially constructed", Issues of diagnosis, Importance of American Medical Association in determining illness, implications -Contested illness: Contested environmental illness, Known versus presumptive illnesses, Case of Gulf War illness, Contested health claims in Tar Creek (documentary film)
over the counter at mcdonald's
-everything highly ritualized and controlled for most part -cannot control flow of customers -uncertainty's burden mostly bore by workers (ex: uncertain hours) -highly routine jobs make it hard to develop skills
Treadmill of Production
-focuses on capitalist accumulation; environmental withdrawals & additions (key scholars: Schnaiberg, Gould, Pellow) -Importance to North American Environmental Sociology -Origins - Alan Schnaiberg's Observations: Major changes in the impact of production on environment, Social and political responses to these changes varied -Shifts in production following World War II: Modern factories required greater resources ("Withdrawals"), Energy, Raw materials -Increased Pollution ("Additions"): Synthetic organic chemicals, Shift in nature of work -Economic expansion: Core issue of economic and environmental policy, Increased profits thought to increase capital outlays, Workers benefit through increased employment opportunities, Government agencies benefits from increased tax revenue -Increasing consumption: Increased production requires increased consumption, Low-interest loans for consumers -Role of Technology: New technologies support still greater inputs (i.e., "withdrawals") and led to more toxic pollution (i.e., "additions") -Ecosystem being degraded at expense of expanding profits
mobilizing for change
-utopian multicultural democracy where all sides engage in social movements, no ruling elite that is too dangerously power since lower status can always have voices heard -three factors that are necessary for the emergence and development of a social movement: shifting political opportunities; indigenous social networks; and the formation of a collective identity. -Collective identities form out of a collective sense of iniustice -I suggest what the multicultural democratic society of the future might look like. Social movements would be routine in that collective actors would be able to identify and effectively translate unjust events and circumstances into opportunities for protest. Social movement networks would serve as sources of community, meaning, and identity. And, finally, social movements would deploy multiple and overlapping identities that promote multicultural citizenship -Despite the tendency for protest to peak and decline, a more fluid conception of movements has taken hold in recent years -Participants in new movements-who tend to be well-educated members of the new middle class-are exposed to "postmaterialist" values that promote the recognition of diverse beliefs and values and tolerance of unconventional politics -Contemporary social movements, prefiguring the network society of the twenty-first century, are more diffuse and autonomous, and consist of local social movement communities that coalesce loosely around informal leadership, shared interests, and close interpersonal relationships -I see social movements as strengthening democratic life by promoting the discussion and dissent that ensure multicultural citizenship -Looking toward the utopian society, I imagine a world in which movements routinely mobilize to transgress, resist, and deconstruct the identities produced by restrictive state and social practices
collective gesticulation
Body parts forming symbols
carrying capacity
Carrying capacity defined -The number of people the planet can support on a sustained basis -Argues that there are limits to growth -There are finite natural resources and we cannot violate natural laws Is there a definite carrying capacity
Causes of social change
Culture and change -Invention -Discovery -Cultural diffusion -Inequality and change -War and social change -Technological innovation and the cyberspace revolution -Demographic change -Social movements and social change
Social movements and change
Dramatize social issues -Racial and sexual inequality -Pollution -Abortion debates -Mental health -Hate crimes Create normative changes -U.S. language and culture -Environmental behaviors Create structural change -Expanded opportunities for women -Increased access to education and medical care
convergence clusters
Family and friends who travel together
forms of collective behavior
Forms of Collective Behavior -Social movements are one type of collective behavior -Collective behavior is defined as non-institutional activity in which several or many people voluntarily engage. Collective behavior is broadly defined and includes a wide range of behaviors Different forms of Collective Behavior 1. "Crowds" represent one classic examples of collective behavior. Crowds are fairly large numbers of people in close proximity. Sociologists Turner and Killian have identified 4 types of crowds -1. Casual crowds include people are are simply in the same place at the same time but who are not interaction (e.g., standing in line to go to a sporting event) -2. Conventional crowds are those that come together for a regularly scheduled event (e.g., worship service) -3. Expressive crowds are people who join together to express emotions (e.g., funerals) -4. Acting Crowds focus on specific actions (e.g., protest movement) 2. A "Mass" is defined as a relatively large number of people with a common interest 3. A "public" is defined as an unorganized, relatively diffused group of people who share ideas (i.e., Green Party)
convergent orientation
Group all facing the same direction
affordable care act
Key Provisions of Affordable Care Act 1. Expansion of availability of health care insurance to all Americans 2. Insurance companies may not deny coverage to children (under age 19) because of preexisting conditions 3. Elimination of lifetime coverage limits on insurance coverage 4. Insurance plans must cover preventive care, such as mammograms and colonoscopies, without charging deductibles and co-pas 5. Young adults are allowed to stay on parents' plan until age 26 6. Early retirees keep their employer-sponsored benefits until they are eligible for Medicare -Assessment: Helping minimize number of uninsured people, Critics argue that insurance costs will rise for companies
theories of population growth
Malthusian Theory -Thomas Malthus -Early critic of population growth -"Geometric" versus "arithmetic progression" Demographic Transition Theory -Linked to functionalist perspective -Links population patterns to a society's level of technological development -As populations move through various stages ("transitions") from high birth and death rates to more stable populations Zero Population Growth -Paul Ehrlich's "The Population Bomb"
collective manipulation
Objects collectively moved around
Categories of social movement actors
Protagonists -All groups and collectivities supportive of the movement, or who benefit from it Antagonists -Those that stand in opposition to a movement -State -Countermovement -Corporation Bystanders -Those in the "community" that have no direct stake in the topic -Important because they could become involved on either side
extent of change
Reformative social movements -Aim for limited change within the system -Examples: Environmental movement Revolutionary social movements -Seek major transformation of society -Examples: Democracy movements in the Middle East, Political revolutions in the former Soviet bloc
theories of social movements
Resource mobilization theory -Alternative to early perspectives emphasizing irrationality -Emphasizes the importance of resources Political process theory -Emphasize external political context (political opportunities) -Political opportunities can facilitate or constrain movements New social movement theory -Emphasize culture, ideology and identity -Identity politics Framing theory -Tied to social constructionist perspectives -Importance meaning and messaging
overview of social movements
Simple definition of social movements -Organized activity that encourages or discourages social change Importance of social movements -Our history includes all sorts of social movements -Various forms of inequalities -Climate change -Civil rights -Women's movement -Peace Movement "Politics by other means"
Characteristics of social change
Social change is uneven -Cultural lag (William Ogburn) -Refers to delay between when social conditions change and when cultural adjustments are made -The onset and consequences of social change are often unforeseen -Social change often creates conflict -The direction of social change is not random
collectie vocalization
Sounds or noises made collectively
health
State of complete physical, mental, and social well-being
collective locomotion
The direction and rate of movement to the event
Theories of collective behavior
There are a variety of theoretical perspectives that attempt to explain collective behavior. I'll address two: 1. Emergent Norm Theory §emphasizes the ways in which norms (expectations for behavior) emerge through social interaction in which people look to others for cue and signs indicating various possibilities of what to expect and how to behave. -For example, in disaster situations such as a tornado emergent norms guide behavior 2. Value-added Theory -Emphasizes the extent to which multiple conditions must be in place for collective behavior to occur. It emphasizes conditions such as the broader structural conditions (i.e., environmental conditions, such as being in a crowd), the presence of structural strain (i.e. a grievance), a generalized belief (i.e., identification of a problem and attribution of blame or responsibility), a precipitating trigger (i.e., a spark that triggers action), mobilization for action *(i.e., leaders emerge to direct a crowd), and social control (i.e., lack of social control such as police presence may facilitate action, but strong presence of police might limit or stop collective action).
demography concepts and processes
Total number of people in a society at any given time based on three variables 1. births - add to total population 2. deaths - subtract from population 3. migrations - immigration vs. out-migration Birth rate -Crude birthrate : number of babies born each year for every 1,000 members of the population. Death rate -Crude death rage : number of deaths each year per 1,000 people -Infant mortality rate : number of deaths among infants under one year of age for each 1,000 live births in a given year -Migration
frame alignment process
When social movements link their goals to the goals of other social movements and merge into a single group, a frame alignment process (Snow et al. 1986) occurs—an ongoing and intentional means of recruiting participants to the movement.
gender and health
Women are affected adversely both by unequal access to and institutionalized sexism in the healthcare industry. remedy. Historically and contemporaneously, many aspects of women's lives have been medicalized, including menstruation, pre-menstrual syndrome, pregnancy, childbirth, and menopause. The medicalization of pregnancy and childbirth has been particularly contentious in recent decades, with many women opting against the medical process and choosing a more natural childbirth.
study of population
World population -7.4 Billion people -1 birth every 8 seconds Top 10 most 10 populous countries -China ~1.4 Billion -India ~1.3 Billion -United States ~330 million -Indonesia ~262 million -Brazil ~208 million -Pakistan ~207 million -Nigeria ~195 million -Bangladesh ~159 million -Russia ~ 142 million -Japan ~127 million
assembling perspective
another system for understanding collective behavior that credited individuals in crowds as rational beings. Unlike previous theories, this theory refocuses attention from collective behavior to collective action. Remember that collective behavior is a noninstitutionalized gathering, whereas collective action is based on a shared interest. McPhail's theory focused primarily on the processes associated with crowd behavior, plus the lifecycle of gatherings. He identified several instances of convergent or collective behavior, as shown on the chart below.
impairment
describes physical limitations of handicaps
pollution
describes what happens when contaminants are introduced into an environment (water, air, land) at levels that are damaging. Environments can often sustain a limited amount of contaminants without marked change, and water, air, and soil can "heal" themselves to a certain degree. However, once contaminant levels reach a certain point, the results can be catastrophic.
public healthcare
government funded, The two main publicly funded healthcare programs are Medicare, which provides health services to people over sixty-five years old as well as people who meet other standards for disability, and Medicaid, which provides services to people with very low incomes who meet other eligibility requirements
Reform movements
seek to change something specific about the social structure. Examples include antinuclear groups, Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), the Dreamers movement for immigration reform, and the Human Rights Campaign's advocacy for Marriage Equality.
conventional crowds
those who come together for a scheduled event that occurs regularly, like a religious service
asylum-seeker
those whose claim to refugee status has not been validated.
public
unorganized, relatively diffused group of people who share ideas, such as the Libertarian political party
Fracking
, another word for hydraulic fracturing, is a method used to recover gas and oil from shale by drilling down into the earth and directing a high-pressure mixture of water, sand, and proprietary chemicals into the rock. Commonly, this process also includes drilling horizontally into the rock to create new pathways for gas to travel. While energy companies view fracking as a profitable revolution in the industry, there are a number of concerns associated with the practice.
Society affects people's health in important ways
-Technology affects health -In poor nations, infectious diseases are widespread because of poor sanitation -Industrialization raises living standards but creates new threats, Beck's Risk Society -Social inequality affects health -All societies distribute resources unequally -Overall, the rich have far better physical, mental, and emotional health than do the poor
new social movement theory
a development of European social scientists in the 1950s and 1960s, attempts to explain the proliferation of postindustrial and postmodern movements that are difficult to analyze using traditional social movement theories. Rather than being one specific theory, it is more of a perspective that revolves around understanding movements as they relate to politics, identity, culture, and social change. Some of these more complex interrelated movements include ecofeminism, which focuses on the patriarchal society as the source of environmental problems, and the transgender rights movement.
cancer cluster
a geographic area with high levels of cancer within its population, can due to pollution
zero population growth
according to Ehrlich, it is the environment, not specifically the food supply, that will play a crucial role in the continued health of planet's population (Ehrlich 1968). Ehrlich's ideas suggest that the human population is moving rapidly toward complete environmental collapse, as privileged people use up or pollute a number of environmental resources such as water and air. He advocated for a goal of zero population growth (ZPG), in which the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration. While support for this concept is mixed, it is still considered a possible solution to global overpopulation.
refugee
an individual who has been forced to leave his or her country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster
emergent norm theory
asserts that, in this circumstance, people perceive and respond to the crowd situation with their particular (individual) set of norms, which may change as the crowd experience evolves. This focus on the individual component of interaction reflects a symbolic interactionist perspective. the process begins when individuals suddenly find themselves in a new situation, or when an existing situation suddenly becomes strange or unfamiliar. For example, think about human behavior during Hurricane Katrina. New Orleans was decimated and people were trapped without supplies or a way to evacuate. In these extraordinary circumstances, what outsiders saw as "looting" was defined by those involved as seeking needed supplies for survival.
sustainable development
development that occurs without depleting or damaging the natural environment,
crowd
fairly large number of people in close proximity
alternative movements
focused on self-improvement and limited, specific changes to individual beliefs and behavior. These include trends like transcendental meditation or a macrobiotic diet
acting crowds
focuses on a specific goal or action, such as a protest movement or riot
megalopolis
huge urban corridor encompassing multiple cities and their surrounding suburbs. These metropolises use vast quantities of natural resources and are a growing part of the U.S. landscape.
population composition
made up of fertility, mortality, and migration rates. a snapshot of the demographic profile of a population. This number can be measured for societies, nations, world regions, or other groups.
Stigmatization means
means their identity is spoiled; they are labeled as different, discriminated against, and sometimes even shunned. They are labeled (as an interactionist might point out) and ascribed a master status (as a functionalist might note), becoming "the blind girl" or "the boy in the wheelchair" instead of someone afforded a full identity by society. This can be especially true for people who are disabled due to mental illness or disorders.
race and health
minorities have shorter lifespans and are more prone to disease
collective behavior
noninstitutionalized activity in which several or many people voluntarily engage.
mortality
number of deaths in a given time or place
sex ratio
number of men for every hundred women
gentrification
occurs when members of the middle and upper classes enter and renovate city areas that have been historically less affluent while the poor urban underclass are forced by resulting price pressures to leave those neighborhoods for increasingly decaying portions of the city.
Casual crowds
of people who are in the same place at the same time but who aren't really interacting, such as people standing in line at the post office.
prognostic framing
offers a solution and states how it will be implemented. Some examples of this frame, when looking at the issue of marriage equality as framed by the anti-gay marriage movement, include the plan to restrict marriage to "one man/one woman" or to allow only "civil unions" instead of marriages. As you can see, there may be many competing prognostic frames even within social movements adhering to similar diagnostic frames.
expressive crowds
people who join together to express emotion, often at funerals, weddings, or the like
underinsured
people who pay at least 10 percent of their income on healthcare costs not covered by insurance or, for low-income adults, those whose medical expenses or deductibles are at least 5 percent of their income (Schoen, Doty, Robertson, and Collins 2011). The Commonwealth study further reports that while underinsurance has historically been an issue that low-income families faced, today it is affecting middle-income families more and more.
personality disorders
personality disorders cause people to behave in ways that are seen as abnormal to society but seem normal to them.
private healthcare
privately funded, The U.S. Census (2011) divides private insurance into employment-based insurance and direct-purchase insurance. Employment-based insurance is health plan coverage that is provided in whole or in part by an employer or union; it can cover just the employee, or the employee and his or her family. Direct purchase insurance is coverage that an individual buys directly from a private company.
medicalization
process by which previously normal aspects of life are redefined as deviant and needing medical attention to remedy.
crowdsourcing
process of obtaining needed services, ideas, or content by soliciting contributions from a large group of people, and especially from an online community rather than from traditional employees or suppliers.
stages of social movements
process. In the preliminary stage, people become aware of an issue, and leaders emerge. This is followed by the coalescence stage when people join together and organize in order to publicize the issue and raise awareness. In the institutionalization stage, the movement no longer requires grassroots volunteerism: it is an established organization, typically with a paid staff. When people fall away and adopt a new movement, the movement successfully brings about the change it sought, or when people no longer take the issue seriously, the movement falls into the decline stage.
Modernization
processes that increase the amount of specialization and differentiation of structure in societies resulting in the move from an undeveloped society to a developed, technologically driven society
social movements
purposeful, organized groups that strive to work toward a common social goal
disability
reduction in one's ability to perform everyday tasks, describes social limitations of handicaps.
one of the strongest and most consistent predictors of a person's morbidity and mortality experience is that person's...
socioeconomic status (SES).
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
sometimes formed to support such movements, such as the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (FOAM).
flash mobs
spontaneous gatherings, can be fun or political protest
diagnostic framing
states the problem in a clear, easily understood way. When applying diagnostic frames, there are no shades of gray: instead, there is the belief that what "they" do is wrong and this is how "we" will fix it. The anti-gay marriage movement is an example of diagnostic framing with its uncompromising insistence that marriage is only between a man and a woman.
environmental sociology
studies the way humans interact with their environments. This field is closely related to human ecology, which focuses on the relationship between people and their built and natural environment.
urbanization
study of the social, political, and economic relationships in cities, and someone specializing in urban sociology studies those relationships.
medical sociology
systematic study of how humans manage issues of health and illness, disease and disorders, and healthcare for both the sick and the healthy.
motivational framing
the call to action: what should you do once you agree with the diagnostic frame and believe in the prognostic frame? These frames are action-oriented. In the gay marriage movement, a call to action might encourage you to vote "no" on Proposition 8 in California (a move to limit marriage to male-female couples), or conversely, to contact your local congressperson to express your viewpoint that marriage should be restricted to male-female couples.
social movement industry
the collection of the social movement organizations that are striving toward similar goals, was growing.
socialized medicine
the government owns and runs the system. It employs the doctors, nurses, and other staff, and it owns and runs the hospitals (Klein 2009). The best example of socialized medicine is in Great Britain, where the National Health System (NHS) gives free healthcare to all its residents. And despite some U.S. citizens' knee-jerk reaction to any healthcare changes that hint of socialism, the United States has one socialized system with the Veterans Health Administration.
demography
the study of populations
Social epidemiology
the study of the causes and distribution of diseases. Social epidemiology can reveal how social problems are connected to the health of different populations. These epidemiological studies show that the health problems of high-income nations differ greatly from those of low-income nations. Some diseases, like cancer, are universal. But others, like obesity, heart disease, respiratory disease, and diabetes are much more common in high-income countries and are a direct result of a sedentary lifestyle combined with poor diet. High-income nations also have a higher incidence of depression (Bromet et al. 2011). In contrast, low-income nations suffer significantly from malaria and tuberculosis.
epidemiology
the study of the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases
metropolis
the suburbs, exurbs, and metropolitan areas all combine to form this
environmental racism
way in which minority group neighborhoods (populated primarily by people of color and members of low socioeconomic groups) are burdened with a disproportionate number of hazards, including toxic waste facilities, garbage dumps, and other sources of environmental pollution and foul odors that lower the quality of life. All around the globe, members of minority groups bear a greater burden of the health problems that result from higher exposure to waste and pollution. This can occur due to unsafe or unhealthy work conditions where no regulations exist (or are enforced) for poor workers, or in neighborhoods that are uncomfortably close to toxic materials. The statistics on environmental racism are shocking. Research shows that it pervades all aspects of African Americans' lives: environmentally unsound housing, schools with asbestos problems, facilities and playgrounds with lead paint. A twenty-year comparative study led by sociologist Robert Bullard determined "race to be more important than socioeconomic status in predicting the location of the nation's commercial hazardous waste facilities" (Bullard et al. 2007). His research found, for example, that Black children are five times more likely to have lead poisoning (the leading environmental health threat for children) than their White counterparts, and that a disproportionate number of people of color reside in areas with hazardous waste facilities (Bullard et al. 2007). Sociologists with the project are examining how environmental racism is addressed in the long-term cleanup of the environmental disasters caused by Hurricane Katrina.
resource mobilization theory
way to explain movement success in terms of the ability to acquire resources and mobilize individuals. Resources are primarily time and money, and the more of both, the greater the power of organized movements.
social change
which is the change in society created through social movements as well as external factors like environmental shifts or technological innovations. Essentially, any disruptive shift in the status quo, be it intentional or random, human-caused or natural, can lead to social change.
Social epidemiology
§the study of how health and disease are distributed throughout a society's population -examines both the origins and the spread of disease -Analyze how people's health is tied to their physical and social environments -food deserts and environmental injustice
stereotype interchangeability
, the same insults that are flung today at the overweight and obese population (lazy, for instance), have been flung at various racial and ethnic groups in earlier history. Of course, no one gives voice to these kinds of views in public now, except when talking about obese people.
Malthusian theory
, three factors would control human population that exceeded the earth's carrying capacity, or how many people can live in a given area considering the amount of available resources. Malthus identified these factors as war, famine, and disease (Malthus 1798). He termed them "positive checks" because they increase mortality rates, thus keeping the population in check. They are countered by "preventive checks," which also control the population but by reducing fertility rates; preventive checks include birth control and celibacy. Thinking practically, Malthus saw that people could produce only so much food in a given year, yet the population was increasing at an exponential rate. Eventually, he thought people would run out of food and begin to starve. They would go to war over increasingly scarce resources and reduce the population to a manageable level, and then the cycle would begin anew.
social organization of healthcare
-Characteristics of U.S. Healthcare: U.S. one of the few industrialized nations of the world that does not provide universal health care, Includes healthcare delivers (doctors, clinics), For-profit insurance companies, Government programs that provide health care for aged and the poor -Affordable Care Act: Aimed to address the problem of too many uninsured Americans -Medicare: Provides health insurance to older Americans -Medicaid: Provides health insurance to poor Americans
conflict perspective of health
-Theorists using the conflict perspective suggest that issues with the healthcare system, as with most other social problems, are rooted in capitalist society. According to conflict theorists, capitalism and the pursuit of profit lead to the commodification of health: the changing of something not generally thought of as a commodity into something that can be bought and sold in a marketplace. In this view, people with money and power—the dominant group—are the ones who make decisions about how the healthcare system will be run. They therefore ensure that they will have healthcare coverage, while simultaneously ensuring that subordinate groups stay subordinate through lack of access. This creates significant healthcare—and health—disparities between the dominant and subordinate groups. -health disparities created by racism, sexism, ageism, and heterosexism. When health is a commodity, the poor are more likely to experience illness caused by poor diet, to live and work in unhealthy environments, and are less likely to challenge the system. In the United States, a disproportionate number of racial minorities also have less economic power, so they bear a great deal of the burden of poor health. It is not only the poor who suffer from the conflict between dominant and subordinate groups. For many years now, homosexual couples have been denied spousal benefits, either in the form of health insurance or in terms of medical responsibility. Further adding to the issue, doctors hold a disproportionate amount of power in the doctor/patient relationship, which provides them with extensive social and economic benefits. -they do not give enough credit to medical advances that would not have been made without an economic structure to support and reward researchers: a structure dependent on profitability. Additionally, in their criticism of the power differential between doctor and patient, they are perhaps dismissive of the hard-won medical expertise possessed by doctors and not patients,
functionalism and health
-health is vital to the stability of the society, and therefore sickness is a sanctioned form of deviance. Talcott Parsons (1951) was the first to discuss this in terms of the sick role: patterns of expectations that define appropriate behavior for the sick and for those who take care of them. -the sick person has a specific role with both rights and responsibilities. To start with, she has not chosen to be sick and should not be treated as responsible for her condition. The sick person also has the right of being exempt from normal social roles; she is not required to fulfill the obligation of a well person and can avoid her normal responsibilities without censure. However, this exemption is temporary and relative to the severity of the illness. The exemption also requires legitimation by a physician; that is, a physician must certify that the illness is genuine. -responsibility of the sick person is twofold: to try to get well and to seek technically competent help from a physician. If the sick person stays ill longer than is appropriate (malingers), she may be stigmatized. -Parsons argues that since the sick are unable to fulfill their normal societal roles, their sickness weakens the society. Therefore, it is sometimes necessary for various forms of social control to bring the behavior of a sick person back in line with normal expectations. -doctors serve as gatekeepers, deciding who is healthy and who is sick—a relationship in which the doctor has all the power.
symbolic interactionism and health
-perspective, health and illness are both socially constructed. As we discussed in the beginning of the chapter, interactionists focus on the specific meanings and causes people attribute to illness. The term medicalization of deviance refers to the process that changes "bad" behavior into "sick" behavior. A related process is demedicalization, in which "sick" behavior is normalized again. Medicalization and demedicalization affect who responds to the patient, how people respond to the patient, and how people view the personal responsibility of the patient -With alcoholism defined as a disease and not a personal choice, alcoholics came to be viewed with more compassion and understanding. Thus, "badness" was transformed into "sickness." -demedicalization of homosexuality
collective verbalization
Collective and simultaneous participation in a speech or song
