SOC 220 Exam 2

How did Mock view her body? How had this changed over time? Why did Mock see the genital reconstruction surgery as so important? How does she NOT view the surgery? (See p. 230 for this last question)

"Having genital reconstruction surgery did not make me better. The procedure made me no longer feel as self-conscious about my body, which made me more confident and helped me to be more completely myself. Like hormones, it enabled me to more fully inhabit my most authentic self."

How many Black adults incarcerated compared to White adults?

-1 in 17 white men, 1 in 3 black men -1 in 111 white women, 1 in 18 black women

Average number of sexual partners?

-1950s and 1960s: 11 -1940s or 1970s: 10 -1980s and 1990s: 8

Controlling images (definition, main types for Black women according to Collins)?

-A controlling image is similar to a stereotype; an image that is used to incorrectly represent a group of individuals based on racist or sexual notions. -Collins notes that controlling images are especially prominent in the media around Black women. According to Collins, controlling images provide basis for dehumanization of Black women and the exploitation of their labor. Collins goes on to state that part of the mission of Black feminism involves challenging the controlling images that affect Black women. Controlling images result from binary oppositional thinking that emphasizes and then reinforces differences among social groups. Such thinking implies a superiority and inferiority in social relationships, leading to the objectification and domination of one group over another. -Collins says this oppositional binary thinking leads society to devalue Black women due to the cult of true womanhood. Society thus upholds middle class white women as the symbol of purity, piety, submissiveness, and domesticity. Black women, on the other hand, have to grapple with five different controlling images: the mammy, the matriarch, the welfare mother, the Black lady, and the Jezebel.

What is love map?

-A group of physical, psychological, and behavior traits that one finds attractive in a mate -Our idea of what we do and don't want in a partner is our "love map" -You may have a good friend whose taste in boyfriends or girlfriends you've never really understood. This is because we have different love maps. Starting in childhood, we develop specific "likes" and "dislikes" in response to families, peers, experiences, cultural prescriptions, and cultural definitions of love, beauty. By the time we reach adolescence (teens), we have already developed an idea of who we will find attractive and fall in love with. These are culturally shaped, but alsowe have a great deal of agency in these maps.

What is Mass Public Education in 1850s? Who is included & the consequences?

-All states offered government-supported elementary and secondary schools to educated White children of all social classes -Black children excluded until after Civil War and even then segregated: 1.White female literacy rates rose to match White male literacy rates, although Black literacy rates remained low 2.Provided women with new career opportunities as teachers -Women paid 40% less than men -Principals, supervisors, and school board primarily men -Race -Beginning in the 1850s, all states offered government-supported elementary and secondary schools to educated White children of all social classes, and these schools were open for both boys and girls. With the opening for these schools which led to growing demands for higher educational standards and with a rise in urbanization, teaching became a full-time job, albeit one that carried a salary too low to support a family. Thus, educational administrators employed women as a cheap and efficient means to implement mass education, with women teachers replacing many male teachers who moved on to higher paid jobs. Even as women took these jobs, women teachers were paid 40% less than their men teacher counterparts on the (often false) assumption that they had only themselves to support. There was also a belief that women's "maternal instinct" made them naturally suited to work with young children. The idea was that if needed to discipline students, the male principals and supervisors could step in, leading to a strong gender hierarchy in these schools. Additionally, the curriculum was still written by men, in that the school board dominated by men handed down strict guidelines for instruction and curriculum and women expected to strictly follow this. -Black children were excluded from state-funded public education until after the Civil War, and- even then- schools were highly segregated and schools for Black children given very little funding. As a result of expanded state-funded public education,White female literacy rates rose to match White male literacy rates,but- because of the institutional racism--Black literacy rates remained low.Black women founded schools for Black children, even as they received little funding and support for these schools. Teaching provided employment opportunities for Black women, as they had largely been restricted to doing domestic work. Teaching was also preferred by Black women as it shielded them from the sexual harassment they often faced in domestic work

What are the premarital sex trends?

-Another survey found that the percentage of women who had premarital sex by age 20 is roughly the same for all cohorts born after 1948. This study also found that the women in the youngest cohort in this survey—those born from 1979-1984—were less likely to have premarital sex by age 20 than those born before them. -today, 95 percent of Americans are now having sexual intercourse before marriage. This is not so much a function of individuals having sex at a younger age, but more because more people are getting married at older ages after having sex in their teens and early 20s.

Describe Preschool patterns in education?

-As early as preschool (and earlier), boys and girls taught differently- indicating that any early differences between boys and girls in behavior and school readiness may not just be biological but also social -According to new report, Black children make up 18 percent of preschoolers, but make up nearly half of all out-of-school suspensions

Impact on children of having parent in prison?

-As many as 12 percent of American children have had a biological father in prison or jail. And women are much more likely to be the primary caretakers of children, thus as rates of women in prison rise, so do the number of children with a mother in prison. More than half of state and federal inmates report having at least one minor child, and over 2.6 million children have a parent in prison or jail on any given day. There are strong racial disparities in these patterns. One in four Black children born in 1990 saw their father head off to prison before they turned 14 compared to one in thirty White children. There are also interactions between race, educational attainment, and gender, such that one in two Black children whose father dropped out of high school saw father imprisoned -We're also seeing an increase in pregnant women and women giving birth in prison. 25% of adult women in prison have either given birth at some point during the year prior to their incarceration or are pregnant at the time of their arrest. -So what is the impact on children? There are two hypotheses. The first is that the child would do BETTER if their parent incarcerated, because children better off without their crime-prone parents. The second is that the child would do WORSEbecause they lose a crucial source of motivation and support with their parents behind bars and that a parent in prison is stressful. -Research finds that a very small subset of children—those with abusive parents—are more likely to thrive academically and socially if their parents are incarcerated. But most children declined markedly when parent entered prison, providing more support for the second hypothesis. (This is not to say many children not incredibly resilient- just that it seems to be to child's benefit if parents aren't in prison.) Children with incarcerated fathers are three times more likely than peers from similar backgrounds to become homeless. And they are three times more likely to suffer from depression or behavioral problems than the average American child, and twice as likely to suffer from learning disabilities and anxiety. -There has been a movement to keep incarcerated childbearing people and their infants together after birth, based largely on evidence showing this benefits the baby. For example, as this slide shows, recently, when a person gave birth while incarcerated in Minnesota, they were not allowed to keep the baby. After two or three days in the hospital, the baby would go on to a new caregiver — a relative if possible, and if not, the baby went into the state's foster-care system. The United States as a whole is one of only four nations that routinely separate inmate mothers from their newborns. In 2022, Minnesota became the state the first in the country to stop separating childbearing people in jail and prisons from their newborns. The program stipulates that mother and child will be placed in a community-based program for up to a year.

How men and women do gender with their bodies and how this relates to the gender binary?

-Because of gender binary, vast majority of us work hard to minimize overlap between male and female bodies -pressing our bodies into ideal male or female shapes. These become examples of doing gender. For example, Adriana Lima once revealed that in order to prepare for Victoria's Secret catwalk, for months she works out daily with personal trainer, up to twice a days the month before. Nutritionist gives her protein shakes, vitamins, and supplements. She drinks a gallon of water a day, and she consumes only protein shakes the 9 days before the show. For the final 12 hours, she drinks no water at all. Only then, after all of that work, can she achieve this "ideal female shape." I mentioned this to my spouse, who is a powerlifter, and he said that this was less extreme than what some powerlifters and bodybuilders do- and he mentioned that you tend to see a lot of passing out on stage by amateur bodybuilders and powerlifters for this reason. Yet many bodybuilders have achieved close to this "ideal male shape- and strength" from this work. -Women choose to eat salad when they'd rather have a burger and fries. Men encouraged to make a spectacle of overeating. Many gyms are effectively gender segregated, with most women at aerobic machines trying to lose weight and most men at weight machines trying to build muscle. Gender differences in size aren't very pronounced but we work to make it appear that way. Women take pains to keep their faces, legs, arm, armpits, and bikini lines free of hair if any chance of gender-inappropriate body hair being spotted. Men's leg, body, and armpit hair, in contrast, is seen as naturally masculine- shaving it would seem bizarre -Use diet, exercise, dress, and even chemicals and cosmetic surgeries to shape bodies into "opposite ideal forms" -We also tend to choose clothes that preserve the illusion of the gender binary. Many women wear padded or push-up bras to lift and enhance their breasts, or wear low-cut tops that emphasize and display cleavage (which men aren't supposed to have). High heels- as we already discussed-- create an artificially arched spine that pushes out the breasts and buttocks. Formfitting clothes reveal women's curves, while less form-fitting or even baggy clothes make men's bodies appear more linear and squared off. Fitted clothes also make women appear small while baggier clothes make men seem larger. -When diet, exercise, and dress don't shape their bodies into so-called opposite ideal forms, some men and women resort to chemicals and cosmetic surgeries. Men are more likely than women to take steroids to increase their muscle mass or get bicep, tricep, chin, and calf implants that make their bodies appear more muscular and formidable. Women are more likely to take diet pills. Some undergo liposuction, and may undergo plastic surgery. -For men, breast reduction surgeries are one of the most common surgeries performed on boys and men who are horrified by even the suggestion of a "breast." This is the second most common cosmetic procedure for boys under 18. -At the heart of this cultural frame is the gender binary and the surveillance and policing that goes into ensuring that "girls" and "boys" and "women" and "men" are properly performing their gender

Gender differences in online harassment?

-Beginning in August 2014, Gamergate targeted several women in the video game industry, including game developers and critics. After a former boyfriend of one developer wrote a lengthy disparaging blog post about her, others falsely accused her of entering a relationship with a journalist in exchange for positive coverage, and threatened her with assault and murder. Those endorsing the blog post and spreading accusations organized themselves under the hashtag #Gamergate. Harassment campaigns were coordinated through multiple forums and included doxing, threats of rape, and death threats. Many of those organizing under #Gamergate argue that they are campaigning against political correctness and poor journalistic ethics in the video game industry. Most commentators dismissed Gamergate's purported concerns with ethics and condemned its misogynistic behavior. -Even beyond Gamergate, we know that women are more likely to be harassed on social media than men during online gaming and in comments sections. This is especially true for young women. In general, online spaces are more welcoming to men than women. -In addition, a recent study found that 1.1 million abusive or problematic tweets were sent to women in 2018 - an average of one every 30 seconds. Further, this study found that Black women were disproportionately targeted on Twitter, being 84% more likely than white women to be mentioned in abusive or problematic tweets. One in ten tweets mentioning Black women was abusive or problematic, compared to one in fifteen for white women

What is The academic gender gap? Give examples

-Compared to girls, boys... -Are disciplined, suspended, and expelled more often -Have higher dropout rates -Are more likely to be classified with a learning disability -Make lower grades -Have lower test scores in major subjects except for math -Less likely to enroll in higher education and to complete a bachelor's degree -In 1960, 65% of all bachelor's degree given to men, but, by 2016, 57.34% of all bachelor's degrees were given to women, which means there were 134 women graduating from college that year for every 100 men. Compared to girls, boys are disciplined, suspended, and expelled more often, have higher dropout rates (see graph on this slide), are more likely to be classified with a learning disability, make lower grades on average, have lower test scores in major subjects except for math, are less likely to enroll in higher education and to complete a bachelor's degree, and women earn 63% of master's degrees and 53% of PhDs. Even among STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) degrees, women earn 53 percent of biology, mathematics, and physical sciences (e.g., chemistry, physics, etc.) degrees. (Interestingly,women earn 51.3 percent of social science degrees, but 77.6 percent of psychology degrees. Social sciences include sociology, political science, and economics.)

How different sects of Judaism view women and how reflected in practices and expectations? Conservative

-Conservative Judaism was founded as middle-of-the-road alternative, between Reform and Orthodox traditions. It is closer to Reform in terms of equality between the sexes. Early on, women and men were permitted to sit together, but women excluded from handling and reading Torah until 1973. By the mid-1980s, women were allowed to be rabbis. Conservative Judaism continues to prohibit the ordination of lesbians and gay men as rabbis, although they say still welcomed into congregations. 60% of Conservative Jewish congregations in the US report they have members who openly identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, or queer. In 2012, the U.S. Conservative movement endorsed gay marriage and provided guidelines for same-sex divorce. While conservative Jewish rabbis may now bless same-sex marriages, men are expected not to have anal sex with each other because of the verses in Leviticus, and the movement recommends that people who do experience any heterosexual attraction marry heterosexually (giving women in these marriages the right to sexual satisfaction from a husband and men the obligation to have children, if they can).

Reasons why Black women's incarceration rates have increased?

-During the 1980s, prison population increased 168 percent -Number of Black women increased by 278% and Black men by 168% -A second key "reform" that has increased rates of incarceration- especially among Black and Latina women- have been mandatory sentencing laws for drugs and mandatory life sentence after a third convicted felony. Under these laws, judges and prosecutors do not have discretion over sentencing, meaning any leniency mothers may have gotten is no longer there. We have seen the impacts of mandatory sentencing laws especially for Black women. During the 1980s when mandatory sentencing laws and plea bargains on the rise, the prison population increased by 168 percent. And the number of Black women in prison increased by 278% and Black men by 168%.

Status offense (definition, examples, gender differences)?

-Girls more likely than boys to be charged with status offenses -Although there are more boys arrested than girls, girls are more often charged with what we call status offenses. There are actions prohibited ONLY to a certain group of people, or behavior which if engaged in by an adult would NOT be considered a violation of the law. Examples are running away from home, truancy, being a "juvenile in need of supervision", or being in danger of becoming "morally depraved." -Why do you think women more often charged with these? This often relate to parents' attempts to adhere to and enforce the sexual double standard. Parents are more likely to bring a girl to court for her behavior than a boy, and research shows that parents of adolescents at high risk of delinquent behavior (live in poor high-crime neighborhoods, have siblings with juvenile records, etc) impose more restrictions on daughters than sons. Thus not surprisingly, although studies show that boys do more delinquent behaviors than girls, parents are more likely to report their daughters. Also research shows many young women charged as runaways are actually attempting to escape from physically and sexually abusive homes. Some juvenile courts committed to preserve parental authority and so force girls to return to their abusers, thus they are criminalizing girls' survival strategies. -Studies also show that girls face harsher sentences for status offenses once in court, with this highly variable by race. Although White girls are more likely to be recommended for treatment (rehab, mental health facility), girls of color are more likely to be recommended for "detention-oriented" placements. White girls are also more likely to be placed in private facilities; girls of color more likely to be placed in public facilities.

Gender differences in religiosity and explanations for these differences?

-Historically, despite women's often greater religious devotion, the major religious traditions have been overwhelmingly patriarchal -Religion has contributed to the oppression of women (as well as minorities), but religion principles have also inspired many to work for social change -n most religious traditions historically, men have higher spiritual status and privileges. Many religions have been used to legitimate the subordination of women (as well as various racial and ethnic groups, people with various sexual identities, and members of other religions). Despite women's often greater religious devotion, as we'll discuss on a later slide, the major religious traditions have been overwhelmingly patriarchal. Remember that patriarchy defines a social system in which males hold primary power, predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property at the specific exclusion of women, at least to a large degree. In this way, religion can be thought of as dysfunctional- at least in a sociological sense-- by promoting inequality with sexist, racist, or other stratifying doctrines. -But on the other hand, religious organizations have also been agents of social justice and political change. In the Civil Rights era, most communications about gatherings, protests, or events to raise awareness were announced and advertised through churches. (Keep in mind, though, that religious leaders also used verse of scriptures as biblical justification that people with darker skin are cursed, and therefore deserve a lower status. Or if you read Letter from a Birmingham Jail written by Martin Luther King, Jr., you see that church leaders accused Dr. King of causing division and not obeying authority.) -And many feminists, especially in the first wave of feminism, gathered first together in churches and around religious causes. For example, many of the original Temperance societies had religious affiliations, like the evangelical group, the American Temperance Society, which was founded in 1826. Ten years later, at the evangelical American Temperance Society's height, one out of every ten Americans was a member. They worked to outlaw alcohol out of what they felt was a religious obligation to "resist moral decay." Many of the same women involved in the Temperance movement also ledthe Women's Rights Movements, as the Temperance movement gave them perspective on the power they had when organizing. (Although keep in mind from our earlier lecture, this was mainly aimed at the interests of White middle and upper class women.) -Elizabeth Cady Stanton was delegated to draw up a document representing the sentiments of the women. Modeling her manifesto on the American Declaration of Independence, she stated eighteen wrongs and emphasized strong religiousreasons for women's rights, including the statement that, "All men and women are endowed by their creator with inalienable rights." She argued that a woman must be allowed to act as her conscience dictates. "...being invested by the Creator with the same capabilities and same consciousness of responsibility for their exercise, it is demonstrably the right and duty of woman, equally with man, to promote every righteous cause by every righteous means; and especially in regard to the great subjects of morals and religion..." -83.4% of women around the world identify with a faith group, compared with 79.9% of men - a difference of about 97 million people -The first idea is that women more submissive, passive, obedient than men- all traits related to high levels of religiosity. Second, it could be that religious activities are an extension of women's household. Women's primary responsibility tends to be for family well-being and child care, and this overlaps with the goals and role of religious traditions. For example, we know people tend to become more religious after having children, for a variety of reason. And given that women tend to be more responsible for childcare and childrearing- as we'll discuss more later this semester- this may lead women to be more often in church (with their children). The third explanation, that women have more time for religious activities, also relates to the division of labor.

Case of Puerto Rico?

-In the 1920s, a coalition of US government officials, Puerto Rican officials, and medical officials pushed for mass sterilization of Puerto Rican women, viewing overpopulation as a cause of social problems. Many women were sterilized after giving birth just once, either without being told what was happening or being told a lie (for example, that tubal ligations are reversible). This was done while still in the room where they gave birth, and it was highly coercive. Because of these practices, by 1969, 1/3rd of women in Puerto Rico were sterilized, the highest percentage of sterilized women in the world. Puerto Rican women were later used as research subjects for oral contraceptives, again without their consent.

Reflection hypothesis (definition, examples)?

-Media content mirrors behaviors and relationships and values and norms most prevalent in society. -But it may actually bethat media is what shapes and creates culture, not the other way around. For example, as shown on this slide, we might ask where fashion trends come from- do people drive those fashion trends or do they come from the media? In many ways, the media is often the definer of what is important. Media is also a key source of information for most people, as well as the focus of leisure activities. Most people uncritically accept media content as fact. At the same time, what media is has become incredibly diverse in recent years, especially with the rise of the internet and different social media platforms. Not surprisingly, feminist researchers are concerned with media portrayals of gender, the focus of our lecture today.

Main themes from Edward Morris' study (conscientious resistance, contrived carelessness)?

-Morris found that boys in both schools practiced contrived carelessness as a gender strategy consistent with how masculinity defined at their schools. (This finding of "contrived carelessness" fits with a doing gender framework.)Contrived carelessness is basically just acting like you don't care. He argues that this gender strategy of contrived carelessness hindered achievement but aided representations of masculinity. It involved an attitude of being "too cool for school," reflected in what Morris named this chapter. And he quotes someone as saying, "There is a perception among the boys- and it sounds silly- but that school isn't 'cool' so a lot of it's a cultural thing." He argues that the students know school supposed to be important bur neglect to invest in it. He calls this the attitude-achievement paradox: there is a high value placed on education for boys yet this positive attitude does not translate into achievement. Across both schools, most boys consistently had an unruffled, carefree attitude towards schoolwork. -Ed Morris in his book found that girls in his study tended to direct considerable care and effort to academic work. They (and their teachers) explained that this is "just what girls do"- with this being set up as counter to what boys do. This reflects back to our discussions of the gender binary and doing gender. Boys, by contrast in his study, took great pride in their lack of academic care and effort. As one teacher noted, "A lot of them are happy just getting a B or even a C, and they expect you to leave them alone." Morris argues that this is part of their presentation of self, a sociological idea from Goffman. And he also connects this to idea of "performing masculinity -Girls displayed conscientious resistance. Use institutional compliance as a means of resisting gender inequality -Girls' resistance in school can be difficult to identify. Girls' adherence to rules, regulations, and requirements are unapologetically aimed at achieving recognition and independence in a male-dominated society. As discussed, boys rebel against school rules, but such rebellion is actually a means of complying with norms of risk-taking masculinity. But Morris says that girls who followed school rules actually used this institutional compliance as a means of resisting gender inequality. By working hard, they see that they can gain independence later in the labor market, and not be dependent on men. In this way, girls practiced conscientious resistance. They used institutional compliance as a means of resisting gender inequality.

How is obesity viewed compared to anorexia?

-Obesity (and binge eating) seen as health problem due to personal (or parental) neglect/irresponsibility -Anorexia/bulimia seen as terrible illness with victims -There is evidence that White middle-class women and girls more likely than poorer girls, women and girls of color, or boys and men to be diagnosed with anorexia or bulimia. But some researchers and clinicians think that this may reflect biases in diagnosis. In contrast, rates of binge-eating disorders (often associated with higher body weight) similar among Black women, White women, and White men (some find more with Black women). Studies of newspaper articles discussing these two conditions find we are more likely to blame the individual for binge eating disorders but the illness (not the person) for anorexia or bulimia. -binge eating is a disorder seen as the fault of the person experiencing it, or their parents. And this also has a racial component, with Black children and their parents more likely to be blamed. As an important side of this, people with heavier weights may actually have anorexia, due to pressures to lose weight quickly, that goes under-diagnosed. -A recent study found that women and those with female bodies experiencing menopause are more likely to develop eating disorders, given physiological changes and societal pressures to be thin. This is a research area that studies have only recently begun to pay attention to and shows again how age and gender intersect to shape bodily experiences

Describe Frequency of hook-up sex compared to committed partnership sex?

-One study of college students found that, by senior year, roughly 40 percent of those who ever hooked up had engaged in 3 or fewer hookups, 40 percent between 4 and 9 hookups, and only 20 percent in 20 or more. About 80 percent of students hook up less than once per semester over course of college. Only about 1/3rd engaged in intercourse in their most recent hookup; 1/3rd involved kissing and non-genital touching and 1/3rd involved oral sex or manual stimulation of genitals. Twenty percent of seniors in college had never had vaginal intercourse. -Sociological studies suggest that hookups have not replaced committed relationships. Students often participate in both at different times during college. One study found that by senior year, 69% of heterosexual students have been in college relationship at least 6 months.

Stained glass ceiling (experiences of men ministers compared to women ministers)?

-Only 11% of American congregations led by women -Women ministers report discrimination in access to leadership positions, ministerial assignments and responsibilities, and salary -But on average women ministers have higher degrees and more seminary training than men ministers -"Stained glass ceiling" -Many of the nations largest denominations (including Roman Catholics, Southern Baptists, and Mormons) do not ordain women. A number of American churches, such as the United Church of Christ (whose members were once called Congregationalists) and the Universalists (who eventually merged with the Unitarians) started ordaining women in the 19th century. But it wasn't until the decades following World War II that many of the larger and more prominent denominations began to allow women into leadership roles. In 1956, the United Methodist Church and a part of what would become the Presbyterian Church USA ordained their first women ministers. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, Reform Judaism, and the Episcopal Church followed suit in the early 1970s. -Women ministers talk about "stained glass ceiling," saying they find difficult to get promotions or even positions, experiencing discrimination in access to leadership positions, ministerial assignments and responsibilities, and salary. But on average women ministers have higher degrees and more seminary training than men ministers. Women pastors are paid disproportionally smaller salaries if they're married with kids. In 2016, married women and moms with kids at home earned 72 cents for every dollar made by men in the clergy. Their pay gap—28 percent less than men—was twice as big as single women's, which was 12 percent less, or 88 cents on the dollar. Titles such as "director" rather than "pastor" can also impact wages. Pay gaps between men and women are highest for positions with lower salaries, including staff who oversee worship, children's ministry, youth ministry, and Christian education. For example, in some churches, men are called "children's pastors" but if woman in the same position, paid less and given a different title without "pastor."

How different sects of Judaism view women and how reflected in practices and expectations? Orthodox

-Orthodox Jewish people are the most traditional, especially as related to gender. Orthodox men and women have separate and very clearly defined rights and obligations under Jewish law. Orthodoxy requires men preserve and carry on Jewish tradition through communal worship, daily prayer, and through religious study. Women are exempt from religious duties on ground that fulfilling them would interfere with their primary roles as wives, mothers, and homemakers. Instead, women control the domestic realm- caring for husbands and children- and women's household duties include allowing her husband to pursue religious studies. This ensures sons receive sound religious training, and also helps explain what we saw earlier- that men within this tradition attend more religious services than women. Most Orthodox Jewish people do not see this separation of roles as the relegation of women to an inherently unequal or inferior status. Rather, they maintain that by preserving the moral purity of their households, women engage in a form of religious expression comparable to that of men. For this they are honored and respective both within the tradition and by their husbands and children. But critics have noted women's excluded from public ritual and therefore from full participation in religious community. -Women are not permitted to be ordained Orthodox rabbis. They may not read Torah during worship or in prayer groups. They may not lead a prayer service, and there needs at least ten men for prayer service to count (women aren't counted towards the ten). Orthodox women sit in back of synagogue (used to have to sit behind a curtain), although in some Orthodox synagogues today, men and women just sit on different sides. -Within families, men and women permitted to acquire and inherit property BUT wives may not bequeth property while married without husbands' consent. -Only a husband may divorce his wife, not vice versa. A woman may institute divorce proceedings by charging her husband with "matrimonial offenses" before the religious court. Through these proceedings, she can use the religious courts to pressure the husband to grant his wife a get (a religious divorce). Until the husband grants the get, she cannot remarry (even if has a civil divorce). Even if a husband is missing and even presumed dead, the wife is still viewed as married. She is referred to as the "forsaken wife" but cannot remarry because the husband did not provide a get before leaving. She can work around this only if a witness testifies he (and notably, only men can be this witness) saw the husband's actual death. -We also see gendered dress codes among Orthodox women, with this enforced regardless of temperature. Women wear long skirts, stockings, sleeves below the elbow, and hats or head scarves (if married). Bodily cleanliness and purity revolves around woman's menstrual cycle- for 12 days every month, women of childbearing age are considered impure. 12 days is because women must be physically segregated from men until 5 days AFTER bleeding has stopped. Justifications for this are that it promotes modesty, protects women's safety and health, "spiritualizes" sexual relations, and helps to renew a marriage through a monthly honeymoon -Studies show that these rituals are also valued by Orthodox Jewish women. A study of Orthodox Jewish women, the book on this slide, finds that these women say the family purity laws "put them in touch with their own bodies, in control of their own sexuality, and in a position to value the so-called feminine virtues of nurturance, mutuality, family, and motherhood." Some Orthodox women in this study converted from non-Orthodox backgrounds, and many were young and well-educated. They felt in orthodoxy they regained control over sexuality, felt an enhanced status as women and as mothers, and considered men in their lives more respectful, supportive, and committed to their relationships. They felt the sex-segregated culture established a "women's community" and "women's culture," which they appreciated. We could argue these were similar goals as seen in radical feminism. -Some reporters and researchers find a small increases in Orthodox Judaism among young adults today. -At the same time, some Orthodox women protest the current arrangements. They want to have deeper spirituality and religious participation. Orthodox women who protest these arrangements have formed women's only prayer groups and publicly read the Torah. At times, this has been met with violence. This slide shows a news story about this from 2013, focused on a protest at the Western Wall. Israeli courts have had to weigh in on these controversies. In addition, secular women in Jerusalem who are considered to be dressed immodestly have had their car tires slashed, rocks thrown at them, and been spat at. In the US, there some signs that some Orthodox congregations becoming more gender-inclusive, at least compared to other country contexts, with some even hiring women interns.

Pronatal and antinatal policies (definitions, examples, China and Romania)?

-Pronatal policies: encourage reproduction -Antinatal policies: discourage reproduction -Also may limit women's reproductive autonomy -In China, the one-child policy was instituted in 1979 to limit population growth while the government implemented various economic reforms, The policy relied on universal access to long-term contraceptives, sterilization procedures, and abortion. Families that violate the policy face heavy fines and women who become pregnant may face forced abortion. Exceptions include rural families in certain areas and families whose first child is disabled or a girl—indicating a clear preference for nondisabled and male children. A reporter said of this policy, from a story in 2013: "Almost every one of the [poor] pregnant women I spoke to had suffered a mandatory abortion. One woman told me how, when she was eight months pregnant with an illegal second child and was unable to pay the 20,000 yuan fine (about US$3,200), family planning officers dragged her to the local clinic, bound her to a surgical table and injected a lethal drug into her abdomen...It is not surprising that China has the highest rate of female suicide in the world. The one-child policy has reduced women to numbers, objects, a means of production; it has denied them control of their bodies and the basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and spacing of their children." Based on this, who is most targeted by this policy? The reporter found that while wealthy families were able to circumvent the policy, the country's poorest women were most vulnerable to abuse and coercion. -China's policy exemplifies antinatalism, or the active discouragement of reproduction for at least some segments of the population. There have been several major consequences of this in China. For one, shown on this slide, China faces a sex-ratio gap with more boys than girls. Many families in China prefer their one child be a son, not a girl, meaning there was sex-specific abortion (wherein families would abort the child if knew was a girl). Significant attention has been paid to the problem of China's "missing girls," illustrated on this slide. For example, in one region of China, there are 163 boys to 100 girls. Second, the intention of the policy was to reduce the size of the population, and this has been successful. But this has also led to aging of the Chinese population, given that there are so few babies and young people. The ratio of old-age dependency has increased, such that China is facing an increasing number of elderly and increased ratio between elderly parents and adult children. China no longer has the one-child policy, but many families have found they prefer the smaller family size and still informally follow this. -In Romania, in contrast, they exemplified a pronatalist stance in the 20th century. Because of concerns about declining population rates, in 1967, Romania criminalized abortion with few exceptions and worked to position motherhood as women's highest calling. This was done through Decree 770 which required gynecological exams and other intrusions into women's lives. The exams allowed doctors to make sure women were not seeking illegal abortions and to check if they were pregnant, and also to limit contraception use. Many women delivered babies they were unable to or unwilling to care for. Thousands of children were abandoned to hospitals and orphanages and were subjected to horrified standards of living. Between 1965-1989, more than 9,000 women died from illegal abortions in Romania.

How different sects of Judaism view women and how reflected in practices and expectations? Reform

-Reform Judaism is in stark contrast to Orthodox Judaism. A hallmark of reform Judaism is emphasis on gender equality. As early as 1845, Jewish people in this tradition sought equality for men and women within the synagogue. They abolished the seating division between men and women. Within this tradition, women are permitted to sing in synagogue, and girls included in religious education programs. The Reform Prayerbook eliminated many sexist prayers, including men's daily thanksgiving that God did not make them women (prayed within Orthodox congregations). Beginning in 1972, women allowed to be rabbis. In 1990, they allowed sexually active gay men and lesbian women to be rabbis (note in some other traditions, sexual minority people allowed to be rabbis only if celibate). In 2000, they voted to support rabbis who officiate gay and lesbian weddings. And in 2005, they ordained a transgender rabbi, and in 2015, Reform Judaism issued a statement on transgender rights. This came about through asking questions like: Is there a ritual for a trans man who is converting to Judaism but doesn't have a penis for a traditional circumcision? How can we celebrate a 12-year-old trans girl's name change at her Bat Mitzvah? The resolution called for Reform Jewish congregations and camps to have gender-neutral bathrooms, encourage gender-neutral language at Reform Jewish institutions, and suggested training on gender issues for religious school staff.

Compulsory sterilization? Give historical examples

-Sometimes sterilization is promoted and used in coercive ways, AKA involuntary sterilization -Often related to eugenics -Compulsory sterilization (also called involuntary sterilization) has been used in many countries. It is often used in conjunction with eugenics programs (or those attempting to encourage reproduction by desirable groups while discouraging reproduction of "undesirables"). For example, compulsory sterilization was used by Hitler in Nazi Germany, where men and women with alcoholism, Huntington's disease, epilepsy, and mental illness were targeted. There is also a strong history of this in the United States, including a Supreme Court decision in 1927 in Buck v. Bell that still stands today. In the 1920s, Carrie Buck, a woman in Virginia, was born into a poor family to a single mother, and she spent much of her childhood living on the streets. She was taken in by a foster family, where they removed her from school, largely because they wanted her to do work around the house. They justified this decision by saying she was feebleminded. While living with this family, she was raped by a relative of the family. And that pregnancy- because it was outside of marriage, never mind that she was raped- led to her being sent away by the family. She then lived in the Virginia Colony for Epileptics and Feebleminded, and around this time the state of Virginia decided to pass a law saying that "imbeciles" (defined largely by scores on an IQ test) could be sterilized without their consent. Carrie Buck's case went to the Supreme Court, where the justices sided with the State of Virginia and agreed for Buck to be sterilized. Justice Holmes said, "It is better for all the world, if instead of waiting to execute degenerate offspring for crime, or to let them starve for their imbecility, society can prevent those who are manifestly unfit from continuing their kind." -This policy not unique to Virginia. In the US, women of color sterilized frequently without their knowledge or consent, as were the mentally ill, prisoners, and other marginalized population. Disabled girls and women are frequent targets of compulsory sterilization. Policies of forced sterilization were in North Carolina through the 1970s, largely against Black women, and throughout the United States for Native American women. In fact, between 1970-1976, between 25-50% of Native American women were sterilized, with much of this coerced

Maternal mortality (US compared to other countries; who most impacted; how measured; leading cause)?

-The US is #136, with 21 deaths of mothers per 100,000 live births. -in the U.S. and how it is especially high among women of color. In many ways, the MMR in the U.S. is surprising, given that we spend more money on childbirth than any other country. But this mirrors much about health in the U.S.- we spend more per person than any other country (when combine individual spending, government spending, employer spending, and private insurance spending) but yet our life expectancy ranks 26th in the world- meaning 25 countries that spend less than we did have better health outcomes! We see this also in childbirth, not only in maternal mortality but also our high rates of infant mortality, especially as compared to other more economically developed countries. -Black mothers die in childbirth 3 times as often as white mothers, and, as shown on this slide, this actually has gotten more unequal in recent years. An exception is in North Carolina & This gap is especially pronounced in Alabama -In addition to maternal mortality concerns, Black mothers are twice as likely to have postpartum depression, but half as likely to get cared for it compared to White mothers. And postpartum depression is more common in Alabama and Mississippi than anywhere else in the US, where an average of 1 in 4 postpartum people report symptoms. -The Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR). The MMR is the annual number of female deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause related to or aggravated by pregnancy or its management (excluding accidental or incidental causes). -South Sudan most impacted at 2,054 deaths per live birth

Title X of Public Health Services Act (1970)?

-The federal government in the US tried to address this in 1970 under the Title X Family Planning Program, officially known as Public Law 91-572 or "Population Research and Voluntary Family Planning Programs." Title X is the only federal grant program dedicated solely to providing individuals with comprehensive family planning and related preventive health services. Title X is legally designed to prioritize the needs of low-income families or uninsured people (including those who are not eligible for Medicaid) who might not otherwise have access to these health care services. These services are provided to low-income and uninsured individuals at reduced or no cost. Its overall purpose is to promote positive birth outcomes and healthy families by allowing individuals to decide the number and spacing of their children. -Title X operates by granting funds to a network of community-based clinics that provide contraceptive services, related counseling, and other preventive health services. Typical grantees include State and local health departments, tribal organizations, hospitals, university health centers, independent clinics, community health centers, faith-based organizations, and various public and private nonprofit entities.

Describe school discipline?

-The large numbers of young people in the United States who annually experience school discipline results, at least in part, from schools' widespread use of "zero tolerance" discipline policies. School-based zero tolerance policies are rooted historically in federal drug policies designed to deter drug trafficking through immediate, harsh, and legally mandated punishments. By the mid-1990s, the vast majority of public schools in the US had adopted zero tolerance policies. These policies were in response to the confluence of a number of factors - widely publicized incidents of school violence (e.g., Columbine), public perception of increasing violence in our nation's schools, and federal legislation that mandated expulsion for the possession of a weapon in school. Critics argue that the widespread use of school-based zero tolerance policies, particularly for behaviors that do not physically endanger students and schools, has serious implications for students' short-term academic performance as well as their longer term social and economic well-being. In particular, suspension and expulsion remove students from the learning environment, potentially increase the amount of time that they spend unsupervised and with other out-of-school youth, and strongly correlate with various negative outcomes including poor academic achievement, grade retention, delinquency, and substance use. In fact, among girls, experiencing school discipline (e.g., suspension or expulsion) during middle school is the strongest predictor of being arrested later in life. Further, there is no evidence that suspension actually deters future misbehavior; rather, suspension has been found to be associated with additional suspensions and eventually expulsion or dropping out. This has led some schools to rethink some of these policies -There is also evidence that racial and ethnic differences in the percentages of students who engage in behaviors that sometimes result in suspension/explusion are relatively small. -Native American, Black, and Latinx students are consistently more likely than White youth to receive school discipline and Asian American youth are consistently less likely than all other groups of youth to be disciplined in school. Interestingly, racial and ethnic differences in minor disciplinary measures - being sent to the office or detained after school - are relatively small compared to the much larger differences in the harsher forms of discipline - suspension and expulsion. This pattern is particularly evident among Black students. Although Black boys' and girls' rates of being sent to the office or detained are roughly comparable to those of other racial and ethnic groups (especially Latinx and Native Americans), they are significantly more likely than the other racial and ethnic groups to have been suspended or expelled. For example, approximately 56% of Black boys have been suspended or expelled compared to only 19% to 43% of boys in the other groups. Similarly, roughly 43% of Black girls have been suspended or expelled compared to only 7% to 26% of girls in the other racial and ethnic subgroups. -Within racial and ethnic subgroups, boys are consistently more likely than girls of the same racial or ethnic group to have experienced school discipline. Looking at race and gender simultaneously, however, the data reveal important race and ethnicity by gender differences. Specifically, all groups of boys, with the exception of Asian American boys, are sent to the office or detained for misbehavior at higher rates than all groups of girls, across grade levels. For suspensions and expulsions, however, rates are highest among Black boys, followed first by Native American and Latinx boys, and then by Black girls. White boys, whose rates of suspension and expulsion are similar to those of Latinx and Native American girls, have rates well below those of Black girls. Finally, Asian American boys have the lowest rates of any group of boys, followed by White girls and then Asian American girls. -Black, Latinx, and Native American students have been more likely than White and Asian American youth to be sent to the office or detained after school, and that this pattern has existed from at least the early 1990s to the present. The data further suggest that-- although there was a slight decline in the percentage of students who were sent to the office between 1996 and 2005 among most racial and ethnic groups- Black students' rates remained constant. The figure further highlights the fact that boys, irrespective of their racial and ethnic identification, are more likely than girls to be sent to the office or detained after school. The only exception to this general conclusion is Asian American boys, whose frequencies of being sent to the office are generally comparable to those of Black, Latinx, and Native American girls (but well above the frequencies for Asian American girls). -data indicate that suspensions and expulsions have consistently been highest among Blacks, at an intermediate level among Native American and Latinx students, lower among White students, and lowest for Asian American students. Perhaps the most striking finding is the fact that the prevalence of suspension and expulsion among Black students increased between 1991 and 2005 while for the other racial and ethnic groups suspension and expulsion rates increased slightly between 1991 and 2000 and then decreased slightly between 2000 and 2005. Looking across gender groups, suspension and expulsion rates are clearly highest among Black boys (i.e., more than 50%), followed by Native American and Hispanic boys and Black girls. The other racial and ethnic and gender groups all have suspension and expulsion rates that are less than 30%.

Describe Sexual double standard?

-The practice of applying stricter moral or legal controls to women's sexual behavior than to men's -the notion that men and women have distinct sexual needs and interests—namely, that women are EXPECTED to avoid casual sex (and just want love) and men are EXPECTED to just want casual sex. Historically, this included several informal codes for women, including, but not limited to the following: •Women must not initiate sex. •Women must be passive sexually. •Women should not have multiple sex partners. •Women should only have sex within the confines of marriage. •Sex does not need to be enjoyable for women. •Alternately, men were (or still are) expected to be more promiscuous. -The double standard has become less prevalent but is still a prevailing sentiment in many areas and within many communities. Many individuals still apply the double standard, but to varying degrees. And it shapes our dating, marriage, and sex practices, and our popular culture.

What federal funding for family planning was allowed to cover?

-Title X is the only federal grant program dedicated solely to providing individuals with comprehensive family planning and related preventive health services. Title X is legally designed to prioritize the needs of low-income families or uninsured people (including those who are not eligible for Medicaid) who might not otherwise have access to these health care services. These services are provided to low-income and uninsured individuals at reduced or no cost. Its overall purpose is to promote positive birth outcomes and healthy families by allowing individuals to decide the number and spacing of their children. -Title X operates by granting funds to a network of community-based clinics that provide contraceptive services, related counseling, and other preventive health services. Typical grantees include State and local health departments, tribal organizations, hospitals, university health centers, independent clinics, community health centers, faith-based organizations, and various public and private nonprofit entities.

Main findings from study of female candidates and physical descriptions in media coverage?

-We know from research that reporters more likely to mention an individual's sex/gender, physical appearance, and marital status or parenthood if the subject is a woman rather than a man. For example, Carol Moseley-Braun, first African American woman to ever serve in the U.S. Senate who sought the 2004 Democratic presidential nomination, was once described by The Chicago Tribune as a "den mother with a cheerleader's smile." -A recent study found that when media focuses on female candidate's appearance, it drags down her poll numbers. In this study, the researchers asked 1,500 likely voters about a fictional male and female candidate. Some voters got information about each candidate without a physical description. Others got one of the following descriptions, taken from real campaign coverage during the 2012 elections. In the neutral description, the article said that "Smith dressed in a brown blouse, black skirt, and modest pumps with a short heel." In the positive description, the article said, "In person, Smith is fit and attractive and looks even younger than her age. At the press conference, smartly turned out in a ruffled jacket, pencil skirt, and fashionable high heels." And in the negative description, it said, "Smith unfortunately sported a heavy layer of foundation and powder that had settled into her forehead lines, creating an unflattering look for an otherwise pretty woman, along with her famous fake, tacky nails." The study found that the female candidates with neutral, positive, and negative physical descriptions garnered 46, 43, and 42 percent of the vote, respectively. When there was no physical description, the female candidate scored 50 percent of the vote.These results led the study's authors to conclude that paying any attention to a female candidate's appearance "hurther likability" and made "voters less likely to vote for her."

What is Religiosity? Give an example

-an individual's or group's intensity of commitment to a religious belief system -As mentioned earlier, in most religions, we find that women are more religious than men. We measure this using a construct called "religiosity," or an individual's or group's intensity of commitment to a religious belief system. Religious identification is just one of the ways religiosity can be measured, and this may not be best way because simply identifying with a religion does not mean actually practice it. You can think of someone who identifies as a Christian because they were raised in that faith, but doesn't attend church or may even say they don't believe in God. We know the US is highly religious, especially compared to many other more economically developed countries. Sociologists distinguish between internal religiosity and external religiosity. External religiosity involves religious behaviors we can observe- how often do you read a religious text or how often do you attend a religious service. But internal religiosity tends to involve beliefs and values- do you believe in God or do you believe a specific religious text is inspired by God. 74% of Americans say they believe in God- an internal measure, and 38% of Americans report attending services weekly- an external measure. -Across almost all measures (especially internal religiosity measures) and almost all religions, women have more religiosity than men. In the United States, for example, women are more likely than men to say religion is "very important" in their lives (60% vs. 47%), according to a 2014 Pew Research Center survey. US women also are more likely than US men to say they pray daily (64% vs. 47%) and attend religious services at least once a week (40% vs. 32%).

Describe Sexual trends today?

-casual sex had already been on decline in many spaces, and the pandemic seems to have accelerated that

What is Hidden curriculum? Give an example

-describes the values and behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling because of the educational system's structure and teaching methods. -One way we can consider the hidden curriculum related to gender is to look at textbooks. Researchers have looked to history textbooks, and found that discussions of women and racial/ethnic minorities were often limited to a very smallnumber of women or minorities. These groups were mentioned often only in traditional contexts (slavery, Civil War, and civil rights for Black people; suffrage for women) or in terms of traditional roles (for example, as a wife). Analysis also shows that women, specifically, are often depicted as more passive and dependent than men. The text is also sometimes belittling and other times inaccurate. For example, one book said suffrage was a fight for equal rights for women- missing that suffrage was a very specific social movement aimed around women's right to vote. There is generally little mention of women's roles in westward expansion of US or the Vietnam War. Non-fiction children's books and children's textbooks are especially likely to feature more men than women and the men more active and adventurous than women. -A team of Harvard researchers found that black boys faced harsher punishment because they're often perceived as older than they actually are. The study involved 264 mostly white, female undergraduate students from large public U.S. universities. In one experiment, students rated the innocence of people ranging from infants to 25-year-olds who were black, white or an unidentified race. The students judged children up to 9 years old as equally innocent regardless of race, but considered black children significantly less innocent than other children in every age group beginning at age 10, the researchers found. The students were also shown photographs alongside descriptions of various crimes and asked to assess the age and innocence of white, black or Latino boys ages 10 to 17. The students overestimated the age of blacks by an average of 4.5 years and found them more culpable than whites or Latinos, particularly when the boys were matched with serious crimes, the study found. Researchers used questionnaires to assess the participants' prejudice and dehumanization of blacks. They found that participants who implicitly associated black people with apes thought the black children were older and less innocent. This has implications not only for discrimination in schools but also the criminal justice system.

Describe the Arguments for and against plastic surgery as a feminist act or an anti-feminist act?

-feminism is the belief that people of all genders should have equal rights and opportunities -The anti-feminist argument is that women who have plastic surgery in order to conform to beauty standards are trying to achieve standards of beauty constructed within an oppressively patriarchal and ageist society. This argument says that if society valued women and older women more, there'd be less of a push for women to have plastic surgery. Thus, these women are effectively submitting to objectification in a social realm where deficient femininity entails a failure to achieve and maintain a young, slim, toned, and wrinkle-free body. And if plastic surgery was not anti-feminist, we'd see more equal rates of women and men getting plastic surgery, not just mainly women. (A counter argument would be that we are seeing increases in men getting plastic surgery, to conform to masculine beauty ideals.) -In the feminist argument, women are empowered and judicious decision markers and perform even extreme beauty-related practices through free choice. Women getting plastic surgery are not just submitting to patriarchy but engaging with it. This argument recognizes women's agency, and says plastic surgery is how they adapt to the world and assert their own power. What

Who reports more sex: men or women?

-men have a higher number of partners than women, especially as they transition through adulthood. Few people have a large number of sexual partners: Only 10 percent of men and 7 percent of women ages 15-44 report having three or more partners in the previous year. 17% of men and 3% of women report having sex with 21 or more partners over their lifetime.

Describe Gender and race in education?

-most prestigious colleges were slow to admit women, with this stalling in the early 1900s. What else do you notice on the charts on these slides? And why this resistance? Many college administrators- all men- argued that women were naturally less intelligent so their admission would lower academic standards. They also argued that women physically more delicate than men and the rigors of higher education might disturb their uterine development to such an extent that would be sterile or bear unhealthy babies. Women would distract men from their studies, some said, or college would make women more like men: loud, coarse, and vulgar -In 1960, 65% of all bachelor's degree given to men, but, by 2016, 57.34% of all bachelor's degrees were given to women, which means there were 134 women graduating from college that year for every 100 men. Compared to girls, boys are disciplined, suspended, and expelled more often, have higher dropout rates (see graph on this slide), are more likely to be classified with a learning disability, make lower grades on average, have lower test scores in major subjects except for math, are less likely to enroll in higher education and to complete a bachelor's degree, and women earn 63% of master's degrees and 53% of PhDs. Even among STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) degrees, women earn 53 percent of biology, mathematics, and physical sciences (e.g., chemistry, physics, etc.) degrees. (Interestingly,women earn 51.3 percent of social science degrees, but 77.6 percent of psychology degrees. Social sciences include sociology, political science, and economics.) -In general, African American, Latino, and low-income students demonstrate much wider academic gaps favoring girls -We generally do not see significant academic gaps among middle- or upper-class students -girls are told more often than boys to be quiet and sit still -gender development in children, suggests that girls are socialized in way that place them at advantage in classroom compared to boys, who are socialized to be more active, risk taking, and defiant -Additionally, some research suggests parents more likely to leave boys on own, which makes them more vulnerable to negative peer influence (for example, talking in class). Studies find that girls engage in more activities that translate into educationally useful cultural capital, such as going to the library and taking art classes outside of school. Cultural capital includes non-financial social assets that promote social mobility beyond economic means.

Alternatives to segregating sports by sex or gender?

-one way to segregate sports would be weight class -we could segregate sports by height or body size

How sexual frequency changes with age?

-sexual activity goes down, with fewer older men and women reporting active sex lives -about 70% of men and women between the ages of 57-64 are having sex, compared to about 25 percent of men and women between the ages of 75-85. Women are less likely than men at older ages to report sexual activity. This can reflect that men's sexual partners tend to be younger -One reason adults tend to have less sex at older age is because- on average- health declines as we age and worse health is associated with less sex. -About 90 percent of men and 77 percent of women ages 57-60 with excellent or very good health are sexually active, compared to 72 percent of men and 53 percent of women in this same age group with fair or poor health. -many older people do report some sexual dysfunction, which makes it difficult to have an active sex life. About half of men and women over the age of 57 report at least one sexual problem. For men, the most commonly reported sexual dysfunction is erectile difficulties. For women, these sexual dysfunctions are most commonly low desire, difficulty with vaginal lubrication, and inability to climax

What are the teen sex trends and teen pregnancy trends?

-teens today (and even in the years before the COVID-19 pandemic) have less frequent sexual encounters than the previous generations and having sex for the first time at older ages -A large nationally representative survey found that those born after 1942 were more sexually active at younger ages than those born from 1933-42. -Moving forward, another survey found that rates of sexual intercourse among 9th-12th graders decreased from 1991-2007, as did numbers of partners. Reports of condom use increased -teen sexual behavior among 9th to 12th grade students decreased, from 1991 to 2011 -we can see that number of sexual partners is down, condom use is up, and teen pregnancy is down. -there are still racial-ethnic patterns in teen pregnancies, with Asian-American and White women having the lowest rates, but general declines among all groups, especially those younger than 18, since the 1990s. -Teen pregnancy was declared a national crisis by President Bill Clinton in 1995. However, since then the rate of teen pregnancy has declined. This is attributed to lower rates of adolescent sexual activity, as well as improved use of birth control. Studies considering abstinence programs find these are not effective in preventing teen pregnancies or even deterring sexual activity. But rather lower rates of pregnancy seem to relate more to students avoiding dating relationships for structural reasons (for example, more pressure to concentrate on schoolwork and get a good job) and better contraception.

Characterization of egg and sperm in medical textbooks?

-the egg is portrayed as passive, merely drifting along waiting to be discovered by the sperm, whereas the sperm is active, strong, and on a mission to reach the egg. -This depiction of the sperm and the egg is also commonly seen in textbooks, as an analysis by Emily Martin classically showed. The egg and sperm are frequently narrated in scientific textbooks in terms of a fairytale love story, with sperm embodying normative male characteristics. The egg is seen as large and passive. It does not move or journey, but passively "is transported," "is swept,"' or even "drifts"' along the fallopian tube. In utter contrast, sperm are small, "streamlined," and invariably active. They "deliver" their genes to the egg, "activate the developmental program of the egg," and have a "velocity" that is often remarked upon. Their tails are "strong" and efficiently powered. Together with the forces of ejaculation, they can "propel the semen into the deepest recesses of the vagina." For this they need "energy," "fuel," so that with a "whiplashlike motion and strong lurches" they can "burrow through the egg coat" and "penetrate" it. In almost all textbooks, we encountered passive language to describe the egg (e.g. "the egg is fertilized" and "the egg is swept"). "). In contrast, sperm's activities, including their death, were typically presented in active and often anthropomorphic terms. For example, the word "survive" was almost exclusively used for sperm, whereas the death of eggs was depicted in more scientific terms, such as "degenerate" and "disintegrate." -Studies of textbooks find that, at all educational levels, there are shorter explanations, fewer facts, and more misrepresentations about the female reproductive system than the male reproductive system. In particular, most textbooks have minimal information about the active role the egg plays in fertilization and limited or no information about female sexuality even when male sexuality was covered.

Symbolic annihilation (definition, examples)?

-the media has traditionally ignored, trivialized, or condemned women and nonbinary people -Symbolic annihilation calls attention to the fact that the media has traditionally ignored, trivialized, or condemned women- especially specific groups of women (e.g., women of color, transwomen, bisexual women) and increasingly also nonbinary people. One example of symbolic annihilation is when transgender characters are depicted by cisgender actors. How does symbolic annihilation also apply in terms of race and ethnicity, social class, age, sexual orientation, and physical ability? Media visibility—whether positive or negative—may then further enhance entrenched status beliefs, serving as a signal for what and who society sees as important. We can also think about how men's media roles are alsolimited by stereotypes that are not always positive or flattering, especially true for certain groups of men.

_______ of adult women in prison have either given birth at some point during the year prior to their incarceration or are pregnant at the time of their arrest

25%

According to the GQ article you read, in 2021, bills were introduced in _____ states that would prohibit trans students from playing sports with cis students of the same gender at their schools.

36

According to the CDC (in the Washington Post article you read), what percentage of maternal deaths in the U.S. could have been prevented with proper medical intervention, as well as better access to it

60%

According to the Gamergate video you watched, the women who were targeted...

All of these answers are correct

How sociologists study religion?

As an important note, sociologists do not evaluate the truth of any religion, but rather study the ways that religions shape and are shaped by cultural institutions and the ways that religions influence and are influenced by the behaviors of individuals. It is very important that as sociologists, we take a step back from our own beliefs and employ our sociological imaginations to understand the values and beliefs of others. As sociologists, we are interested in society and social interactions, and we cannot understand these things without understanding the religious beliefs of people within various societies. When sociologists study religion, they do so as sociologists and not as believers (or disbelievers) in any particular faith. Within this sociological tradition, we are not concerned with whether religious beliefs are true or false. Religions are regarded not as being decreed by God but as being socially constructed by human beings. What are the human aspects of religion? Sociologists are concerned with the social organization of religion. How is religion organized? How do they function? Sociologists often view religions as a major source of social solidarity. Religions help create 'moral community.' Sociologists tend to explain the appeal of religion in terms of social forces rather than in terms of purely personal, spiritual, or psychological factors.

What is Stratified reproduction? Give examples

As discussed, men's bodies historically have been more studied than women's bodies and gender nonconforming people's bodies, leading to issues in medical treatment by gender. Other issues of stratified reproduction include which bodies are allowed to reproduce, which bodies are forced to reproduce, which bodies are prevented from reproducing, which bodies bear the marks of coercive medical and governmental intervention, and which bodies matter in policy formation -Shellee Colen developed the idea of stratified reproduction over 30 years ago from her ethnography of childcare workers which showed the ways that caring for children by immigrant women reflected social inequalities between the West Indian caregivers and the women (and men) who employed them. She said, "Physical and social reproduction tasks are accomplished differentially according to inequalities that are based on hierarchies of class, race, ethnicity, gender, place in a global economy and migration status and that are structured by social, political and economic focus." Other researchers have used this concept of stratified reproduction to analyze many different issues, including assisted reproductive technology, medical services for infertility, outsourcing of surrogacy (as in your reading), and much more

Why does Mock say cis men frame their attraction to trans women as secret, shameful, and stigmatized? What are the consequences of this?

Because they are women with penises. They are seen as less desirable. illegitimate, devalued. if a trans woman only engages in secret hookups with men because of this, then she will be led to engage in risky sexual behaviors that make her more vulnerable to disease, criminalization, and violence.

Which of the following is NOT an example of symbolic annihilation of women?

Blockbuster movies increasingly feature women as the lead characters.

How many men in women compared to prison?

Criminologists note that men are incarcerated more than women primarily because men commit more crimes than women- especially young men. Prior to 1975, criminologists noted that women had very low rates of criminal activity, and mainly thought of women's crimes as involving prostitution. Criminologists saw violent women as especially depraved, more so than violent men. Even today, the gender gap in violent crimes is especially large. You can think, for example, of the gender of recent mass shooters. In 2014, more than 73% of those arrested in the US were men, and men accounted for 80.4 percent of persons arrested for violent crime and 62.9 percent of those arrested for property crime. Men are also convicted of the vast majority of homicides in the United States, representing 89.5% of the total number of offenders, and men constituted 98.9% of those arrested for forcible rape. There is one area of violent crime where the gender gap is small: Of children under age 5 killed by a parent, the rate for biological father conviction was slightly higher than for biological mothers. There is also a smaller gender gap when it comes to non-violent crimes. Men constituted 58.7% of those arrested for fraud, 57.3% of those arrested for larceny-theft, and 51.3% of those arrested for embezzlement.

Since the 1990s, teenage pregnancies have been...

Decreasing

What political parties supported The Reproductive Body?

Democrat and Republican

Title X of the Public Health Services Act...

Does not provide funds for abortion services

Which of the following do sociologists NOT do?

Evaluate the truth of a particular religious belief system

Differences in men and women rates of sterilization?

Fewer men undergo sterilization than women

In Learning the Hard Way, Edward Morris found that girls practiced conscientious resistance. What is an example of this?

Girls did well in school because wanted to have financial independence as adults.

Trends in incarceration and crime?

In 2014, more than 73% of those arrested in the US were men, and men accounted for 80.4 percent of persons arrested for violent crime and 62.9 percent of those arrested for property crime. Men are also convicted of the vast majority ofhomicides in the United States, representing 89.5% of the total number of offenders, and men constituted 98.9% of those arrested for forcible rape. There is one area of violent crime where the gender gap is small: Of children under age 5 killed by a parent, the rate for biological father conviction was slightly higher than for biological mothers. There is also a smaller gender gap when it comes to non-violent crimes. Men constituted 58.7% of those arrested for fraud, 57.3% of those arrested for larceny-theft, and 51.3% of those arrested for embezzlement.

Men are _________ to undergo sterilization compared to women.

Less likely

The majority of coaches of women's basketball at the collegiate level are...

Men

Which of the following is TRUE about sexuality and aging?

More than half of older adults between ages of 57-64 report regular sexual activity.

What is true about the expansion of mass education in the 1850s?

Most of the principals, supervisors, and school board members were men

Mock says trans women of color are seen as disposable. What is her evidence of this? How did Mock-- and other trans women of color-- cope?

NCAVP documented 25 homicides of ppl in the US who were murdered because of their gender identity and/or sexual orientation. 13 were trans women of color comprising 53% of all anti LGBTQ homicide victims, despite representing only 10.5 percent of survivors who reported incidents of hate violence to the NCAVP

According to the podcast you listened to, which group was most likely to hear vocal fry in a voice and think of that voice as not authoritative?

Older people

Why might intimate relationships be better for women than hook-ups? How does this differ by class?

One reason for this is the sexual double standard continues to be pervasive. As one respondent in a study said, "Guys can have sex with all the girls and it makes them more of a man, but if a girl does then all of a sudden she's a 'ho' and she's not as quality of a person." As another reason, studies show that, for women especially, sex in relationships is better (as in more enjoyable) than sex in hook-ups. Women orgasm more often and report higher level of sexual satisfaction in relationship sex than in hookup sex. This is in part because sex in relationships is more likely to include sexual activities conducive to women's orgasm. In hookups, men are much more likely to receive oral sex than women are. In relationships, oral sex is more likely to be reciprocal. Also, men report more concern with the sexual pleasure of girlfriends than hookup partners, while studies show that women seem equally interested in pleasing hookup partners and boyfriends -READ GREEK LIFE -Women feared stigma if they just wanted to hook up—afraid they'd be seen as a slut. Women felt disrespected in the "hookup" scene—especially frats. Women felt pressure to have a boyfriend—even when they didn't want one—in order to have sex.

Vocal fry (definition, gender differences in criticisms)?

One reason why some news organizations justify not having women as main anchors (or on radio programs) is that people just find women's voices more annoying and would prefer a men's voice and presence. People point specifically to the issue of "vocal fry," defined as the lowest register (tone) of your voice characterized by its deep, creaky, breathy sound. People generally notice this more in women, although studies find that young men and women use vocal fry similar amounts

Emancipation Theory of Crime?

One theory to understand women's crime and current rates is called the Emancipation Theory of Women's Crime, also known as Liberation Theory. This is the theory that women's crime is increasing and/or becoming more masculine in character as a result of feminism or the women's movement. There are, though, many criticisms on this theory. One issue is that it relies on official statistics. This theory is based on the idea that women's crime began increasing in the 1970s, alongside the feminist movement, but an issue is that this may just be that law enforcement were more likely to arrest women during this period. The idea would be women have always committed crimes, they're just now more likely to face punishment for this. Another issue is that women's crime isn't really increasing as an absolute number, just relative to men's crime. This is because men's crime- especially men's violent crime- is on the decline, with women's crime not changing much or even slightly declining. So we should be careful not to misinterpret women's greater share of crime as meaning they are committing more crime. Another issue is that few women who commit crimes would actively identify as feminists or have particularly liberal gender ideologies; the rise in crime doesn't really seem to have much to do with any woman's political views, but reflects some other process.

What factors does Mock say drive some trans women of color into sex work? How is this related to why more trans women of color in prison? Why does Mock argue this reflects the "workings of a system," not "a moral failure of the individual"?

Poverty. a trans woman of color arrested on solicitation will be treated as a criminal with little regard to the systematic oppression that has led her there. She argues this because society blames the trans women and not the system/society.

Which of the following arguments supports the idea that women getting plastic surgery is a feminist act?

Recognizes women's agency

In __________________ Judaism, gay, lesbian, and bisexual men and women are allowed to be rabbis.

Reform

In Redefining Realness, Mock traveled to _____________ to undergo genital reconstruction surgery.

Thailand

Title IX (how it relates to athletics, main provisions, main consequences)?

This policy forbids sex discrimination in any educational program or activity that receives federal funding and has resulted in gender equitable access to school athletic programs. There has been a 545% increase in female participation in college athletics since 1972, and a 979% increase in female participation in high school sports. -You may have heard negative perspectives on Title IX, particularly the concern that Title IX is killing boys' and men's teams and opportunities. See the headlines for these examples of this argument that Title IX benefits women's sports at the expense of men. There are also cases in universities of sports- like men's soccer- being cut and replaced with women's team. Studies show that after controlling for the growth in the number of NCAA schools, the number of female athletes per school increased by 34 percent and the number of women's teams also increased by 34 percent. During the same time period, male athletes per school fell by 6 percent and men's teams by 17 percent.

Which of the following is an example of a status offense?

Underage drinking

Trends in racial disparities in education?

We generally do not see significant academic gaps among middle- or upper-class students. For example, elite universitieslike Yale, Harvard, and Princeton continue to have equal numbers of men and women, and we don't see big gaps in MDs, MBAs, or PhDs in favor of women. In these fields, women seem to have caught up to men (with a few exceptions), and then stayed fairly steady. But research in predominantly minority, urban communities shows that girls in these contexts considerably more likely than boys to make higher grades, graduate from high school, enroll in college, and aspire to higher status occupations. In general, Black, Latinx, and low-income students demonstrate much wider academic gaps favoring girls. For example, 63% of low income undergrads are women, compared to 53% of high income undergrads. Thus the educational crisis for boys seems to really only be occurring among certain segments of boys.

Hypermasculinity (definition, examples)?

a form of manhood that's characterized by traits of physical strength, domination, aggression and violence as a primary means of conflict resolution. Many men in films have extreme conformity to the more aggressive rules of masculinity,naturalizing men's violence, aggression, and anger and often ignoring the consequences.

What is The Double Closet?

bisexual people may experience compounded stress and few social resources due to the "double closet," wherein they are compelled to hide past same-sex partners and orientations from different-sex oriented persons and hide past different-sex partners and orientations from same-sex oriented persons.

What are "Is Hooking Up Bad for Young Women": main conclusions?

casual hookups are more problematic for women than for men. One reason for this is the sexual double standard continues to be pervasive. As one respondent in a study said, "Guys can have sex with all the girls and it makes them more of a man, but if a girl does then all of a sudden she's a 'ho' and she's not as quality of a person." As another reason, studies show that, for women especially, sex in relationships is better (as in more enjoyable) than sex in hook-ups. Women orgasm more often and report higher level of sexual satisfaction in relationship sex than in hookup sex. This is in part because sex in relationships is more likely to include sexual activities conducive to women's orgasm. In hookups, men are much more likely to receive oral sex than women are. In relationships, oral sex is more likely to be reciprocal. Also, men report more concern with the sexual pleasure of girlfriends than hookup partners, while studies show that women seem equally interested in pleasing hookup partners and boyfriends. Relationships provide a context in which sex is viewed as acceptable for women, protecting them from stigma and establishing sexual reciprocity as a basic expectation.

Who is fastest growing population in prison?

from 2008 to 2018, the women's jail population grew by 15 percent while men's decreased by 9 percent, according to federal data. The population of women in prison has decreased by 3.3 percent in that period, while men's prison population decreased by 9.3 percent.

According to your Canvas Reading on Greek life, in the study they discuss from 2017-2020, at Central University, the acceptance rate was___, and the students who come from families in the top one percent of the income distribution approximately account for__.

less than 10 percent; 15 percent

Why might hook-ups be better than intimate relationships? How does this differ by class?

some argue based on existing research that hookups are positive for women in college and it is relationships that can be problematic. They say relationships are good for sex but have a dark side as well. Relationships are "greedy"- they get in way of other things that young women want to be doing as adolescents and young adults. As one single respondent said, "I'm happy that I'm able to go out and meet new people...I feel like I'm doing what a college student should be doing. I don't need to be tied down to my high school boyfriend for two years when this is the time to be meeting people." I remember a friend in college breaking up with a boyfriend and saying the amount of free time she had felt like she had just dropped a class. Some students feel that certain majors aren't compatible with demands of a boyfriend. Some women students also said they struggled to keep their self-development projects going when involved. Additionally, relationships also sometimes characterized by violence. Some women in this study reported that boyfriends tried to control their social lives, time they spent with friends, and even what they wore. There are higher rates of violence in relationships than in hookups.

How does Mock understand today the sex work she did when younger? How do you view people who do sex work, where do these ideas come from, and how does your view depend on the context."

that it was a short term coping mechanism that allowed her to survive the intensity of the situation

Feminine apologetic (definition, examples)?

the requirement that women balance their appropriation of masculine interests, traits, and activities with feminine performance. This concept points to how a woman's performance of femininity can be a way to sooth others' concerns about her appropriation of masculinity, perhaps especially through athletics -This slide is from ESPN magazine in 2009, showing Candace Parker (a professional basketball player). In 2009 she had record-setting first year- rookie of the year, female athlete of the year, etc. What do you notice in this description from the article in this magazine? It heavily highlights her feminine side. How does it do this? The full article does show balancebetween masculine and feminine side, and- in this way- she can be seen as the ideal woman

How have incarceration rates changed since the 1980s?

they decreased until about 1991, increased until 1994, then decreased again in 1995-2003

What were Mock's interactions like with law enforcement officers?

they didn't care and made It seem like she brought it on herself