SOC 60 - Study set
Focus Group Research
...asking questions and promoting focused and directed conversation among a group of people" Observation and Analysis of Negotiation of Meanings Within GroupsPerspectives, Positions, Opinions, Experiences, Reactions, Concerns Observation of Group Dynamics & Nonverbal Cues Determining Materials to be Used in Additional/Future Research Clarifying Unexpected Results from Prior/Ongoing Research NeedsAssessment - What Does a Policy/Project/Product Require? EvaluationResearch - How Is A Policy/Project/Product Going?
not good for:
- Focus groups are not good for understanding individuals' experiences or emotions in great depth, individuals' attitudes, behaviors of which group members aren't aware, very private issues or things people would be reluctant to talk about with others, demographic trends, or patterns of behavior across large populations. - Cause and effect - never used in place of a survey -
Excersizes
Ranking exercises Evaluation exercises Imagine exercises
Data Collection:
Rapport
Preparing for Data Collection
Preparing for interviews primarily involves practicing interviews on the topic, securing the necessary equipment, and making logistical arrangements.
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Quantitative: Experiments/surveys that result in statistics / numbers. Qualitative research: like interviews and ethnography, avoid distilling the results down to numbers.
Sampling How Many Groups?Considerations:
FeasibilityHow much time do you have for research? Money? NOTE - Compensating participants is common What, exactly, is your research question?What are you trying to answer or gain knowledge about? Depending on research question and feasibility parameters, how many people can you gather that can usefully speak to your question? What balance between sameness and diversity of data [responses] are you aiming to collect? Pragmatic ranking of importance of input from various groups [who do you have to talk to?] Consultation of experts, folks with first-hand experience/knowledge,
Caution! Group Think is a Real Thing!
In Group Settings, Individuals May (understandably!): Agree when they do not actually agree Take over a conversation Remain quiet when they do not wish to go against the flow Assert a position they do not necessarily hold to rile others up Find themselves growing defensive in face of group agreement (or group think!) Focus Groups Benefit from Experienced Moderators(those asking and guiding the discussion)
Week One (9/24) - Methodology Before Methods, or: Knowing What You Want to Know
Week 1 intro
Sampling in Ethnographic Research
What Will Serve as Your Research Case? Case: The group (culture, subculture) that you will be studyingGroup members must be willing [and fully informed] participantsGroup must be theoretically appropriate given the research question. Questions of sampling are generally not as applicable to ethnographic researchNear total immersion in one's field site reduces need for sampling
unit of analysis
individuals participating
Sampling
sampling and operationalizing - non probability sampling methods, particularly theoretical and quota sampling. - convenience sampling - quota sampling
Sample Size
varies depending on the interview type, and the type of interview.
Empirical = Facts / Feelings
- based on data evidence rather than ideas or theories - facts / feelings
Ethics
- Ask participants to guard confidentiality - This can have a significant effect on what people chooseto share in the group—and hence, on your data—and it should besomething you take into account both in operationalizing the questions youwill ask the group and in your analysis. - Since eveyone knows who said what - Strongly encourage people to protect each others confidentiality - Pseudonyms are not always chosen - Turn off recording at anytime - confidentiality not guaranteed
Wrapping it up:
- Ask people to summarize the main points - 1-3 minute summary - ask people what they learned from others
Choosing Participants
- that focus group research cannot be generalized. -
Number and Composition of Groups
- typically 5 - 10 people - 4 member minimum - The number of participants per group will largelybe determined by the topic, the depth of information you're looking for, andthe number of questions you want to ask.
Compensation and Other Incentives to Participate
- usually donations - In most cases, you will want to offer some sort of direct monetary compensation to the participant rather than a donation to an organization. - Additional incentives to participate include food and childcare.
Focus griup consent statement
A short description of the research topic A general description of who is participating in this particular group, aswell as some of the other types of people that will be included in theresearchA short description of how the research will be used A statement of the number of times they will participate (rarely is thismore than once) and how long the focus group will last A statement that the research is voluntary, that they may leave orwithdraw participation at any time during the group, and they don't haveto answer any questions they don't wish to answer. If the group isbased on membership in an organization, receiving services from aparticular program or organization, or employment at a particular place,you must assure them that their standing will in no way be affected bytheir participation in the focus group A description of how you will protect their confidentiality, includingNo names will be used in the final reportIdentifying information will be deleted from transcriptsRecordings and notes will be kept in password-protected files orlocked drawers in a secure locationA warning that others in the group may violate their confidentialityThe names of the people who will hear the recordingThe date the recordings will be destroyed (occasionally they will not be)Possible risks and benefits to them for participating in the researchYour contact information The contact information for the chair of the governing InstitutionalReview Board (IRB). The participant needs to be advised that they maycontact this person if they feel that any of their rights as a researchparticipant have been violated.
Conceptualization & Operationalization
As with interviewing, observation, and ethnographic research, conceptualization and operationalization for focus groups are ongoing processes of tinkering/refinement.[Systematically] Adding, Subtracting, Reformulating Concepts and Questions is Common Introductory/Ice-breaker Question Open-ended In-Depth (ish) Questions - avoid yes/no or basic demographic questions Possible Use of Group Exercises - Ranking, Evaluation, Imagine, etc.Gentle Reminder - Make Sure Exercises Have a Clear Purpose That Directly Relates to Research Question Final/Summarizing Question(s) - "Final Thoughts?" Chance to Clarify Previous Responses Remember - You have less time per question per participant than during interviewsPractice making questions as precise/focused as possible Remember - These are group (not private) discussionsAim to avoid questions that elicit very personal or potentially damaging information
Conceptualizing and Operationalizing
Conceptualizing - concepts you want the study to cover; conceptualize it by writing a working definition of each as it pertains specifically to your research Operationalizing - Operationalizing for structured focus groups includes all of the same tasksas for unstructured focus groups, but additionally you concentrate on writingspecific questions to be asked during the focus group. - during the group, when note taker decides what info is important, during analysis.
Ethics - Focus Group Specifics
Confidentiality is not possible within focus groups Nevertheless, researchers should strongly emphasize the importance of everyone maintaining confidentiality of participants and responses outside of focus group Participants should clearly understand that no guarantee of confidentiality is possible vis-à-vis other participants. (But it is guaranteed vis-à-vis all researchers!) Use of pseudonyms are not as common in focus groups - but they are used in results/reports. Identifying information is not used in presentation of results. eParticipants may always leave focus group at any point if they do not wish to respond or otherwise participate. (Turning off recording devices during focus groups leads to incredibly difficult - often inaccurate - note-taking).
Sampling How Many Participants?
Considerations: Topics being discussed Controversial? Personal? Participants with significant investments/experiences? Number of questions asked The more questions, the less time available for each participant to fully respond How in-depth do you need/want responses to be? Participants with more experience vis-à-vis particular topics may require more time
Components of research? No need to remember rn
Ethics, prepping for data collection, data collection, data analysis, presenting results, evaluation, operationalizing conceptualizing, sampling, literature review
Synergy
Excellent way to generate new, fresh, creative ideas & solutions Individuals may focus, clarify, reconsider perspectives & positions in light of group input Meta Tool- in addition to capturing individual and synergistic group ideas and perspectives, focus groups also serve as an excellent method of collecting and analyzing the specifics of particular group interactions and decision-making processes As with interviewing, participant observation, and ethnographic research, it is crucial that focus group researchers establish and maintain rapport with participants Given the unique dynamics of focus groups, researchers must also work to build and encourage rapport among participants
Sharing Space
Focus Group Results Are As Good As the Data They Elicit Focus Group Researchers Need to Elicit Information from All Participants Pay Close Attention to Who Is Speaking [and for how long] Try Your Best To Make Sure Everyone Has Roughly Equal Amounts of Time to Speak
Data Collection
Focus Groups Present a Unique Research Environment That Requires Planning Compensation for Participants Scheduling Location and Time (aim for maximum participant convenience) Follow-up Confirmations/Solicitations for Accommodations (Competent!) Childcare Food (a series of decisions unto itself!) Parking (free and available!) Fostering Sense of Welcome and Comfort (You are Like a Dinner Party Host!) Gathering Informed Consent Documentation Seating Arrangements Conversation Starter/Icebreakers/Rapport-Building Keeping Focus Group...well...Focused! (This Takes Practice!)Almost Always More than One Researcher Note: Researchers can/do occupy multiple roles Moderator (may be professional) Note-taker(s) Analysts
Saturation in focus groups
Focus group researchers strive for saturation, that is, the point at which the information they are getting from the groups is redundant and no new information is being elicited. Sometimes it takes longer for some
Sampling Vital Considerations Regarding Potential Group Dynamics
If participants know one another (at all, but especially very well) this can radically alter group dynamics: Folks may form 'in groups' that leave others feeling like outsidersAim to avoid "mixed groups" - some know each other, others do not Folks may not share as honestly - or at all - if questions are personal Folks may continue ongoing disagreements or otherwise insult each other On the other hand: Folks may feel more comfortable and share more freely and honestly Synergy between group members may arise 'naturally' and more quickly No Matter What - Think Carefully About Groups With Large Power DifferentialsChains of Authority, Status, Class/SESConcerns of Deference, Presumed Leadership, Material or Emotional Repercussions
Sampling
Sampling Focus Groups do not/cannot be used for generalizing to larger population Convenience Sampling Snowball Sampling Purposive Sampling Quota Sampling - "Once you have reached the number of people you want in each group you stop accepting participants in that group, though you [may] remain active in recruiting for other groups of participants." (pp. 246) Simple Random Sampling - "Using a random numbers generator to choose people from a numbered list" (pp. 248) Systematic Sampling- "Begin at a random number on the list, and then select every Xth person on that list" (pp. 248)Both simple random and systematic sampling can be used to increase diversity of sample (but not generalizability) Saturation - "The point at which the information [gathered] is redundant and no new information is being elicited." (pp. 245)
Motivations and goals to conducting social research?
To share findings / results and our interpretations to our audience. We try to inform/persuade a group of people.
Data Collection
Unit of Analysis Individuals 5-12 People; approx. 2 hours; Non-Natural Setting Use of Open-Ended Questions Relatively Small Set of Questions Direction of Conversation Unpredictable (that's a nice way to put it!) Pre-tests (like pilot interviews, practice observations) can be lifesavers Recording Decisions Unstructured Focus Groups - List of predetermined topics; more open-ended, exploratory research; may allow for gaining familiarity with unfamiliarMore prone to 'irrelevant' data collection, unwieldy participants "wasted" time Structured Focus Groups - (more common) - List of predetermined questions; more focused research questions; may allow for comparative analysisRelatively safer bet in terms of focused (no pun intended!) data collection
Theory
focus groupsare often conducted from a symbolic interactionist or social constructionist perspective, - grounded theory: begins with empirical data
Recording:
- Allows you to focus on listening, allows for a smoother and spontaneous interaction, accurate reporting - Do not record if asked not to, do not record if doing is likely going to result in a less honest answer - Do not attempt to write down everything the interviewee says, avoid asking them to repeat themselves, shorthand, write down everything you hear as soon as possible, immediately jot down emerging themes.
Note:
- Be sure to keep all field notes secure and confidential at all times. - Be sure to keep descriptive data clearly separated from personal analysis. - Be sure to record the place, day, and time of each set of notes. - Elaborate upon shorthand/jotted notes on the day you record them. - The completeness and accuracy - the validity- of your data rests on these steps.
Sample sizing
- Can vary - Consider feasibility (time, money, resources, accessibility)
Observation
- Carefully Describe & Systematically Document Instances, Patterns, & Sequences of Behavior - Observe what folks do that they may not be consciously aware of - Observe what folks do that they might not otherwise admit to via interviews, surveys, etc. - Collect detailed field notes for use in qualitative data analysis and presentation - Those folks being observed provide the data by way of their actions, interactions, behaviors - Quantitative - Counting instances/frequencies of actions, behaviors, interactions - Qualitative - May including counting; however, aims to provide more in-depth (often longer times observing) detail and nuance vis-à-vis the behaviors/interactions under investigation - Observation research is generally performed within 'natural' settings. Qualitative observation generally does not involve systematically manipulating the environment or any variables. Observation research is thus generally distinct from experimental research
Sampling
- Choosing who participates in our study (deciding from whom/what you will get your data from)
Ethics: Page 85 Gordon
- Consent from participant - Give them a full outline of the interview structure.
Sampling in Observation Research
- Convenience Sampling - Focusing observations on research elements closest/easiest to hand: - Individuals/Group Members (Who) - Behaviors/Interactions (What) - Days/times available for you (When)*** - Purposive Sampling - Strategically selecting [selecting on purpose] the who/what/when - Random Sampling - Selecting elements of the research process in a random fashion [based on chance] Please Note: The field site should never be chosen at random.
Informed Consent Statements cont.
- Declaration of Right of Participant to Ask Questions at Any Time (and right to receive answers!) - Full Disclosure of Any Potential Risks to Participant (e.g., interviews may result in negative reactions) - Full Disclosure of Any Potential Benefits to Participant - Researcher's Contact Information - IRB (Institutional Review Board) Contact Information - Declaration that Participant has Read Informed Consent Statement in Full and Had Questions Answered (Do Keep in Mind: Informed Consent Statements can take TIME to read!!) - Participant's Signature & Date - Keep Signed Copy in Secure Location; Provide Participant with Copy
Benefits of interviewing:
- Detailed small scale data collection - Identifying and alalyzing salient commonalities / patterns in data - in depth understanding of perspectives, meanings, decision making processes - ability to follow up and elaborate upon data in real time - building / refining theory - using theory as guiding framework
Data validity
- Does the data analysis provide an accurate reflection of the data? - Are any patterns identified by researchers well supported by data? - is there a clear demarcation drawn and maintained between the participants perspectives and the researchers analysis of said perspecitives
Aim to:
- Expansive first question, elicit examples, elicit elaboration, avoid yes/no questions, "How did that make you feel?" gold star question, "Is there anything else you would like to add?", if semi structured, avoid pre determined questions, If loosely structured, aim to notice "markers" and make quick notes, demographic info can be collected at the end of the interview
Focus groups:
- Focus groups are a kind of qualitative research that involves asking questions and promoting focused and directed conversation among a group of people - questions are open-ended and explicitly asked, as ininterview research, but the number of questions is small, and because ofthe group dynamic, the direction of the conversation is unpredictable. - Focus groups are often considered a quick method of gathering databecause you can talk to multiple people at once, and hence get a lot ofinformation from a variety of people in just a couple of hours.
Qualitative interviewing:
- Gather detailed - Allows participants to speak and explain in their own words (no pre determined, reduced answers such as surveys). - Allows researchers to ask open ended questions which allows for detailed, in depth responses. - Semi structured: Use of predetermined questions. Loosely structured: Begin with a starting question and allow for participant-specific organic development.
Establishing Rapport:
- In early communication with the participants about the research, be polite, pleasant, and enthusiastic about the project. - Dress appropriately for the interview. - When you and the participant first arrive at the meeting place, engage in easy, casual conversation. - After the interview has begun, give the participant your full and concentrated attention. - Express genuine empathy. - if you personally disagree with the participant's interpretations or perspectives, or if they are describing behaviors that you find troublesome (or even horrifying), you should take care not to convey this to them. - Believe what the participant says, and convey this to them through your verbal and nonverbal cues. - Relatedly, never badger a participant. Sometimes we are so wedded to what we believe must be true, we have a hard time accepting an answer that doesn't match up with our expectations. - Become comfortable with silence.
Methodology
- Like interviews, both qualitative observation and ethnography are based on interpretivist methodology. - This methodology is solely centered around establishing and maintaining trust with your participant. - You must create a strong rapport with the participant; one based on trust so that they exhibit their normal behavior around you without feeling as if they are being judged.
Quantitative methods of research
- Most commonly used - Involves numerical data/ quantities - Surveys, statistical analysis, social experiments
Loosely structured interviews:
- No list of pre-determined questions. Begin the interview with a starter question. Allows the interviewer to see the world through the interviewees eyes. - Further questions will begin to develop from the participants responses - Although no list of pre determined questions, you will have a list of topics you want to cover.
Limitations of Observation & Ethnography
- Not Appropriate For Testing Hypotheses (or testing theories) •Not Appropriate For Identifying or Analyzing Cause-Effect Relations •Involves Relatively Small Sample Sizes (including n=1 for 'culture' or ' 'subculture') •Findings/Results Not Generalizable/Representative to Wider Population Beyond Sample •May Present Issues Re: Inter-Researcher Reliability i.e., different researchers may reach different conclusions about same data •Observations alone cannot be used to research thoughts, feelings, motivations, interpretations, meaning Recall: Interpretivist methodology (which includes qualitative observations and ethnographic research) "neither claims nor aims" at representative or generalizable results, the ability to be neatly replicated, or powers of prediction (pp. 62).
Limitations to interviewing:
- Not appropriate for testing hypothesis, identifying cause / effect relationshiPS. However, helpful for studying participant perspectives - Involves relatively small sample sizes - Findings / results not generalizable - Findings / results not standardizable - May present issues of inner researcher reliability Remember: Interpretivist methodology does not claim or aim at representative or generalizable results, the ability to be neatly replicated, or powers of prediction.
CW Mills the promise summary: Online
- On one hand Men feel trapped and powerless by the confined routines of their lives. On the other, they feel powerless due to social change that is out of their control, such as political and global issues. - Supposedly, looking at the world through a sociological imagination is the solution to overcoming these anxieties. - The "powerless" emotions men feel are beyond their own individual lives.
Observation Research Ethics
- Public Places - Few or no restrictions on who may be in said place. Informed Consent to Observe Usually Not Required - Semi-private Places - Not open to everyone, but not fully restricted. Generally speaking, there are explicit reasons that folks are in said spaces at certain times - often said people share certain characteristics. Informed Consent to Observe Required Private Places - Places that are not available/accessible to the public. Require explicit invitation/permission to be in said space/place. Informed Consent to Observe Required
Methodology
- Qualitative interviewing is most commonly grounded in interpretivist methodology - Main goal is to deeply understand the world through the participants eyes. In order to do so, you must use the "scientific method", in which you develop a genuine relationship with the participant based on trust.
Additional Ethical Considerations
- Respect/Non-Judgmental Reception of Participant's Responses - Respect and Honesty in Presentation of Participant's Responses - Age - Consent of Guardians for Interviewing, Observing Minor Children - Legal Concerns - You must seriously consider if/to what extent the data you are collecting (via interviews, observations, ethnographic immersion) will potentially involve you as part of an ethically compromised situation - including situations that could lead you into very serious legal trouble. Shorthand, pseudonyms, and other anonymizing data collection are important for source anonymity Destruction of data upon completion of research is standard practice - Crisis/Emergency Concerns - Remember - Always consult your IRB for requirements and guidance for each specific research project.
A.E. Leader, A. Burke-Garcia, P.M. Massey et al. "Understanding the messages and motivation of vaccine hesitant or refusing social media influencers." Vaccine 39 (2021) pp. 350-356: Summary 9/28
- Social media influencers are incredibly influential towards their following - Anti vaccine messages receive more attention on social media than pro vaccination messages - Social media may impact vaccination knowledge , awareness and attitudes. - Study is centered around 15 anti-vax mothers with social media platforms. - The mothers expressed concern about the potential risks of vaccinating their children, such as injuries and autism, and their own personal experiences. For the influencers that we spoke with, the risks of the vaccine far outweigh the risks of the disease. They also feel that despite the rise and return of previously eliminated infectious diseases in the U.S.[35], their personal risk is quite low. - They feel as if the mainstream media is just fear mongering and blowing the risk of communicable diseases out of proportion to promote vaccination. They feel that the media greatly overstates the risk of infectious disease. .- Findings: The individuals with less followers were more likely to post anti vaccine content because they had less to lose. The individuals with more social media followers did not want to risk losing brand deals / collaborations / losing their following due to their opposing views. This might suggest that influencers are not the primary driver of anti vaccine content on social media. - social media is also home to large quantities of anti-vaccine misinformation Influencers may be more likely to share information about technology that enables parents to resist vaccines than to directly state their views on vaccines. - those who hold strong anti-vaccine beliefs and are not afraid to share them
Important for research questions:
- The most important rule for writing research questions is that your question must be answerable. That is, it must be a question that can be answered with data, not a philosophical question whose answer is unknowable or based on personal values. "Is there heaven" - A good research question is one that can't be answered with a yes/no response and is not answerable with one or two words. Dont use "Does" instead of "How/What" - Does gender affect voters' candidate choice for president? is not nearly as interesting as learning in what ways it does or does not have an effect. Hence, better versions of this question include How does gender affect voters' choice of candidate for president? and What is the relationship between gender and candidate choice for president? - Additionally, research questions should include the unit of analysis in the. question. A unit of analysis is the "who" or "what" that you are studying. - When using existing statistics, your unit of analysis is likely to be cities, states, or nations. And in content analysis, your unit of analysis is going to be the audio, visual, or textual materials you want to analyze:letters, speeches, tweets, advertisements, or movies, for instance.
The Thorny Ethics of Deception
- The use of deception - claiming to be someone or some way that you are not - is not advised. - Deceptive practices have been used by researchers to expedite acceptance of the researcher's presence amongst those being studied, to help those being studied feel more comfortable, to accelerate the building of trust and rapport between researchers and those being studied, to lessen the 'outsider' status and stigma of researchers (and the changes in non-verbal and verbal behavior among those being studied that sometimes arise in the context of being observed). - Nevertheless, deception is deceitful; if said deception is ever suspected or detected, the trust and rapport built between researchers and those being studied will diminish or dissolve entirely - up to and including very negative reactions and long-standing or permanent distrust toward the researcher. -Deception risks the entire research project - unless absolutely necessary, it is best avoided.
Theory
- Theory often is used to help determine the research question, which concepts might be important to the research, the behaviors to observe, and, for ethnographic research especially, the field site in which to do it. - As with interview research, you might view the data through the lens of a particular theory to help you identify and interpret the patterns.
Ethical Imperatives
- Written Informed Consent Statement - Description of Research - Declaration of Fully Voluntary - Nature of Participation - Qualifications for Who May Participate in Research - Description of Who Is Conducting Research; What Research is For - Estimated Amount of Total Time Required of Participants - Indicate Any Use of Audio and/or Visual Recording - Right to End Recording at Any Time - Right to Refuse To Answer at Any Time - Right to End Participation in Research at Any Time - Disclose Any Others With Access to Data - Disclose How Data Will be Kept/Disposed Of Must Maintain Strict Security Over Data (e.g., safes, locks, passcodes) -Declaration of Strict Confidentiality(i.e., use of pseudonyms, redaction of identifying information)
semi-structured interviews:
- develop a list of pre determined questions in advance that you will ask of all the participants. - you will augment these questions during the interview with many other spontaneous follow-up questions that elicit more information about the participant's responses Best for: applied research: helps you deeply understand the participants perspectives,
Qualitative Methods of research
- interviewing, observing/ethnographic investigation, focus groups, content analysis
Interviewing: What is it?
- qualitative research - cannot be reduced to a predetermined answer. - Aim to elicit lengthy responses - Difficult to study cause / effect - not appropriate for studying demographic or social trends, attitudes, opinions about issues, or concepts that are best measured with numbers or amounts, such as likelihood of voting a particular way, level of self-esteem, or frequency of sexual intercourse. - It is important to note that it is also very difficult to study cause and effect using interviews because the participant's perceptions of the cause (oreffect) of a particular behavior may not actually be the real cause Example: Girlfriend leaves boyfriend due to him being an alcoholic, he tells the interviewer she left because she didnt love him enough. - Finally, interview research is not appropriate for comparing groups of people.
Theory:
- researchers often use a given theory to guide them in choosing their research question, designing their research, collecting their data, and interpreting it. - For example, if the topic were online dating, asymbolic interactionist theorist might focus on how people lie, exaggerate, omit, and minimize to create a specific self-presentation for potential matches. - a feminist theorist might look at the ways in which women overtly and subtly pressure potential male matches to produce specific forms of masculinity; a conflict theorist might investigate competition in the erotic marketplace;
Basic research vs applied research:
- the applied research is being conducted as the basis for making decisions based on there search findings, as opposed to the basic research, which gives us knowledge but isn't meant to be used for decision-making purposes. - applied research is conducted for the purpose of gathering data to be used in decision making, while basic research may inform those decisions, but that is not their primary goal.
Epistemology
- the study of knowledge, "How do we know what we know?" - Maybe we analyzed the content, maybe we just know, we study it, we have methods to try and figure it out.
Why Is Research Important?
1. Its the most valid form of knowledge to base social policy because it is empirical, systematic, involves the collection of data, and requires an analysis based on those data. 2. Additionally, it can be used to test the accuracy of social theory, to document social trends, to make comparisons over time or across geographical regions, to inform people, to gain new insights about social phenomena, and to support arguments in debate. 3. Research is powerful. In producing knowledge, you have the opportunity to influence what others know and think as well as the actions they may take 4. Research skills are in high demand. research skills are not only important for those who want to be sociology professors or researchers, but for anyone wanting a leg up in a highly competitive job market. 5. Third, knowing about social research, even if you never conduct any yourself, will make you a better consumer of social research. Helps you understand how to correctly conduct research.
Research Questions 1. Observation: 2. Ethnography
1. is excellent for understanding patterns of behavior and interaction. - not a good method for determining causes or effects of behavior because it is difficult to determine causes visually - In sum, research questions suitable for observation research focus on describing observable behavior and interaction EX: - How do parents initiate conversations with strangers at childrens parties? - What nonverbal behaviors do college students engage in while flirting? - How do cashiers and customers interact while the purchase is being rung up? - How do servers treat overweight costumers in comparison to thin costumers? 2. - Ethnographers are not as strictly limited to research questions that focus exclusively on behavior. - ethnographic research questions focus on the level of culture, subculture, or group and use one of these as the unit of analysis rather than the individual - Not good for cause / effect - not good for comparisons between groups because its impossible to fully immerse yourself in multiple cultures at the same time. - EX: - How do gang members establish and reinforce hierarchies within the gang? - What are the norms that govern friendship among elementary school age girls? - How do Amish communities sheild their children from influences of modern American culture?
Observation Sampling
A helpful question to ask yourself when conducting observation and ethnographic research - Where am I going to focus my attention? One cannot focus on everything all at once. How can we focus our...well...focus?? Consider: Who is being Sampled? What is being sampled? Where is sampling occurring? When? - Who Which individuals or group members, specifically, are you observing? - What What behaviors or interactions, specifically, are you observing? Those most immediate to you? Those which will require you to plan out in advance/position yourself in a particular location/at a particular time? - Where One or multiple locations? Do you have access? Do you have the resources [time, money] to feasibly use the field site(s) chosen? Is your location theoretically appropriate [useful for answering your research question]? - WhenWhat day(s) and time(s) will you observe? Why?
Ethnography
A qualitative research method related to and including observation. In addition to carefully observing folks and collecting detailed field notes regarding behaviors and interactions, ethnographers also aim to study the cultural norms and values of those being studied. To this end, ethnography may also include formal and informal [casual conversation] interviews, use of historical/contextual materials, relevant documents or artifacts pertaining to your field site/participants and research question.
Basic and Applied Research
Basic: "pure research" done to learn something new / satisfies curiosity. Used to better understand something, but is not meant to change policy. Does not have immediate practical uses. Applied research: is used for immediate practical purposes, such as to identify unmet needs in a population, to find solutions to a problem, or to evaluate solutions. the goal is not just to understand a phenomenon, but to find and/or evaluate solutions to it.
Gordon - Ch. 1 pp. 1-21
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Gordon - Ch. 2 pp. 23-64 interviewing: Summary
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Week 0/1 lecture notes
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Week 2 Lecture Pt. 1: Interviewing Criteria
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What factors matter to being able to conduct certain research?
Can the research question be answered, is the research feasible, time, money access.
Bias:
Characteristsics, experience, knowledge, or attitude that might affect the research you do 1. Broad topic studied 2. Particular research question asked 3. Methods 4. Analysis / interpretation of data 5. Presentation and subsequent evaluation of results What would non biased interviewing look like? - Putting your own views and experiences aside so that you are better able to accurately report the views and experiences of the people you're interviewing.
Conceptualizing and Operationalizing
Conceptualizing - "Developing a precise definition of the concept you are studying" (pp. 17)What, exactly, is it that I am trying to learn more about?Give precise and systematic meanings to concepts and topics you study - Operationalizing - "Figuring out how to capture the information that will help you tap into [or measure] that (conceptual) definition" (pp. 17)
Conceptualizing and operationalizing
Conceptualizing - developing a precise definition of the concept youre studying "What exactly is it that I am trying to learn more about?" Operationalizing - figuring out how to capture the information that will help you measure your info. How exactly are we going to investigate what I am trying to investigate?
Ethnography cont.
Conducting Research Like a Cultural Anthropologist - Rather than rely solely upon clandestine observations of artifacts, interactions, or behaviors, or solely upon interviews [or surveys], ethnographers conduct long-term immersive research within a group - i.e., 'on the ground' research and analysis. - Social researchers explore "the strange" to make it familiar to better understand and explain social phenomena.One must reflect very carefully about their research question vis-à-vis how it conceptualizes "unfamiliar" people, cultures, places, etc.Likewise, one must reflect very carefully about the actual or potential uses - theoretically & practically - to which research may be used - Social researchers also systematically investigate those folks, ideas, beliefs, practices, and rituals that are [seemingly] more familiar.To paraphrase our Week 1 friend, C.W. Mills, social research often aims to 'Make the (seemingly) familiar, unfamiliar.'
Observation & Ethnographic Data Collection
Consider Feasibility (time, money, resources, accessibility) How Many Observations Will Be Conducted? When? [Days/Times]?How Long Are Observations/Ethnographic Immersions Anticipated to Take? Do You Have - Or Can You Plausibly Obtain - Access to the Field Site/Participants?Will Travel [and Related Expenses/Time Commitments] Be Involved? How About Lodging and Other Living Expenses?What Is Your Research Timeline? What is Your Research Budget? - WAIT for IRB (Institutional Review Board) Approval! - Obtain Informed Consent (remember - this step cannot be completed until IRB approval is granted) - Practice; Conduct Pilot Observations - Gather (and Test!) Equipment & Resources Locations & Spaces Gatekeepers (if applicable) Recording Equipment Field Note Materials (plan for a lot of paper and writing devices!) Coding Software (if applicable) Secure Lockbox/Filing Drawer
Qualitative interview sampling:
Convenience sampling: Recruit and advertise for interested and willing participants - Convenient = not choosing participants in any selective or systematic fashion. It's drawn from RANDOM people willing to participate. You are NOT selecting them. Snowball sampling: Current participants recruit new participants Purposive sampling: Selecting certain participants on purpose.
What exactly counts as knowledge?
Depending on your well thought out research question: individual opinion, personal/group experience, big data, cause and effect trajectories, experimental results.
Field Notes & Thick Description:
Field Notes - The central repository of your ongoing data collection and one of the central sources for your data analysis. Jotted - Limited notes (shorthand) that capture main ideas, words, phrases, questions, themes, behaviors that you then fill in with thick descriptive detail as soon as possible. - Descriptive - Observations - What Are People Doing, Saying; How Are They Interacting? What Is Taking Place in an Objective Descriptive Sense? - Interpretive - Meanings, Understandings, [Tentative] Conclusions Relating to Observations - What Interpretations of the Observations Emerge? - Personal - How are you personally experiencing the activities of researching? What are your personal reactions to the research situation(s)? - Theoretical - What Connections Are You Making Between Data and Particular Social Theories, Concepts, Framings, Previous Research? - Methodological - Ongoing Record of Sampling Decisions Made; How & Why Data Is Collected in Certain
Field Sites
Field Site - The spaces and places where ethnographic data is gathered. Consider: Where have researchers collected data similar to data you'll collect? Why did previous researchers choose these field sites? Depending on your research question (& questions of feasibility) you might: - Choose the same or similar field site(s) for data collection and...Analyze whether previous research findings hold in your new study (identify large-scale social patterns)Analyze whether similar or different data patterns emerge given a change in one variable - Choose a somewhat or very different field site(s) for data collection and...Analyze whether patterns/findings remain similar across different contextsAnalyze whether (and what!) new patterns emerge in different contexts
Assessment & Evaluation of Interview Data & Analysis
Goal: Data Validity Does the Analysis Provide an Accurate Reflectionof the Data?Are Any Patterns Identified Well-Supportedby the Data? Is there a clear demarcation drawn and maintainedbetween the observations described and the researcher's interpretation of said observations? If interviews are conducted, is there a clear demarcation drawn and maintained between the perspectives provided by participants and the researcher's analysis of said perspectives?
rapport
Making efforts to establish and maintain trust, cooperation, and mutual respect. - Polite, professional and enthusiastic - Consider appearance - Keep attentive and engaged - Empathetic responses if appropriate, and only if its genuine - Avoid pressuring participants for "correct" responses - Avoid filling empty air / sometimes silence is necessary
The Components of Research:
Methodology: methodology is a whole philosophical perspective about how research should be conducted, the reasons it should be conducted, and how it should be used. Theory: Sociologists study social events, interactions, and patterns, and they develop a theory in an attempt to explain why things work as they do. Theories are theoretical frameworks that describe how things are, why, and what effect it has. Research Question: A question in which you are interesting in learning more about. Your research question is the overall guiding question to which you are seeking an answer.
Researcher Roles
Non-Participant Observer - Observing without participating in activities observed - Highly-focused attention on watching; arguably easier to observe more behaviors/interactions - Peripheral 'bird's eye view' perspective - If folks know they are being observed by someone not participating, they may act differently - Participant Observer - Observing 'from inside' while fully participating in activities being observed - Better able to identify, document, and analyze detailed 'insider' interactions and information' - Up close and personal' perspective - May not be able to see the 'forest for the trees' as well as a non-participant researcher - Observer Participant - Engaging with some but not all activities while observing said activities.
Questions of Objectivity - Reactivity & Reflexivity
Note-Taking Openly [clearly taking notes in the moment] vs. Clandestinely [outside the view of others] Reactivity - "The effect of the research on the participants Reflexivity - Reflection upon one's own positions and practices. In the realm of investigation, making an effort as a researcher to remain aware of the assumptions, values, methods, and interpretations that one brings to and/or draws upon throughout the research process.
Ethics
Obervations: Preformed in public places and do not require consent. - Consent required for semi private and private places. Ethnography: Requires informed consent - A void deception in your research; dont lie and try to make it seem like you've been in their shoes in order to get more information out of them - Only use deception in dire situations - Dont directly identify anyone: EX; The student with the blue mohawk
Benefits of Observation & Ethnography
Observation Research - Richly Detailed, Relatively Small-Scale Data Collection - Identifying and Analyzing Salient Commonalities/Patterns In Data - Ability to Analyze Behaviors and Interactions that are Unconscious, Socially Unacceptable, etc. Ethnographic Research - In-Depth Understanding of Cultural Perspectives, Meanings, Norms, Behavior Patterns, and Interactions - Insider' and 'Outsider' Perspectives as Sources of Data - Ability to Follow-Up and Elaborate Upon Data in Real Time - Immersion into Field Sites for Relatively Long Periods of Time; Collection & Analysis of Thick Descriptions
Observation and Ethnography
Observation: - Observation is a research method in which you carefully watch people, usually in a natural setting over a period of time in order to learn about their patterns of interaction and behavior. - instead of trying to understand how people see the world, which is internal and not observable, your primary aim is to try to really understand their patterns of behavior and interaction. - Qualitative observation involves watching people carefully and in detail, often over long periods of time. - EX: Observing homeless people from a bench 3 times a week - usually lasts a few weeks to a few months Ethnography: - First, in doing ethnography you immerse yourself as deeply into the culture or subculture as possible in order to understand it as well as you can - Trying to gain a deep, personal understanding of the day-to-day lives of the people you're researching. - you try to develop a cultural understanding of the phenomenon you are studying. - EX: Living w the homeless people for years and experiencing what they do - requires at least several months, and sometimes years
Sampling
Recall: "Deciding from whom (or from what) you will get your data and how you will choose those sources" Research projects cannot feasibly analyze everyone or everything of interest.So, we sample - i.e., we choose a subset of a larger population to study. - Unit of analysis - Who or What is Being StudiedObservation - Unit of Analysis - IndividualsEthnographic Research - Unit of Analysis Groups/Subcultures/Cultures Remember - Before and throughout the research process, be absolutely sure that each sampling decision made (and why) is clearly documented in your ongoing field notes. These initial and ongoing sampling decisions will directly inform your data analysis, the assessment by others of your data validity, and the way in which research results are framed, presented, and assessed by various audiences.
Research Questions
Research questions about issues in a community, subculture, ororganization are appropriate for focus group research, as are questionsabout group processes, shared cultural experiences, and changes in opinion or behavior. - At the applied level, focus groups are useful for identifying a problem, understanding it, and deciding how to solve it.They are good for generating new ideas, identifying areas of need, imagining new possibilities, and explaining why something doesn't work theway that experts expected it to. They are also suitable for getting people'sreactions to different versions of a policy or program and for evaluation.
Unethical research?
Research that should not be conducted.
Methods of research collection:
Surveys: involve asking people predesigned questions and, usually, asking them to choose from among the answer choices that you, the researcher, have provided. They are best used for studying social or demographic trends, cause and effect, attitudes, and simple behaviors. Interviews: involve asking people questions that are open ended; that is, you haven't predetermined possible answer choices for them. They are best used for studying what goes on in people's heads: their perceptions, interpretations, meanings, and experiences of the social world, as well as their motivations and feelings. Focus group: Focus group research consists of gathering 5 to 12 people together for usually about two hours and asking them some questions on a particular topic in order to get their thoughts, reactions, feelings, and opinions. Allows conversation to go in different directions. Focus groups are very good for generating new ideas, for finding out reactions to different versions of something (a plan, policy, etc.), for investigating topics on which there is very little information, and for understanding the perspectives of different groups of people in some depth. Observation: Observation involves watching people to document their behavior. It is used to understand how people interact with one another and to find patterns in their behavior. Ethnography: It is a method that involves deeply immersing yourself in a culture or subculture to understand it. Its purpose is to understand some aspect of a culture in great depth. It is good for studying the norms, values, and meanings of a culture or subculture. Secondary Data Analysis: You conduct secondary data analysis when you use data that some one else has gathered. A new analysis is then made, different from the original. Raw uncalculated data. Work with your own statistics produced from your conducted analysis. Existing Statistics: Existing statistics are also based on the data that someone else has collected. No raw uncalculated data. with existing statistics you are working with statistics produced by someone else. Content Analysis: Content analysis involves gathering existing texts, images, songs, or other audiovisual products, such as videos or commercials, to analyze them for themes in their content, style, and form Experiments: Controlled and uncontrolled groups. When you conduct an experiment, you take two or more groups and alter the conditions of all but one of those groups in a controlled way in order to understand the effect that each condition has on the group.
What Is Empirical Social Research?
There are 3 characteristics that set research apart: - First, social research is systematic; that is, the researcher develops a plan of action before beginning the research. - Second, social research involves data, which are the pieces of information gathered from primary sources. This is what makes it empirical - Third, social research involves analysis, meaning the researcher interprets the data and draws conclusions from them
Confidentiality and Anonymity are CRUCIAL
Use of Pseudonyms (fake names/identifiers) - For People - For PLACES - Pseudonyms are used across each step of data collection, analysis, and presentation. In other words, confidentiality must be maintained in field notes, audio/video recordings (usually), and presentation of research findings. t is highly unethical for folks to be identifiable If people or places are identifiable, individuals being observed may suffer minor to very serious risks and repercussions e.g., damage to reputation, embarrassment, ostracization, firing, legal trouble. These concerns matter just as much to individuals not interviewed or observed but who are still observed, spoken about, or otherwise implicated via direct participants. It is also practically necessary to ensure confidentiality Folks are unlikely (understandably!) to act 'naturally,' to share details, or to share honestly if they (or others) and field sites are identifiable. Keeping field notes and any recordings strictly secure and confidential throughout the research process is a must. Avoid leaving field notes or recordings unsecured at any time.
Questions for week 10: Good luck, and remember what you're working towards :) you can do this!
What kinds if questions might social researchers want to study? - Questions about social issues (global warming, etc) What kinds of info might one hope to gain by conduction social research? - information about their research question What sorts of data, facts, trends, results might social research provide? -
Learning To See - Insiders and Outsiders
When ethnographers enter a field site, they may not understand what is going on. Members of a group take certain ideas, beliefs, values, practices, etc. for granted. Likewise, members of a group recognize the meaning and relevance of specific practices, speech acts, gestures, etc.Non-group members see [initially at least]....well...who knows what! - The 'insiders' know, the 'outsiders' may not. At the same time, 'insiders' can miss interesting information that an 'outsider' might find interesting or ask questions about. - The 'outsider' may see what 'insiders' do not see - or do not care to see.
The Thorny Ethics of Obtaining Consent From Everyone
When folks are being studied and informed consent is required, researchers must make sure that everyone involved in the study has consented to participate. If particular individuals do not agree to being observed or otherwise studied (with the exception of non-obtrusive observation in public places), data may not be collected on them, including data that involves their participation with others who have provided informed consent. Consult directly with IRB for requirements and guidance for each research project.
Unit of analyss
Who/What is being studied? - Individuals, media, etc?
What audiences?
academic? the general public? government/state? - our audience is whoever is going to benefit from the findings of the research findings. We are aiming to inform / persuade a particular audience.
assignment notes
exmaples: readings, lectures or slides. 2-3 sentencces for term. for example: in the hospital ethnography, their unit of analysis was the hospital staff. definition and example ONLY. Make it easy, no citations. put the definition into your own word, no copy and pasting. trying to convey that you understand it. part 2: 2 paragraphs her answer, 2 questions. 1st: qualitative interviewing and focus groups: - answer based on the readings, go through everything. and the videos.
Methodology
in interpretivist methodology. That means the primary goal is to understand things fromthe perspective of the participants as fully as possible, including theirmeanings, feelings, perceptions, and experiences. - establish and aintain trust by creating a rapport
C.W. Mills - "The Promise" 2000[1959] The Sociological Imagination. Oxford University Press. pp. 3-24
intro: Men feel trapped and unsatisfied with their lives confused and overwhelmed. They have difficulty over coming their troubles They feel trapped by their lives and begin to live their lives vicariuosly. All of this is happening because of historical changes however they seldom are aware of the connection between societal changes and their lives and how it affects their behavior and thought processes. I n order to combat this they need a quality of mind that helps them to use in formation to develop reason to be able to understand what is happening in the world and how this is affecting what is going on inside their mind and their perdspective on their lives. The concept of thinking and understanding is call the sociological Imagination. Sociological Imagination: Helps a person to understand the connection between the larger historical scene and "inner" life Helps a person to understand how in the most turblant times in ones life you may become falsley conscious of what your social position is at the time Helps us to grasp history and biography and how the two form a relationship within society Through sociological imagination men can try to grasp what is happening in the world and undertand what is happening inside themselves ans are able to see the connection of biography and history within society It helps to acquire a new way of thinking a realization of the cultural meaning of the social sciences. Our experiences in various and Specific milieux are often cause by structural changes such as the economy, war, marriage, divorce. The number and variety of structutral changes increase as the institutions in which we live become embraced by us and connected to one another. To be aware of the social structure and to use it with sensibility allows you to see the connections to a great variety of milieux. To be able to see this connection is to posses sociological i imagination What are the major issues for indivduals and the public in ourb time: Todetermine that we need to know what are the cherised values that are also thretened and what are the cherished values that re supported Cherished untreatened values promote well-being Cherished values that are threatened cause a crisis as either persona; trouble or a public issue. If all values are thretened than a total panic ensues. If a person isnt aware of any values nor experiences a threat the experience felt is called indifference If a person isnt aware of values but is aware of threat that is called uneassines or anxiety Ours is a time of uneasssiness and indifference
final paper
intro: what are you studying? why? research topic and question and why its importanrt - 1 page literature review: minimum of 6 scholary journal articles. briefley summarize and how they relate to our topic. - 2 pages methods: 2-3 pages, which methods will you use to investiagte your research question? why is it a good fir? hypothesis? variables? unit of analysis? how many participants? sampling? generalizable? bias reduction? data collection: - 1 / 2 pages
Sampling:
nonprobability sampling: - not everyone in the population shares the same chance of being chosen to participate in the research. Snowball sampling: Involves recruiting people who participate in the research and who then recruit other people to participate in the research as well (and who, in turn, might recruit more participants for you purposive sampling: Purposely chosen for a particular reason. You choose people who will fit and maintain the theme of the interview. Convience sampling: Anyone can participate. Maximum variation sampling: in which you try to recruit a sample with as much diversity of experience and opinion as possible.
structured focus groups
predetermine the main questions you will ask, although you certainly will still ask probing, follow-up, and clarification questions. - The purpose of running a structured focus group is to elicit particular types of information from thegroup, often with more details.
weaknesses
weaknesses: answers can become limited by group think (when people don't form their own opinions but merely adopt those of the group), - Additionally, unless the moderator is skilled at discouraging this dynamic, some people may dominate the discussion while shyer or more introverted people may be relatively quiet or simply agree without providing new or interesting information. - people can be reluctant to commit to speaking up among a group of strangers. - they require a lot of logistical planning, are likely to have surprises arise (multiple people don't show up or they bring others not on your list who want to participate; one person polarizes the group; peoplewho don't like each other randomly end up in the same focus group and itaffects group dynamics,
unstructured focus groups
you go into the group with a list of topics and issues to cover, but your main task is simply to listen to where the conversation goes, rather than to lead it in certain directions.
