SOC Final Exam

migration

- migration and mobility put sexual networks into motion - much of SSA epidemic is rooted in colonial-era labor migration systems that separate workers from their families with only periodic visits home opening opportunities for concurrent relationships for men and women - male workers live in single sex residential environments and seek sexual relief with sex workers or long term relationships with women where they are working - wives and partners are lonely or seek financial support if their husbands do not send money home - when the couple reunites, condomless sex allows HIV to be passed to both environments - commercial truck drivers who transport goods along major trade routes throughout Africa have been found to have high HIV rates and serve as vectors for the disease, transmitting it to local populations they reside it, building a sexual network link -HIV rates also high around lake victoria where many goods are transported and traded especially among fishing communities - soldiers and prisoners of war also partake in voluntary, commercial, and coercive sexual acts with local women, further putting both men and women at risk

boda boda

- motorcycle taxis - primarily male job

explain Mojola's puzzling finding: education had a major effect on lowering fertility rates but had no major effect on decreasing the spread of HIV infection

- particularly high school women delay marriage and bearing children in order to complete high school → reasons that fertility rates of schools girls dropped: (a) developed a preference for less children (however, the pill does not decrease risk of HIV) (b) learned about western contraceptives, such as the pill (c) but, young women are still having sex and as Professor Mojola argues, school "produced consuming women" and "facilitated transactional relationships with older partners" and even teachers (d) p.125 → schools produced consumer women and facilitated transactional sex with older and riskier men → items and ways they could show they were modern pushed them into these relationships (e) they would get kicked out of school if they were pregnant (wanted to finish school)

gihero raha and raha lifestyle

- raha: the good life - gihero raha (they love pleasure) - reflected on the Luo's love for a good life - enjoy life and live as well as you can in the moment --> result of death being so common - enjoying and living life to the fullest and to the best of one's financial ability encapsulated the best way to live - not being afraid of spending to achieve the good life or pleasure - wealth accumulation was not so important since life was seen as too short - life was to be enjoyed - keep doing what you love until the day you die

zero grazing

- reducing the number of sexual partners young men have, even when they are older and have the financial ability to have multiple relationships

relationships for education

- relationships between schoolmates either in the same school or in different schools that were entirely abstinent and almost platonic in nature - usually how a relationship began (prelude to relationship for sex) - a couple would sit together, or bring our problems or ideas together, then we try to pass them to each other so that we can solve them - initiated by young men

luo sex positive culture (pg 56)

- sexually suggestive Luo songs played on public transportation vehicles, and in different settings respondents would note that sex was woven into many cultural activities and rites to fulfill customs - sex was the fitting end to many activities - "when people are digging their shambas, building a house, 3 days after a parent dies, you have sex - some were reinvented traditions though, used by men to justify extramarital or concurrent sex

STI/HIV risk environment in the US vs in Africa

- the disease environment in which relationship logics governing sexual relationship choices - and nonchoices - unfolded resulted in high risk for young women and protection and temporary safety for young men - In the United States: (a) By age 29: 16% of men have had an STI and 37% of women have had an STI (at least a third of women) (b) 110 million out of 327 million infections (c) More prevalent STIs circulating among youth in the US are mostly curable and rarely fatal - In Luo Nyanza: (a) HIV+ Men In Luo-Nyanza 8.5% aged 20-24 years old 28.7% aged 25-29 years old (b) HIV+ Women In Luo-Nyanza 17.4% aged 20-24 years old 34.2% aged 25-29 years old - Comparisons (a) About ⅓ of women in US and ⅓ women and men in age range are infected with an STI but with US stats it's all STIs, but only HIV in Luo Nyanza (b) STIs are a prevalent issue in both the US and Luo Nyanza

what kinds of needs did boys have? how were these different than the kinds of needs that girls have? why did girls need so many things?

Girls: cosmetics, skin lotion, face powder, clothes, shoes - She wants to dress properly, bath well, use good oils, be fashionable and trendy, and plait her hair (be a consuming and modern girl) - Girls compare themselves to others. - Girls like to be admired (128). - Differences between girls were made evident in the school setting. - Want to participate in school culture and attain social visibility. - Girls also need sanitary pads --> monthly expenses for her entire reproductive life. Boys: - highlighted their ability to postpone their needs (126). - "Boys can survive" "We can do without" - Boys were essentially "doing gender" in constructing masculinity of restraint in the face of consumer desire. - Soap, laundry detergent, toothbrush/toothpaste, and a little pocket money. → maybe a bike, or a radio (things that you can buy once and never again) - Importance of dressing well so you don't feel ashamed.

what does Mojola mean by her finding that "having sex means proving manhood"? how does having sex make someone more of a man? or, put another way, what cultural beliefs or social expectations back up the idea that having sex is manly?

- "It was important for parents to see that their sons were showing signs of virility and manhood, and one way of demonstrating this was by having many girlfriends" p.88 - Hooking up - "hit-and-run" sex proved manhood p.87 → sexual relationships - Abstaining, not having girlfriends, delaying 'becoming a man' was seen as not manly. - Men were under a great pressure to prove they were men. Girlfriends, parents, other men set those expectations. → having sex and girlfriends - Contrast between being a man and having safe sex/limiting HIV exposure - "provider" role - sex = proving manhood

describe some of the features of schools in Kenya. how is it similar or different to your own experiences in high school?

- "School was a place for cultural transmission, behavioral, moral, and cultural socialization, and social selection" - Pg. 131 - 132 "Going to school was not just about becoming modern women, but also about demonstrating this transformation through engaging in practices that marked their difference. → doing gender → how can these girls live up to these expectations for their sexuality and relationships → they are being regulated and held to standards of other people to prove that they are feminine and modern enough (school was not just a place to learn morals but instead to learn about how to become that modern or global woman) - Village girls could use rags during menstruation; schoolgirls wore sanitary pads.(girls who were not modern were making their own inadequate pads) Village girls were comfortable in their natural beauty . . . - Schoolgirls wore makeup." p.132 (consuming girls) - Village girls would make their own oil for their skin and face, and their own soap using ingredients gathered from the natural environment; schoolgirls bought Vaseline Intensive Care Lotion, Fair and Lovely face cream, and Imperial Leather soap. → consumption, global, modern, is not doing what many generations have done (use the natural) - If they couldn't pay the fees, they would be sent home (often girls first) (121). - Uniforms needed → Status as a school girl - Absences were cut by almost half - Not unusual to find youth in mid- to late teens or early 20s in high school (121)." because constantly have to drop out because of costs or to help family - Stealing a day" in school if you lacked money to pay → led to being beaten (121). - Graduation as an accomplishment in Kenya and a requirement in the United States. - p.113 → boys being able to afford it and be in school whereas girls had to drop out, forcing them into transaction sex relationships

how do different types of romantic relationships come along with different levels of risk of acquiring HIV? (for example, short vs long term relationships pg 83, relationships for education or sex pg 82, various types and timing of marriage)

- Short term relationships means less exposure to the HIV and not repeated instances with the same partner (these relationships usually held by young men such as hit and run sex) - Relationships for education were usually abstinent and platonic with low risk for HIV - Relationships for sex were much riskier for the girls because they were having these relationships with older and riskier partners. Young men often couldn't partake due to lack of finances

relationships for sex

- aka transactional relationships -sexual relationships were accompanied by money and gifts - main purpose for men is just to have sex with women - love had to be demonstrated through gifts and money - sex entitled girls to make claims for gifts or money from a boy, thus changing the relationship in a substantial way - led to quarrels when a man couldn't or wouldn't provide - boyfriends with no money or ability to get it could rarely sustain relationships for sex for any length of time - duration of relationship had significant impact on disease acquisition - young men's lack of financial independence and subsequent short term relationships kept them at lower risk for HIV (need repetitive instances for HIV acquisition)

"come we stay" (pg 104)

- colloquial reference to cohabiting relationships that a couple might take part in during their transition to marriage - after a few years and perhaps some children, the man would bring a cow to the girl's family - the acceptance of this practice as opposed to past more official practices reflected the changing socioeconomy, with fewer men able to afford the cost of "traditional marriage" - a daughter's husband still became an additional source of income for a family - could send siblings to live with husband, husband could pay for siblings or wife's schooling, provide bride wealth, feed family, etc

HIV sero-discordant couple

- couple where one partner is HIV positive and the other is HIV negative - study found that in 30% - 40% of cases, women were the HIV-positive partners

how did school strategies prevent girls from having sexual relationships often backfire in unanticipated ways? (hint: analyze the boarding school structure and location, holiday breaks, and/or teachers' power and actions)

- "Schools have succeeded in the transmission of knowledge about HIV" p.114 - "Boarding school. . . Regulate children's sexual behavior..." - p.115 "Young women who began and then dropped out of high school had twice the HIV rates of those who completed high school." - Kids were able to get around regulations of sexual behaviors in boarding schools → On vacations, kids would participate in transactional relationships or would bribe the guards - Danger came when girls left school (134) - Girls in day school would sneak out of their homes in the evening to go to clubs to meet men. - For girls in boarding school, they were more motivated to rebel during school holidays. Because they had been deprived of boys, they were more likely to be more risky. - Some long holidays coincided with mass migrations of men home from the cities flush with cash. They had sex with the girls and provided money for back to school shopping. - Teachers also approach girls for relationships. - New girls particularly vulnerable to this. The girl's success and reputation in the teacher's class would be at stake. - Viewed as common sense → "When male teachers are there, you can't miss such relationships" (137). - Entering relationships due to fear and because of money that teachers gave as a part of the relationship - One infected teacher having relationships with students could wreak havoc. - Male teachers have greater access to teenage girls than the average man - .Men also could bribe school guards to let girls out, and give girls phones to contact them

jonam

- "people of the lake" - fishermen were considered of a lower status than men who owned cattle - engaged in several lake-based entertainment such as competitive rowing - rapid growth of fishing industry and population density near the lake occurred in 1980s

History of education

- 1980's and 1990's mass primary education reached 75% (completing over 4 years of schooling). - Kenya Gov't budget in 1980's = 35% for education. (U.S. spends 3-5% today) → big push for education in Kenya and saw education as a way to succeed and make money - Developing schools became necessary as part of industrialization, decolonization, globalization → as Kenya became an independent country, industrialized, and sought to join the global economy, there was a need for educated professionals to work in that economy and take up the industrial development of Kenya (school seen as crucialO - Yet, structural adjustment programs from 1990's onward threatened education - and privatized it = less public/gov't spending and more fees paid by families (Kenya spends 5% today) → there was less government and public spending but there was a greater number of fees paid by families → great shift during 1990s, advocated for by international organizations that saw the best way to profit of Kenya's economy was to invest in infrastructure rather than people/education (immediate results rather than long term such as education) - Schools became increasingly competitive and the poor were unlikely to attend → limited number of spots, especially for scholarships → only peop;e who can afford it which is a very small percentage - In 2000, only 5% who completed high school gained entry to university

Using vibrant details to illustrate your answer, explain what are three different reasons that HIV/AIDS continues to spread around the lake?

- 70% of fishermen, usually men, test positive for HIV - activity that goes on in the beach - every home is affected. you cant find home not affected by HIV. some homes left without parents, only children alone - julia doesnt tell her lover that she is HIV positive because the effects would be catastrophic for her and her young family --> he'll leave me - some women have sexual relationships with fisherman, bus driver, and vendor at market - sexual relationships serve a network of sexual contacts that allow the disease to spread - only 2000 out of 6000 people left - Some customers like to use condoms - while others refuse to use them . I can go either way. I'm happy to do whatever the customer chooses - I do not fear death because death is waiting for all of us. AIDS can infect me or the person who I am with at anytime so I carry on and have sex without fear --> impact of fatalism - Body of fisherman who died from aids sitting by other fishermen as they try to raise enough money to get the body to the mainland - houses and remains from HIV victims - victims of cultures and disease polygamy (marry as many as 6 women) - culture dictates that when a man dies, a close relative should inherit his wife - Margaret's husband and co-wife (after being inherited by her husband's brother) died leaving her with 6 kids but she resists the social pressures to be inherited by her husband's brother --> community doesnt like her because she goes against the cultural belief due to her christian faith --> left with her children and the co wife's children --> brother also died - Margaret is HIV positive but takes antiretroviral drugs - ignorance that prevails throughout the island many kids left with grandma only. 14 year old Beatrice had to drop in and out of school to take care of - 6 children lunch for 1 was shared by 6 --> her father fell sick but didnt tell wife he was HIV positive until he was about to die - "sometimes we have no food and we have to sleep hungry" --> only could buy food when she sold fish --> make her susceptible to Jaboya system - AIDS awareness campaigner --> many people deny existence of AIDs and instead think AIDS is a curse that falls on people who break customary law --> message falls on deaf ears - have sex without preventative measures spread still goes on because they are not aware - people only make it to town from beach when they go to morgue - women singing all lost their husbands have to realize that AIDS is a disease that can be prevented

ayaki matieka

- AIDS is eating us up, consuming us greedily, or finishing us very fast. Death has become greedy - own local and cultural terms

the introduction of a cash economy (rather than using barter or cattle as medium of exchange) was a radical transition for the Luo people. what are some of the ways that money transformed the community, culture, and inequalities?

- As people began to want to the raha lifestyle and value cash, education became a route for cash and a status to live a good life. If you were educated you could get the jobs that paid cash - Education began to be seen as an important route in order to obtain a beautiful wife/wives. - Thirst for education and stable employment: preferred to be formally employed and earning a salary rather than starting and running a business - Must have money and status for the raha lifestyle. - Gender inequalities in school and work: (a) For women/girls: "school and marriage were seen as incompatible, and adulthood, defined by marriage and motherhood could only be postponed for a while" → complexity around school, as in women could not earn cash without school but going to school was a challenge with obtaining a husband and provider (b) girls education was halted not only when the cost of their education infringed on that of their brothers, but also when the family thought it was time for them to marry and start their own family (c) "giving girls small education was better because actually they were just going to get married (d) Pg. 70 and w/o school girls could not get jobs for cash (e) For men/boys: "Jobs were available to men even with a few years of education" p. 71 - School was initially not considered a priority for girls, but that shifted slowly. Death and decline of Pim - Attrition from school due to lack of financial resources, most of the time. - school used to be hated but with changing economy it was soon seen as an attractive pathway to social mobility, jobs, and money, first in the colonial and then post colonial error - Money resulted in the undermining of a deeply ingrained Luo value of communalism --> the rich were required to be generous and to share their wealth. If they did not do so, local actions were taken to ensure that they did - These actions reflected communally imposed and regulated obligations between the wealthy and the poor, and served as a safety net and as insurance for the community in times of need - barter system used to be in place: One was only restricted by what others had. Created an interdependence among people in the community, including a willingness to share and exchange what they had - but also limited individual consumption to items that people in one's own community had, or could make, given that one had what they wanted - Money resulted in loss of interdependence -Money gave people the independence and freedom to break out of local options for products and acquire items that other people in their community did not have - cash created two groups: those who could opt out of the barter economy and those who could not --> a class who could purchase and consume modern products that others in the community with no money could not access - dramatic effect on morality of the community --> no more communal love or sharing - money essentially created poverty -Cash wealth could be hidden within families. - Collective wealth had become individual - According to some, money made girls prostitutes --> had effect on sexual morality of women and communal morality of men - benefited fishermen who could convert their fish into cash and quickly replace them by returning to the lake the next day -men began to use money for short term things such as alcohol, girls, cigarettes, marijuana instead of long term commitments such as bride payments - "bitter money": money that was ill gotten, unfair, unjust, or stolen, which was dangerous to its holder and the holder's family and was cursed

combination model of processing through high school

- Combine relationships, school, and consumption → do your best to master all of these aspects - "It was a result of a profound skepticism about the sequential model." p.142 - "Education continued to be valuable; however, relationships with providing men were seen as an important means to both completing education and pursuing consumption." p.142 → having relationships was way to become modern and finish school (couldn't finish school without being provided for and being a consumer) Ex: "Rachel, the orphan girl who was abandoned by her providing boyfriend when she got pregnant" p.143; p.134 → wanted to have all three aspects but couldn't do it and was abandoned as a result "It required girls to gamble on not getting pregnant and thus on not losing both their man and their chance to complete their education. . . . And gambling on not acquiring HIV." p.143 - combination model was a real benefit (path on marriage, family, support, being able to complete school, becoming a consumer) but there was this real gamble (becoming pregnant, getting HIV, not being able complete school) - Pushed girls to combine relationships, school, and consumption - Allowed women to be modern

judge which individual level interventions could curb the spread of HIV. will any work? why or why not? describe at least one if the individual level interventions with rich vibrant details from the text and how it could/could not impact the HIV/AIDS epidemic.

- In other words, a simple presentation and explanation of figure 11 in chapter 4 might be enough to encourage young women to seek their same-aged counterparts as partners. Pascaline Dupas demonstrated that when the teenage girls in her study in Western Kenya were told about the dangers of cross-generational relationships, a follow-up a year later showed a 28% decline in pregnancies - Most of the reduction was in relationships with older partners - Meanwhile, girls reported an increase in sexual partnerships with young men their age; however, there was no increase in teenage-partner pregnancies, suggesting that they were increasing condom use with same-aged partners, with whom they presumably had more bargaining power - She argues that it was more effective to encourage girls to shift from risky (older partner, unprotected) sex to safer sex (in regard to HIV) than to tell them not to have sex at all - This approach respects young women's agency, and allows them to do their own cost-benefit analysis about which relationships to choose, and to weigh their consumption needs and desires against the risk of getting HIV - For boys - "zero-grazing" even when they have money and are older is needed - Educate older men → a lot of previous interventions were targeting young girls in school but older men also need this education for when they engage in sexual relationships with these younger women

why do women with no formal education have the lowest rates of HIV infection?

- In the process of being educated, women get into sexual activities that can make them get the disease (133). - A working man can promise an education to a woman through their relationship. - Relationships with providing men enabled women to go further in their education than their families could provide, but has risk of pregnancy (short term) and HIV (long term). - School produced consuming women. - Schoolgirls wore makeup, had a bunch of clothes, use real products for periods. - Town girls didn't wear makeup, used rags for periods, weren't as "modern" - Schools structurally support dense sexual networks that allow mini epidemics to occur Sexual relationships with teachers: - P.136-141 Jacinta explains: "Sometimes, like now, we're in a girls school and let's say a male teacher proposes for you to be the girlfriend and you refuse, you know most of the time he will be frustrating you in school and you will not be all that free even in your classes. Now what if Mr. so and so [is] teaching science and maths, you'll switch off completely. Yeah, you'll switch off." (Mojola 2014, 137) - Another threat for the girls → teachers were not supportive, hitting on them, promoting sexual relationships → finishing school with these teachers was another significant challenge - Teachers would become HIV positive and have sex with many students, spreading HIV throughout the school → hired to be leaders but have actually become part of the problem

describe the setting of Mojola's study (starting page 16)

- Kenya is a low income country with half the country living under the poverty line ($1.25/day) - 2.7% annual population growth and avg 4.6 kids/women - Nyanza is 3rd most populated province of Kenya with 14% of country's population - the Luo are a nilotic ethnic group primarily in Nyanza - while lots of money has been spent, community campaigns mounted, NGOs investing in fighting HIV, the epidemic persists in Nyanza - Nyanza has macroeconomic elements common to other HIV-affected parts of Africa --> labor mining province, situated along major trade routes (Trans-African highway) - despite the trade passing through it, Nyanza is one of poorest nations in country with 53% to 63% living in absolute poverty ($1.00/day) - Nyanza: 16% women and 11.4% of men are HIV positive - Luo: 22.8% women and 17.1 % men are HIV positive - studying in Nyanza is significant because it is a region where HIV epidemic began and that has hosted the virus the longest - 1970s: AIDS disproportionately targeted area around Lake Victoria where the first HIV cases were reported - South Africa bears the heaviest burden - studying here might provide insight how the epidemic has become so resistant to prevention efforts

gender differences in HIV

- Kenya: 8% women and 4.3% men are HIV positive - Nyanza: 16% women and 11.4% of men are HIV positive - Luo: 22.8% women and 17.1 % men are HIV positive - three groups of factors as to why these differences exist: biophysical, proximate, and social structural

which social structures particular to Africa allow for people to spread HIV quickly and broadly?

- Life Course: transition to adulthood and romantic relationships - Community that they live and grow up in → is there something that makes them more likely to contract HIV? - Schools: risks posed or protection provided? What needs to be changed? - Labor markets: economy they are graduating into and jobs available? Is it posing risk or providing opportunity? - Ecological environment: climate change changing the types of jobs available and putting women at risk of HIV? - Globalization: the process of becoming interconnected across borders, the global flow of products from the US showing up in small Kenyan villages. Especially products such as cosmetics or makeup → put pressure on them to join the market even though it poses risk?

describe the difference between the cultural beliefs about and behaviors of faithfulness among the luo people (pg 106-110)

- Men's faithfulness as unnatural" p.107 → to be a man is to have sex and girlfriends - "Women's faithfulness as dependent on their material needs" p.107 --> has a right to leave a man/have sex with another man if the man cannot provide - The trouble is at the intersection of love and money. (a) "I asked a group of girls whether a working boyfriend who did not give his girlfriend money was fine with them. Widespread laughter was followed by 'you just tell him to quit,' 'that one is unfaithful,' and 'he doesn't love you.' It was inconceivable to them that a loving man would not share his wealth with his girlfriend. . . . It did not bode well for a long-term relationship, where a husband would be expected to provide much more for his wife." - Concurrency (having multiple relationships at the same time) was felt to be more likely if a man did not have money. If he could not afford to provide for his girlfriend, and she chose to remain his girlfriend, then it was understood that she might have to search for money from another man." p.95 - Men also participated in polygamous marriages. HIV could spread among the family. - If being faithful is being loyal to just one sexual partner at a time, it was not an option if the money wasn't there (women would have multiple relationships because boyfriend couldn't provide for her) or in a polygamous marriage (men would have multiple relationships because they had the means to provide for multiple women)

describe the research methods that Mojola used to conduct her study including at least one detail about her qualitative fieldwork, interviews, survey data, and "mixing methods" (starting page 22)

- Qualitative fieldwork (a) 2005-2006: 74 individual and focus group interviews among individuals of different ages → to investigate the meaning of their experiences with HIV (b) Done in english and kiswahili → she was fluent in both being a Kenya native (had family in Luo Nyanza who she stayed with during dissertation) (c) Had some questions about this region because she was potentially a girl here growing up and facing the challenges of HIV (d) respondents from secondary and vocational schools in Nyanza as well as recruited in groups from community settings (markets, hospitals, fishing beaches, social events) (e) schools varied in combinations of public and private, rural and urban, provincial and district, boarding and day (f) conducted most community interviews in homes to capture those not in school (g) combination of formal and noninstitutionalized settings (h) 20 interviews with key informants, government officials, local researchers, teachers, and community leaders (i) asked about issues facing province, questions relating to transition to adulthood, and whether they thought HIV was a problem in their community (j) regularly written field notes documenting ethnographic observations and aspects of the culture and people's everyday lives not captured during formal interviews (k) study approved by UChicago and Nyanza (l) emergent themes and theories from early parts of the fieldwork shaped subsequent interviews and themes were pursued until data was reached (k) research assistants were recent local high school graduate and someone with masters in sociology - Survey data (a) Examined the Kenya demographic and health surveys from 2003 (led to 2004), 2008, 2009 (led to 2010) (b) Nationally representative and household based of women and men (c) using surveys, she is able to compare results from her interview to national data and numbers (d) looked for historical and present trends "Mixing methods" (a) Pg 26: "Interview reports of an increasing number of relationships of men just out of school prompted closer survey analysis of how young men's HIV rates increased each year as they approached their late 20s (b) "the nonlinear nature of the link between educational attainment and HIV rates revealed in survey analysis provoked a deeper qualitative exploration of what was going on in school (c) Gain an insight from her survey data and also check if that same insight showed up in her data. Or the reverse, she would find something in the data and use that to develop questions and decide who to interview (d) findings from qualitative data were tested in quantitative data and vice versa - Can tell from all of the kinds of data that she used that she was trying to triangulate her data → using various types of data collection and then verifying those types of data by comparing what she found from the qualitative field work to interviews and survey data

sexual network

- Structural patterns of sexual relationships in particular communities, revealing how individuals are connected to each other through sexual relationships - studies of sexual and romantic relationships done in highschool and island of Malawi - young women at risk of HIV even if she is monogamous (ex. one women is monogamous but her partner is not and her partner's partner is HIV positive) - HIV can thus spread via partners through a sexual network, affecting many people in a short space of time - Men infecting women (a) men's concurrent partnerships are often normalized, culturally accepted, and even institutionalized (ex. polygamy: men can legally have more than one wife) (b) HIV infected men can pass it on to many women with polygamy, exposing more women to HIV than men (c) cross-sectional perspective: more men than women are generally involved in concurrent relationships putting more women at risk with a single partner -Women infecting men (a) women can also put men at risk through their own concurrent partnership (b) in 30-40% of HIV sero-discordant couples, women were the HIV positive partners (c) life course perspective: young married women may be acquiring HIV in a premarital relationship, then getting married to a man with more than 1 wife, thus introducing HIV into that social network --> women's pre or extra marital relationships with high risk partners (older men) or multiple partners can also place marital partners at risk for HIV (d) longitudinal perspective

sequential model of proceeding through high school

- Traditional model → focus on school while in school. - Succeed well. Put off consumption and relationships - Ex.: "Sarah . . . chose to only have relationships for education, eschewing sex, the distractions of such relationships, and thus the annual risk and fear of being kicked out of school for pregnancy. And she also chose not to be a consuming woman, leaving aside hair and makeup in order to 'concentrate' while in school." - p.145 → did not have the annual fear of being kicked out of school because she was pregnant (there was a yearly pregnancy test at school and if you were pregnant you would be kicked out) (she also postponed hair and make up products) - "Staying away from boys and men and postponing consumption and modernity also meant staying away from HIV." - p.147 → safe from HIV in this model - "Gamble that their waiting would pay off" - p.142 - Yet many finished school, lost family support, had no or low-paying jobs. → gamble is if you don't start to acquire these relations and begin to become modern and consume while in school, how could you be supported after school by a boyfriend or modern job? - Dont have boyfriend and family lined up even though they weren't at risk for HIV - discipline their expectations, consumption desires, and longings and wait, putting a focus on school and succeeding well and putting off relationships/consumption for later. - Historical context: Increasing value placed on education → getting a job that provides income and a good life (raha). - What many girls grew up hearing from parents and grandparents. - Regularly preached by female teachers and principals.

delay, reduce, and if necessary condomize

- Uganda's ABC's: delay, reduce, and if necessary, condomize p. 201 → transform the ABCs to make sense in the Ugandan culture - in Uganda, there is now scientific consensus that delayed age at first sex among youth, casual and commercial sex-partner reduction ("zero-grazing"), and, to a lesser degree, increased condom use among nonspousal partners—in that order—were the critical changes that resulted in a dramatic decline in HIV incidence - Uganda's president, Yoweri Museveni, personally involved himself in AIDS-awareness education as he traveled around the country

describe the school-to-work transition for African youth. how is it similar to or different from the transition that you expect from school to work?

- Usually the transition from school to work is gradual. - Part-time, unpaid work while they are going to school, then gradual shift to paid work as they get older. - Transition out of full-time education can also be gradual, with full-time work in the day and part-time vocational courses in the evenings/weekends. - Terms at high school were defined by whether one had the financial means to pay for the fees. - Sometimes, the lack of fees for a long enough time period resulted in drop outs with no money to pay for higher education. - moving from the structure of school to the structure of work moved women outside the purview of relatives, gave them relative freedom, and presented a lot more autonomy, mobility, and opportunities to meet providing men, who were, it was hoped, also potential husbands

what cultural practices and beliefs limited the extent to which people embraced abstinence?

- Youth were knowledgeable about abstinence. (a) "90% of women and 95% of men cited abstinence as a way to reduce the risk of getting AIDS" → drawn from the national survey Professor Mojola used to triangulate her results (b) Nancy: "You should stick to no with your mouth and with your body" p.86 - Cultural beliefs about abstinence: → oppose abstinence (a) "Without sex there is no relationship" p.86 → what does it mean to be a man? In love? Sex is wrapped up in those ideas. (b) "Sex marked the official start of a relationship" p.86 (c) "Love cannot last without sex" p.86 (d) Culture and love revolves around sex → abstinence is unintelligable - P.89 "Asking a young man to abstain would be asking him essentially to not have a girlfriend, to not prove his manhood, and to not prove his love." - P.89 "Asking a young woman to abstain would be asking her to be satisfied with what she had, to cut off her access to gifts and money for her needs, and to limit or postpone her transition to marriage, since for many, a sexual relationship was a prelude to marriage." - "Both sex and money expressed love. . . . Really making abstinence work in this setting would require a refashioning of the practice and demonstration of love. Policy strategies such as giving girls money may thus ironically, place an increased premium on sex as an expression of love." - Sex is an integral part of this society → limits the opportunity for abstinence of being a way to stop the the spread of HIV and AIDS

chira

- a wasting disease that people got when they broke social taboos or were guilty of moral transgressions such as not conforming to particular cultural practices and not showing proper respect to particular individuals such as mothers - people understood that you got AIDS by having sex with an infected person but they wanted to know why that person, at that time, in that place? - Luo community uses chira as a way to incorporate the new and devastating phenomenon of AIDS within existing cultural frameworks of intelligibility - chira helps people in this community to convert the chaos of symptoms of HIV/AIDS into a recognizable, culturally validated condition with a name, a known cause, treatment, and prognosis

how is money a part of relationship building?

- cultural assumption of materiality of relationships for sex underlies conception of love - while a girl might not love a man initially and might go to him for explicitly material reasons, his gifts of drink or clothing would lead her to fall in love with him. His own initial display of love and affection, as evidenced by his provision, sparked love and affection in her own mind and heart - "It was only in rare cases that youth described relationships for sex which did not involve any gifting of money and were characterized by 'pure' love" p.84 → money very involved in relationships - "Men were assumed to be the material providers, not women. . . . Love had to be demonstrated . . . Demonstrated through the medium of money." p.84 → transactional relationships → men assume to be the material providers - "Expecting money from a poor boyfriend or from a boyfriend who was not working was said to lead young men to steal." p.84 → pressure was so strong, desiring a girlfriend and wanting to show them that they could share money with them, that men were provoked to steal to prove this - Poor men were bitter - without money they could not have "ideal relationships" of a consistent, loving, long-term girlfriend → they were often excluded from relationships and had to wait in later in life when they amassed enough money to support a girlfriend → frustrating because they couldn't have these relationships while in school, and instead had to wait until they were older and working a lot - men were providers - money was seen to speak louder or in place of words - Women will choose to leave men if they do not provide for them or make money and choose not to share it with them - Men who worked but did not share their wealth were unfaithful to the girl, because they must be providing for another woman - love was seen as whether or not the man gave the woman money or gifts - love = sex and money

"save lake victoria" event

- demonstrated how much life was organized around the lake and how dependent on the lake many Luo were - occurred consecutively in 6 cities in 3 countries that surrounded the lake to highlight the lake's deteriorating quality - Attendees: NGO representatives, dignitaries including the Mayors of Kisumu and Homa Bay, and interested public - many school-children were present, several of whom gave presentations involving skits and songs throughout the afternoon - the lake played a background (and sometimes starring) role in many conversations and local activities over the subsequent weeks and months

how does the changing ecology of the lake impact sexual networks? (pg 178)

- environmental change can very much impact the women's and men's life → climate change, pollution, shrinking of lake, threats to fish in lake could destroy the economy and intensify the Jaboya system → extreme lengths women would go to to make themselves available to men to get that low volume/quality of fish - excess nutrients in the lake from sediment runoff/soil erosion, factory-waste dumping, runoff from fertilizers from nearby farms - these nutrients allowed a water weed to grow that had a devastating effect on the fish population - led to increased competition by fishermen for a limited number of fish and longer time in the water looking for fish - would go to sell fish at nearest island and establish relationships there, spreading HIV - crocodile --> cant escape it, event with ART you are not physically the same

central argument of the study (pg 185)

- for young women, it was not the fear of getting HIV or AIDS that drove their sexual decision-making - Rather, entanglements of love and money underlay their choices of intimate relationships with the riskiest partners - Further, these relationships occurred and were enabled by key social-structural environments in which their transition to adulthood unfolded—their local communities, their schools, the labor markets they entered, and their ecological environment

the double meaning of "at home" or "sitting at home" (pg 166)

- girls who did not have paid work would be characterized or characterize themselves as this - these devaluing phrases belied the large amount of invaluable and indispensable unpaid labor they often engaged in - the substantial amount of domestic work they did was precisely because they were now permanently home from school and had no "excuse" such as school home-work or a job outside the home - work included caring for younger siblings or their own children, cooking "from scratch" for the extended family living in the household, cleaning both in and around the house, searching for water because of the severe lack of piped water in many communities, hand-washing and ironing (with a charcoal-powered iron) laundry for multiple household members, engaging in subsistence farm-ing, and so on

concurrency

- having more than one sexual partner at a given time

proximate explanations for HIV

- how groups shape the proximate determinants of sexual acquisition of HIV has a large impact (a) how much infected sexual fluid an individual is likely exposed to (b) how risky that exposure is - Exposure to infected sexual fluid is determined by (a) age at first sex (affecting length of sexual activity) (b) number of sexual partners (and partners' partners) - age at first sex (a) affected by culture (b) affects the length of time an individual is sexually active and potentially exposed to HIV (C) median for men in Nyanza is 17.4 yrs but 16.7 yrs for women (d) factor seems less important in other parts of Africa -age and number of sexual partners (a) more partners = greater risk of encountering an HIV positive partner --> but young men usually report more sexual partners than young women (b) women's susceptibility comes from few but more high risk older partners --> young women have higher rates than same aged men but considerably lower rates than older men (c) woman with 1 25 yr old partner is at higher risk than same woman with 3 17 yr old partners (d) however young men also at high risk because their same aged partners are much riskier --> depends on how sexually active a young man is - How risky exposure is is determined by (a) frequency of condom use (most effective means of preventing HIV transmission) - condom use (a) aside from abstinence, condom usage most effective form of prevention (b) condom usage and knowledge has increased to 85% but only 1/3 to 1/2 of sexually active men age 15-29 reported condom usage (c) older and especially married men's condom use is very low as well as self-reported use among young women (d) large resistance to widespread and consistent condom use before, within, and out of marriage

why did many Luo men migrate to other places for work? what are some of the effects of their migration on the community, women, and the economy?

- introduction of the hut tax (property tax) payable by the British colonists only in cash and coin - because each family owned many residences, there was a demand to have money so that this tax could be paid - created dilemma: cash crop production or labor migration out of province - people didn't go for cash crop production especially in areas where population density was high and so lots were small - labor migration was more attractive ecause they realized they could get a better income if they worked for someone else outside of the province than if they tried to grow cash crops - resulted in between a quarter and a half of young men migrating out of Nyanza - absence of fathers, brothers, and other male relatives - predominance of women in subsistence agriculture farming at home. Needing to gain own financial footing when remittances are not regular and the crops failed. - Increased dependence for other sources of income to buy food and alleviate hunger, such as buying and selling bananas and fish for income (Nikech kech = because of hunger) - as soil fertility and yield decreased, women turned to selling bananas and fish - The migrating men, or jopango, brought home new innovations, ideas, and styles and income to execute them from working on farm of white men --> "crucial communicators of culture" - new standards were set by the white man - led to increased consumption of products requiring cash income in addition to a shift in diet toward eating meat (had to buy) away from vegetables (produced themselves) and fish (bartered) - new standards spilled over into changing ideals about what constituted a beautiful women (a) Long neck, white teeth, gap between front teeth. Desire to marry into a wealthy family (seen in standard for women having been abroad). From dark skin to brown or light skin. Use of cosmetics. Education and good English + professionalism

how were transactional sex relationships necessary and acceptable for young girls? for their families?

- men were having to provide in the face of young women's fathers' inability to provide financially in a context of widespread poverty and many mouths to feed in a household, fathers who were absent because they had migrated for work and were not sending anything home, or fathers who had passed away - Teacher describing parents: they believe that once a girl has reached the age of 12, she can now take care of herself. So if they go asking for something like sanitary towels [pads], they are told 'you're now a big girl, you can get this one on your own. So when they've been told like that, they go ahead looking for it where they can get it. And the only source is now selling themselves to men... that's the only source of income. Apart from parents, now only boyfriends - helped a women became a desirable women - could help feed siblings, pay for their schooling, etc

ARVs and Antiretroviral therapy

- is medication that these millions of Africans, and young women in particular (as they acquire HIV earlier and at higher rates) will need for the rest of their lives - ARV drugs have a dramatic and swift "Lazarus effect" on people with advanced HIV or AIDS - by suppressing HIV, which would otherwise destroy the immune system, the progression of the disease from HIV to AIDS is slowed and even reversed, enabling people to live for 20 or more years with the virus - people who are wasting away in their beds gain weight and energy and, within a few weeks or months, are able to resume their regular active lives - remarkable developments in the last decade, and the last three years in particular, have demonstrated that ARV drugs are effective not only at prolonging the lives of people living with HIV, but also for preventing the onward transmission of the virus to others by reducing the amount of the virus (the viral load) in an HIV-positive person's system - the promise of ARVs—not just for prolonging lives, but for limiting onward transmission—has led to its increasingly being perceived as the magic bullet in the fight against HIV/AIDS - early "test and treat" programs could be remarkably effective in HIV prevention (especially in sero discordant couples)

why are older men appealing to young girls even if the risk of contracting HIV is higher with older men?

- key factor for any male partner is ability to provide - have an established job and income so they can provide money and gifts - it was not as much age that determined the type of partners they chose, but rather men's access to income and their willingness to share it with them --> this just happened to be older men who were established - young fisherman did have resources daily to provide for women though - those in school didnt have enough money to cater their own needs and afford a women/possibly putting her through school - sugar daddies were conveniently distanced --> sugar daddy is at work all day and can't see what you do, you only see them at night or on weekends at club - a boyfriend can watch you all of the time and make sure you do not get involved with anyone else - sugar daddy didnt demand love or faithfulness --> young women like the freedom and them not being so demanding - freedom was especially good for girls who wanted to finish schools as young men would push for marriage sooner - Older men were more sexually experienced and able to meet the needs of the young women just beginning sex lives.

Describe the fishing economy. Who participates? How do they? Who are the jaboyas and what do they do? Include at least two vibrant details from the film to illustrate your definitions.

- lake victoria home to one of Africa's biggest fishing industries - men man the boats but the business is run by women - competition is fierce, fierce depends on who gets catch - exploitative process of procurement - woman fighting on beach over basket of fish - describes relationship between male fishermen and the women who buy their fish - frequently sexual --> offer sex and stand a better chance of getting fish - without sex there is no guarantee of fish - julia is a jaboya, husband died of aids and left no support so only option was to join the jaboya system, I am a widow with children and forced to use this system some women have sexual relationships with farmers to ensure they get their fish to market - I have two businesses - if I don't catch fish then I will catch a man

"They know but they ignore" (pg 57-58)

- landscape was full of HIV-prevention and AIDS-awareness media - towns and roadways were littered with billboards and painted signs encouraging safe sex and HIV testing - low cost condoms were widely available and sold in many of the small kiosks where locals bought their groceries and engaged in other shopping - youth at the most remote schools Mojola visited asked technical questions about condoms after the interviews - HIV voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) clinics were located throughout province - over millions of dollars had been spent on a variety of HIV-prevention campaigns in Nyanza - people were tired of talking about it and NGOs were frustrated with lack of progress - had spread knowledge but little of this knowledge turned into action - HIV rates were not a result of ignorance but instead there was just a gap between knowledge and behavior

debate the benefits and limitations of ARVs

- limited resources means that ART is given to the sickest because it is very expensive - by the time someone gets on ARV medication, they have already had about six years of potential transmission to their sexual partners - for prevention purposes, it makes sense to give ARVs early - critical challenge: drug adherence, taking the drug as regularly as pre-scribed - Drug adherence to HIV medication is critical not just for the preventive purposes described above, but also because a lapse can result in rapid development of drug-resistant HIV in a patient, making them unable to use the drug again - Drug adherence was a key factor differentiating effective interventions in the studies of couples and ineffective interventions in studies among young women - there has also been a substantial debate about whether the ART scale-up in Africa is going to be financially sustainable

ayaki

- luo word for HIV/AIDS - comes from the root "yako," which means to consume very fast in such a way that displays greed - when the disease gets to you, it finishes you very fast

describe key aspects of the coming of age and relationship-formation process among the Luo.

- many middle-aged and older respondents grew up in compounds or homesteads with father and his wife(s), unmarried siblings, married brothers and their wives, other relatives - each wife had her own house so one compound had several households and many related residents - Pim: grandmother or older female relative past childbearing (a) at 5 yrs old children went to live in her household (b) she educated the children (c) when boys hit poverty they built a bachelor hut to share together until one of the boys got married and the simba became his (d) boys then received guidance from men but girls stayed with the Pim to be prepared for marriage and motherhood (how they were recognized as women) (e) girls were taught practical and social skills (f) girls would go visit the simbas and engage in thigh sex (they were taught to do by the pim) and girls policed each other - many village dances especially at funerals which were opportunities for young people to socialize -virginity inspections before weddings - men would have to pay a price for their brides - virginity was praised - Girls had to walk a fine line between entertaining a variety of men, as was culturally expected, and avoiding pregnancy, until she found a husband. - marriage was huge marker of adulthood

microfinance, microcredit

- the extension of very small loans (microloans) to impoverished borrowers who typically lack collateral, steady employment and a verifiable credit history - the recognition of the connections between economic need, gendered inequality in access to income, and HIV acquisition has led to increasing interest in the use of microfinance programs for HIV interventions - programs that provide young women with microcredit to start their own businesses have shown little success - TRY program: gave them microcredit but found that the program foundered with very low rates of repayment, the disappearance of participants, and sometimes the co-optation of the money for other uses. The program found that without close mentorship, commitment by loan officers liv-ing in the same community as the women, and focused follow-up—a highly labor-intensive and thus rare process—these programs would not work - SHAZ!: young women encountered a lot of challenges in starting their businesses, including theft and confiscation of their goods, having to bribe police, threats to their personal safety, lack of a place to store their money, and theft of their money. Additionally, lack of trust of their mentors and lack of money to attend regular meetings. Girls with family support were the most successful in the program. Overall, however, many young women were at greater risk for HIV as a result of their increased vulnerability once they had begun the program. - IMAGE: When focusing on results from the youngest recipients of microloans in the program (aged 14-35, with an average age of 29), they found that young women were more likely to have gone for HIV testing and less likely to have had unprotected sex with a nonspouse. This suggests that having their own money and business gave them more bargaining power in relationships to demand safe sex and testing. Having inbuilt and on-the-ground mentorship from women in the community whom they knew and who are accountable for things other than the business was likely part of the program's success --> community support - Cons: high default rates, co-optation of money for other uses, and the potential increased vulnerability of young women to HIV, also been criticized more broadly for what they often represent—women's inability to find well-paid work

we might expect the women who have a higher class standing, who are able to thrive in the labor market, would be less likely to contract HIV. Mojola finds the opposite. why does working in the labor market exacerbate women's HIV risk?

- the lack of jobs drove women into the arms of men with money (pg. 169). - "ladies will always be after money" --> it is the continual nature of women's need for money that is the problem - in pursuing education, young women were trained to become modern. - To be modern is to engage in practices of consumption that varied significantly from the village girls. - They had to be continual consumers and transactors due to the nature of their needs (sanitary pads, cosmetics, Vaseline, etc). - Women began to become frustrated with the "small" money they made at their jobs and began to seek out someone who could contribute to their growing lists of needs. - moving from the structure of school to the structure of work moved women outside the purview of relatives, gave them relative freedom, and presented a lot more autonomy, mobility, and opportunities to meet providing men, who were, it was hoped, also potential husbands → more opportunities to meet men (pg. 170). - Young women who stayed at home and did not earn an independent income were forced to recalibrate their needs and be satisfied with parental and husband resources (pg. 168). - They also were more likely to have demanding domestic responsibilities and limited opportunities to meet working-class men outside of the home. - Many opted out of being a consuming woman.

jaboya relationships

- the sexual relationships between the fishermen and the women who buy their fish. Women who offer sex to the fishermen stand a better chance of getting fish. Men catch fish and women sell them - not considered commercial sex relationships since fishermen often established households and had children with the women to whom they gave preferential access to fish - fishermen had several homes and families - Threat of HIV - environmental change can very much impact the women's and men's life → climate change, pollution, shrinking of lake, threats to fish in lake could destroy the economy and intensify the Jaboya system → extreme lengths women would go to to make themselves available to men to get that low volume/quality of fish - why girls want to go to school to not have to go into this system

the HIV acquisition-transmission cycle (figure 19 pg 184)

- to better focus on HIV prevention efforts, it is important to take a life-course perspective in thinking about how HIV is cycling through african populations and how it could thus be prevented - teenage boys have no or relatively low HIV risk - by contrast teenage girls are getting HIV from unmarried men in their early 20s and married men in their 20s and 30s. - primary social drivers of this process of HIV acquisition are relationships with men who are older and slightly older and early marriage, before age 20. - Girls acquiring HIV before marriage are likely to subsequently pass HIV on to their husbands. As their husbands enter their late 20s and 30s, they then become the older partners of the young unmarried women who have aged into the 15-24 demographic - Figure: HIV negative girl 1. relationship 1: acquires HIV from slightly older man --> marries man 2. relationship 2: marries HIV-negative man --> man acquires HIV --> man has extramarital relationships with HIV negative girl who now has it

summarize the research objective of the book (page 6)

- to examine how young African women navigate their relationships, schooling, employment, and financial access in the context of a devastating HIV epidemic and economic inequality, where extreme wealth is growing beside extreme poverty - to examine the compounding of young women's desire for consumer products that require continual replenishment with the gendered and generational nature of access to income as well as resources - to examine how desires for money, gifts, modernity and consumption become both gendered - with girls constructed as desiring more than boys - and inextricably linked with girls intimate relationships with the riskiest male partners. - to illustrate how young consuming women have been cultivated and produced in three contexts (a) communities (b) schools (c) labor markets - to explore the historical and contemporary construction of gendered needs (greater need for modern products such as sanitary pads, cosmetics, and clothes - to situate these desires in three social-structure contexts (a) communities (b) schools (c) gendered labor markets

life course approach to HIV risk

- transition to adulthood and romantic relationships is when gender disparities in HIV risk emerge and self-perpetuate - framework that provides lense to examine the social processes and experiences in the period between puberty and adulthood - developmental changes - key transitions such as (a) relationship formation processes (sexual initiation and culmination of relationships in marriage or stable partnerships) (b) the pursuit of education (c) finding employment (d) attaining financial independence (e) becoming a parent (f) transitioning residences (moving out of parental home) - these life course transitions co-occur which creates a thick web of life events which is why so many find this transition to be complicated or confusing - risky because of long significance of decisions made during this time period - unsuccessful or interrupted transitions (such as substance abuse, teenage pregnancy, HIV, juvenile delinquency) can have potentially long-term implications for educational attainment, lifetime income, job prospects, forming stable relationships, and health - transitions are processual --> begun, ended, elongated, interrupted, restarted, and returned to - "my interest in a life-course approach, and the transition to adulthood in particular, is to examine not so much the point at which adulthood is reached, but rather the process of its attainment" - ways in which gender disparities in HIV rates emerge and are produced among young people

connective social-structural explanations for HIV

- useful in understanding the phenomenon in particular cultures, settings, and countries but incomplete in explaining why young women's greater HIV is replicated across so many diverse parts of africa in different combinations of factors, which some even making it more risky for males - does not matter what combination of social factors are at play as women always seem to have a higher risk - this suggests that gender disparity in youth HIV rates are a result of common overarching social structures that work across many settings and connect multi-level factors - social structure processes organize biophysical and proximate determinants of HIV and can account for similarities and differences across multiple geographic spaces and cultures - primary connective social-structural processes are sexual networks and migration

social vaccine

- what social measures, policies, and structures would help prevent spread of disease - Biomedicine alone will not be responsible for decreasing HIV dramatically - ex: public health campaigns - significant declines in their HIV epidemic did not achieve this with biomedicine, but with socio-structurally engineered, supported, and enabled individual changes in behavior that eventually had population-wide impact

logic of partner choice

- what was putting young women at risk in this context, then, was not so much the fact that they engaged in sex, but rather with whom they engaged in sex - In other words, it was the logic of partner choice—preferring older or slightly older providing boyfriends and ignoring same-age poor boy-friends—that placed them at risk - way to prevent this would be conveying to them the higher risk associated with older partners - better to encourage sex with younger partners instead of older partners rather than discouraging sex at all (186)

biophysical explanations for HIV

- women have a higher biophysiological susceptibility to the virus - virus contracted through exposure to semen, vaginal fluid, blood, and breast milk - in SSA, most young women's risk is the result of exposure through heterosexual intercourse - higher risk for women for even just one sexual partner (a) higher viral load in semen than in vaginal secretions (b) women's bodies are more vulnerable when still developing so they are more likely to experience genital trauma during sex that would make it easier for virus to enter (c) blood that is lost when women lose their virginity - Results from developing countries often show men as more likely to contract from women (a) men are more likely to have high-risk partners such as commercial sex workers (who are vulnerable and risky because of their many sexual partners) (b) sex workers have a higher chance of having other STIs which increase the risk of HIV and the amount of HIV in vaginal fluid (c) uncircumcised men are at a higher risk of HIV and ulcerative STIs (which exacerbate risk of HIV) than circumcised men --> many highly affected nations have low circumcision rates - biology alone does not explain gender differences or the variances within these gender differences

who avoided HIV and how did they do it?

- young men avoided HIV with greatest success, but not on purpose - these men were often limited to hit and run sex where HIV transmission is less likely - it was hard for them to obtain relationships for sex at all given their financial status so they were often stuck in platonic relationships for education - young women whose parents were able to provide for them so they could stay in school/ not have to look to transactional sex were also able to avoid it - For young women, "early marriage played a major role in HIV acquisition" p.81 - "Married teen girls had almost six times the HIV rates of unmarried teen girls" p.80 - - Marriage meant frequent unprotected sex → it was not repeated instances of sex with someone who was HIV negative and faithful only to that woman → while marraige was a promise of unprotected sex, it was not a promise of protection from HIV or faithfulness - Unmarried teen girls with boys in concurrent relationships (sleeping with multiple people at once) p.81 → women more susceptible to HIV infection - Young women sleeping with unmarried or married men in their 20's or older → about ⅓ of men in the 25 - 29 year age range are infected with HIV but the younger men have a lower percentage of HIV infection. So when woman started sleeping with older men because they were more likely to be able to provide or to marry, they increased their chances of getting HIV → real conflict → conflict resolved by young women being more susceptible to HIV - Duration of sexual relationship matters: "Young men's financial lack and the subsequent short-term relationships were inadvertently protecting them from HIV acquisition." p.83 → because young men only had the financial reserves to be able to have long-term relationships or hit and run sex, and were more likely to use condoms in those relationships, they were more protected from HIV than young women having unprotected sex with older men on repeated instances

which cultural beliefs and practices condition whether the youth featured in the study use condoms or not?

- youth know condoms prevent HIV: (a) 86% of women and 85% men surveyed acknowledge condoms prevent HIV (b) Yet only 72% of men and 24% of women used condoms at last sex (c) Among married, 8% of women and 44% of men used a condom at last sex - Gender differences in condom use (a) Married men using condoms may reflect their participation in extramarital affairs (b) Men not being faithful and wanting to protect their wives - Why don't people use condoms? (a) Mark: "For all that long that I'll be taking, putting on this condom, maybe she might even change her mind." p.90 → his chance for hit and run sex will be gone by the time he puts on a condom (b) "Wanting to use a condom might make their girlfriends think their boyfriends saw them as prostitutes." p.91 → there is an association between prostitutes having sex with multiple people and wearing condoms → if boyfriends wanted to use a condom it would indicate to girlfriends that he was having sex with other people and therefore felt the need to use a condom (c) "Continued use of condoms was an insult." p.92 No condoms meant trust and faithfulness. (d) Relationships headed toward marriage, or those where they were trying to conceive a child, they abandoned condoms. → abandoning condoms indicated faithfulness and long term relationships, wanting to have a child → but this is just another way that HIV spreads - Women have little agency to engage in safe sex → Power imbalance - the gender disparity in condom use reflects the reality that young men had a greater likelihood of being in one-night stands and, therefore, of using condoms, while young women had a greater likelihood of being in longer-term relationships where condoms had been abandoned - the more monetary or gift transfers young women received, the more likely they were to engage in sex, and the less likely they were to use condoms. More financial support suggested more investment in the relationship on the part of men

Mojola argues for many institutional level interventions to stop the spread of HIV. which are the top three interventions you believe will be most effective? which social structures will those interventions seek to change and how? (hint: some structures for intervention: cultural ideas of beauty, family, school, sanitary towels, cash for schools, high school dynamics, employment, ecology).

1. Ex. diva cups for young girls when they started school → last for 10 years School - Provide sanitary pads or menstrual cups - Sanction deviant teachers - Revise the acceptableness of transactional sex for school girls - Give girls pocket money to deter them from wanting transactional sex and so they can have the commodities that drive them to transactional sex Change cultural ideals of beauty - Natural, non chemical beauty, stop pushing them into global consuming of beauty products and global markets in general - Maybe change their confidence, relationships, and definitions of love, beauty, and acceptance Employment - helping them to obtain better paying jobs so that they are not forced into transactional sex due to lack of money and respect for their jobs - help girls to complete schooling and for those who do, help them find jobs so that they are not at higher HIV risk after graduating and moving out

compare and contrast boys' and girls' options for work. do these differences create gender inequalities? how so?

Men's Jobs - Mostly Low Skilled and Unsalaried Low Income Itinerant - Temporary work that would last for a few weeks or month and then you would be out of a job again and looking - Among teenagers, 60% men had paid jobs - typically physically demanding - farming, boda boda, make charcoal, fish, breaking concrete, dig a garden, slashing grass, driver (of trucks, taxis), making bricks, collecting sand (for construction work), salesperson - public sphere, transportation, and building fields which were more applicable to the economic development that people in Kenya were trying to develop - "Girls would have to cross gender lines and face mockery if they were seen doing such jobs... Young women did not want to do such jobs because they were seen as incompatible with their status as educated women" (p. 156) → doing gender and how that reflects on the individuals → woman should not be in the global economy or doing manual labor - Women's Jobs - Mostly Low Skilled and Unsalaried Among teenagers, 19% of women had paid jobs (great disparity compared to men) - "productive labor" "small small jobs." Farming, house helper, bar girl, food kiosk lady, hairdressing, fetching firewood and selling it, selling second hand clothes, selling fish, assistant at a photocopying booth, sell mobile phone cards, planting and selling vegetables (often in little plots near the lake), help at a tailoring shop, make bricks, artisanal craft work - not very important jobs, did not pay well compared to the jobs for men → less physically involved and often thought of "traditional women's work" → linked to reproductive and caring, cultivating, all related to helping families (typically feminine) → (sell, connect, empathetic and emotional appeal in customer service) → stereotypical female "At home" "sitting at home" - when out of school and could not find a job - women did domesticate work at home, child care, cooking, cleaning, "reproductive labor" - Transactional sex was a much easier job to find and girls were shamed and not respected for the types of jobs listed above → not respected for cooking, childcare, etc (unpaid and didn't lead to careers)

one of Mojola's key findings is that "staying away from boys and men and postponing consumption and modernity also meant staying away from HIV" (Mojola 2014:147)? illustrate this finding by describing the data about the few women who avoided HIV and finished schooling. How did they do it?

Sarah - made clear that she only had relationships for education and school boys would say "You don't seem like a girl" (142) - she cam from a relatively poor family (but both parents worked) and managed to get through school based on merit-based scholarships and bursaries - She chose to go to a rural school so she would not be "influenced" - Left makeup and hair aside to concentrate - "must sacrifice yourself" --> chose not to be a consuming woman - was approached by a teacher but rejected and reported him to principal (in contrast to Lizzy) - wanted to become a doctor and was very good in math and science - Boys challenged her femininity → Followed sequential model. - When girls restrained themselves, it was similar to masculine restraint → gendered contrast and superiority was lost. - family provided support Ann - double orphan who staying with a grandparent who was less of a disciplinarian than parents. - oldest brother had died and had 4 remaining siblings (two older brothers pushed her to finish high school) - Individual ambition and will - Family provided economic and financial support → Positioned her as a role model - disciplined herself to be content and "don't look around at others" - Avoided becoming a consuming woman until she could afford it - Delayed gratification, avoiding peer comparisons, and being content and satisfied allowed her to manage her relative poverty and the prevailing normative environment urging consumption - sequential model

debate the benefits and limitations of social vaccines

benefits: Adding a social-structural layer to individual-level interventions reflects a recognition that individuals do not operate in social vacuums, but rather make decisions in environments that enable or disable particular kinds of actions. Changing gendered, economic, ecological, normative, and organizational structural contexts can help individuals make choices that enable their long-term health and well-being. This is particularly important since a focus on strategies aimed at individual young women will be useless as long as there are structural mechanisms in place that keep reproducing the same gendered and generational structural environments that have produced their disproportionate risk in the first place - cons: can't solve the problem alone, need ARV and ART as well