SOCI 320 Chapter 8

What are the factors that influence sports participation for the following groups: African Americans, Native Americans, Latina(o)s, and Asian Pacific Americans?

African Americans: 1. Prior to the 1950s, sports in the U.S. were racially segregated 2. African Americans participate in a very limited range of sports 3. African Americans are clearly underrepresented in most sports 4. In the face of racial segregation, blacks could earn money by turning sports into entertainment that reaffirmed the racist stereotypes of whites 5. African Americans "tolerated" these stereotypes because they opened some doors for them to play sports and make some money in the process Native Americans: 1. Native Americans comprise dozens of diverse cultural groups 2. Traditional Native American sports combine physical activities with ritual and ceremony 3. Native Americans often fear losing their culture when playing Euro-American sports 4. Widely accepted racial and ethnic stereotypes about Native Americans have restricted their access to sport participation Asian Pacific Americans: 1. Cultural heritage and histories of APAs are diverse (traced to at least 18 nations and dozens of cultures) 2. The sport participation patterns of APAs vary with their immigration histories 3. APAs have long histories of sport participation in U.S. (some have used sports to challenge and discredit stereotypes, some to gain acceptance in schools)

What are the results of studies connecting genes, skin tone, and sports performance? What is problematic about this type of research?

Genes, skin color and physical performance are NOT systemically connected There is no evidence showing that skin color is related to physical traits that are essential for athletic excellence across sports or in any particular sport

SUMMARY: #PlayingWhileWhite

Kaepernick's activism has kept him from getting signed by an NFL team. "If all of the Black NFL players threatened to sit out a game, the NFL owners would immediately find a way to sign Kaepernick. About 70 percent of all players in the NFL are Black. The NFL product would suffer tremendously without its Black players." In response to such commentaries, we should question why it is the responsibility of black players to refuse to play. Yet, white players are neither expected nor chastised for failing to protest racial injustice, for failing to account for the decisions of their employers. #PlayingWhileWhite means having the ability to remain silent amid zero expectations of doing what is morally/politically righteous. one of the privileges of whiteness, on and off the field, is being seen as a leader. Yet, when it comes to leading the fight against racial injustice, against the discrimination of one's football peers, these white leaders are nowhere to be found. And while their black peers are chastised for selfishly not standing up for Kaepernick, for not speaking, whites inside and outside of football are not held accountable. #PlayingWhileWhite is also having the privilege to speak out without fear of punishment; in fact, #PlayingWhileWhite is having the ability to speak out about racial injustice without widespread accusations of "playing the race card," "selfishness," "ignorance," "childishness" or "ungratefulness." Chris Long, Greg Pop #PlayingWhileWhite is also engaging in political projects without fanfare, media scrutiny, or accusations of distraction and disrespect. #PlayingWhileWhite is standing for the national anthem, while black peers kneel or raise a fist, and never having to answer why he stands in silence. "Race helps us to understand how Colin Kaepernick and countless black athletes are demonized and threatened for bringing their disrespectful politics into sports at the same time that countless white athletes and coaches are empowered to support Donald Trump with few questions about respect, the values of his campaign, or the message they sent in their support. Whiteness is privilege on and off the field. Whiteness matters."

Why do sociologists say that race is a social construction? What does it mean to say that racial categories have social meaning?

Race only exists when people use a classification system that divides all human beings into distinct categories, which are believed to share genetically based physical traits passed from one generation to the next Racial categories are developed around the meanings that people give to real or assumed physical traits that they use to characterize a racial population

What is the difference between race, ethnicity, and minority?

Race: a population of people who are believed to be naturally or biologically distinct from other populations Ethnicity: a cultural heritage that people use to identify a particular population Minority: a socially identified population that suffers disadvantages due to systemic discrimination and has a strong sense of social togetherness based on shared experiences of past and current discrimination

How does the racial ideology of the U.S. affect sports? (4)

Racial ideology encourages people to "see" sport performance in "racialized" terms (i.e., in terms of skin color), use whiteness as the taken-for-granted standard in sports, explain the success or failure of people with dark skin in racial terms, and do research designed to "discover" racial difference

What are the arguments by Coakley and Plaschke regarding the use of Native Americans images for teams and mascots in the U.S.?

Using stereotypes of Native Americans as a basis for team names, logos, & mascots is a form of bigotry and identity theft, regardless of the intentions of those who do it When bigotry is institutionalized, it's difficult to eliminate Using Native American team names creates offensive media coverage

Using the examples from the Sociological Images posts, how do racial stereotypes affect the way Americans view sports and the athletes that play those sports?

When Jews dominated professional basketball: Today, we see African Americans dominating professional basketball. We refer to their stereotypes as to why they are so dominant -- tall, athletic, strong, etc. In the 1900s, the game was dominated by Jews. They saw basketball as a way out of the ghettos. Stereotypes that were associated with their dominance of basketball included an alert, scheming mind, flashy trickiness, artful dodging and general smart aleckness, short height, balance, and speed

The idea of race was first developed by a. European explorers as they encountered diverse people around the globe. b. Egyptians when they needed slave labor to build the pyramids. c. Puritans in American colonies as they interacted with "Indians." d. South Africans as they met explorers sailing around the people from cold climates were stronger than people from warm climates.

a. European explorers as they encountered diverse people around the globe.

When dominant racial ideology has been used to explain the success of athletes with white skin, there has usually been an emphasis on the importance of a. cultural factors. b. genetic factors. c. personality factors. d. natural physical abilities.

a. cultural factors.

The sport participation patterns of Latinos and Latinas in North America are a. diverse due to the many different histories and backgrounds of Latinos. b. the same as they are in Mexico. c. the same as they are in Spain and Cuba. d. shaped by cultural traditions, especially the emphasis on bullfighting.

a. diverse due to the many different histories and backgrounds of Latinos.

The elimination of racial exclusion tends to be slowest in sports that involve a. extensive off-the-field social contact. b. high salaries for athletes at the professional level. c. teamwork combined with complex strategies. d. heavy media attention and widespread national publicity.

a. extensive off-the-field social contact.

Research indicates that second- and third-generation Latinas in the US a. face fewer barriers to playing sports than do first generation Latinas. b. generally avoid sports because they are too organized. c. often are disowned by parents if they play sports. d. use sports to reject their Latin heritage and identities.

a. face fewer barriers to playing sports than do first generation Latinas.

The author hypothesizes that dominant racial ideology influences athletic performance among black men in many societies because it encourages those men to a. feel a sense of destiny to become great athletes in certain sports. b. have extremely high levels of self-confidence in all realms of social life. c. avoid power and performance sports. d. ignore many of the opportunities to play sports in public schools.

a. feel a sense of destiny to become great athletes in certain sports

Efforts to challenge discrimination in sports have been motivated strongly by a. financial profits for those who control sports. b. federal legislation that mandates fair treatment. c. the liberal attitudes of sport team owners. d. political pressure coming from the black community.

a. financial profits for those who control sports.

Research by Italian sociologist Mauro Valeri indicates that racism in Italian soccer a. has increased in multiple forms in recent years. b. tends to decrease with higher rates of immigration to Italy. c. is a problem among spectators but not among players. d. is not expressed in stadiums for fear of police actions

a. has increased in multiple forms in recent years.

Black male athletes have become valuable entertainment commodities in sports emphasizing power and domination partly because a. many whites are fascinated by the movements of black male bodies. b. black men have been segregated in schools that emphasize sports. c. whites have simply refused to compete with blacks in most power sports. d. black men have special techniques for dealing with anxiety in sports.

a. many whites are fascinated by the movements of black male bodies.

When racial and ethnic exclusion are eliminated from sports, we can expect that a. new and different challenges will emerge related to managing diversity. b. coaches and managers will no longer have to deal with diversity issues. c. players will automatically become friends regardless of their backgrounds. d. all forms of racial and ethnic stereotyping by players will disappear.

a. new and different challenges will emerge related to managing diversity.

Because most sport organizations are white-dominated, white-identified, and white-centered, the success of ethnic minorities requires a. previous experience as athletes. b. acting in ways that whites define as normal. c. a presentation of self that is hyper-confident. d. a deep knowledge of their own ethnic heritage

a. previous experience as athletes.

When Caroline Wozniacki mimicked a caricature of Serena Williams during an international tennis tournament, she a. resurrected long held beliefs about the hypersexuality of the black female body. b. was intentionally using racism to psych out Serena Williams. c. pretended to be the South African woman, Saartjie Baartman. d. offended most of the white spectators attending the match.

a. resurrected long held beliefs about the hypersexuality of the black female body.

The classification systems that are popularly used to divide all human beings into specific and distinct racial categories are based on a. social meanings given to certain biological traits. b. objectively identifiable genetic differences between groups of people. c. unchanging statistical differences between people in particular gene pools. d. long-term patterns of intermarriage within groups of people.

a. social meanings given to certain biological traits.

Recent research in biology and genetics has led to the conclusion that a. the concept of race has no biological validity. b. people in different races have many deep biological differences. c. popular racial classification systems are valid biological tools. d. races have always existed and will continue to exist forever.

a. the concept of race has no biological validity.

After reviewing issues related to the dynamics of racial and ethnic relations in sports the author concludes that a. today's challenges are the same ones faced 30 years ago. b. racial and ethnic relations in sports are worse today than in the past. c. challenges associated with racial and ethnic relations will always exist. d. when rules on the playing field are fair, there are no problems off the field.

a. today's challenges are the same ones faced 30 years ago.

When black women were in ads for the WNBA, the marketing people were so sensitive to issues of race that they presented the women in roles where they a. were clearly nurturing and supportive. b. were physical and tough. c. expressed confidence in their skills on the court. d. used their college degrees to be successful off the court.

a. were clearly nurturing and supportive.

When European peoples were exploring and colonizing the globe, they developed racial classification systems and ideologies allowing them to conclude that a. white-skinned people deserved their power around the world. b. dark-skinned people had histories similar to histories of white Europeans. c. dark-skinned people were physically handicapped. d. people from cold climates were stronger than people from warm climates.

a. white-skinned people deserved their power around the world.

Racial ideology is a web of ideas and beliefs that is used to a. eliminate the use of destructive racial stereotypes in social interaction. b. classify and evaluate people in terms of meanings given to skin color. c. explain the ways that climate has affected the nature of human populations. d. support the work of scientists who study genetics.

b. classify and evaluate people in terms of meanings given to skin color

The author points out that the sport participation of Asian Pacific Americans a. varies with the genetic characteristics of the Asian group in question. b. differs depending on the histories of the groups with Asian ancestry. c. occurs only in sports where physical size is not an issue. d. is low because Asian Americans lack motivation to excel in sports.

b. differs depending on the histories of the groups with Asian ancestry.

Dominant racial ideology in the U.S. during most of the 20th century was based on the belief that whiteness was a pure and innately special racial category. This belief a. enabled all ethnic groups from Europe to qualify for immediate citizenship. b. has created a deep cultural acceptance of racial segregations and inequalities. c. has provided strong support for affirmative action policies. d. created a link between skin color and athletic potential.

b. has created a deep cultural acceptance of racial segregations and inequalities.

When Doug Foley studied intergroup relations in a Texas town he noted that the Mexicano coach of the local high school football team resigned in frustration when a. his Mexicano team members demanded special treatment. b. he could not meet the expectations of boosters and also fight bigotry. c. he was not able to recruit the best black athletes in the student body. d. school board said he was hired because of affirmative action.

b. he could not meet the expectations of boosters and also fight bigotry.

The most difficult diversity issue faced in sports today is a. selling season tickets to immigrants. b. integrating positions of power in sport organizations. c. coaching European athletes who have never dealt with cultural diversity. d. determining the citizenship of athletes who play sports in many countries.

b. integrating positions of power in sport organizations.

The statement that "white men can't jump" is not defined as a racial slur by most whites, because a. whites don't play sports in which any jumping ability is an advantage. b. jumping ability has nothing to do with success, power, or wealth in society. c. blacks who say this are usually joking and say it only when they're with friends. d. it is not seen as being applicable to white female athletes from Europe.

b. jumping ability has nothing to do with success, power, or wealth in society.

Research shows that the Latinas who are most apt to play sports in the U.S. are a. recent immigrants. b. members of second- and third-generation families. c. those who want to learn English. d. those who have rejected Christian religious beliefs

b. members of second- and third-generation families.

Race is used in the chapter to refer to a population of people who are believed to be a. distinct from others in terms of heritage and customs. b. naturally or biologically distinct from other populations. c. socially distinctive in terms of dress and cultural habits. d. victims of systematic discrimination and mistreatment

b. naturally or biologically distinct from other populations.

Research indicates that sports are related to ethnicity in three ways. Which of the following is NOT one of those ways? Sports can be used to a. break down barriers, discredit stereotypes and facilitate assimilation. b. reduce the importance of a person's history and ethnic heritage. c. preserve and extend supportive relationships in an ethnic population. d. maintain ethnic segregation that undermines intergroup understanding.

b. reduce the importance of a person's history and ethnic heritage.

Data on sport participation patterns among African Americans indicates that they a. make up nearly eighty percent of all professional athletes in the U.S. b. remain underrepresented in most pro and amateur sports. c. have not experienced racial segregation in sports since the Civil War. d. have always received better media press coverage than white athletes.

b. remain underrepresented in most pro and amateur sports.

When "whiteness" is used as the taken-for-granted standard against which everything else is viewed, the success of black athletes is a. explained in terms of cultural factors by whites. b. seen by whites as a "problem" in need of explanation. c. seldom covered in the mainstream media. d. defined by whites as a result of luck.

b. seen by whites as a "problem" in need of explanation.

A minority as used in the chapter refers to a socially identified population that a. comes from another country and experience difficulties during migration. b. shares a sense of unity and suffers disadvantages due to discrimination. c. shares a physical trait that other people define as unique and different. d. interacts with each other and segregates themselves from others.

b. shares a sense of unity and suffers disadvantages due to discrimination.

A major problem with racial ideology today is that it a. has been used to justify programs such as affirmative action. b. supports the existence of racism and the use of racial stereotypes. c. has led to the conclusion that all people have the same genetic potential. d. leads people to conclude that there is no such thing as racial purity.

b. supports the existence of racism and the use of racial stereotypes.

Racial segregation and exclusion are most likely to be eliminated in sports when a. team success depends on friendships among team members b. the entire team benefits from the success of individual team members. c. team owners must make financial sacrifices. d. being a good player leads to promotions and control in sport organizations.

b. the entire team benefits from the success of individual team members.

When people use continuous traits as a basis for identifying races, a. it is clear that there are three major races. b. there is no limit on the number of races that can be identified. c. they assume that there are racial differences in athletic potential. d. they base their racial classifications on scientific evidence.

b. there is no limit on the number of races that can be identified.

Black female athletes sometimes earn to tone down their confidence and toughness so they a. won't be distracted from developing their sport skills. b. won't be seen by whites as "angry black women." c. can deceive their opponents in sports. d. make their mothers proud of them as women.

b. won't be seen by whites as "angry black women."

Tiger Woods, the popular and successful professional golfer, identifies himself as a. African American. b. North American. c. Cablinasian. d. Black-Asian.

c. Cablinasian.

When Joe Louis won the heavyweight boxing championship in 1935, many white sports journalists used the racial ideology of that era to attribute his victory to a. the white manager and trainer, who guided Louis' development as a boxer. b. the nationalist support Louis received from the American people. c. Louis's instincts and animal-like characteristics as a black man. d. a work ethic deeply grounded in the values of his parents.

c. Louis's instincts and animal-like characteristics as a black man.

Teams such as the Indianapolis Clowns and the Harlem Globetrotters were able to make a living in the mid-20th century by playing sports in ways that a. demonstrated the intellectual and physical skills of black athletes. b. entertained white spectators by reaffirmed their racial stereotypes. c. appealed black and Latino audiences who had internalized racial stereotypes d. made fun of white sports such as Major league Baseball and pro basketball.

c. appealed black and Latino audiences who had internalized racial stereotypes

Research suggests that racial ideology would most interfere with the establishment of academic identities among a. white females who do not play sports. b. black females who do not play sports. c. black male athletes. d. white male athletes

c. black male athletes.

In the discussion of how racial ideology influences choices to play sports it is noted that ideology influences a. blacks but not whites. b. men but not women. c. both blacks and whites. d. whites but not blacks.

c. both blacks and whites.

Major League Baseball teams have signed many Central and Latin Americans to contracts because these players a. are more disciplined that players raised in North America. b. have fewer adjustment problems than most U.S. players. c. constitute a large pool of relatively cheap and skilled labor. d. are not afraid to fail and return to the native countries.

c. constitute a large pool of relatively cheap and skilled labor.

The classification systems usually used to distinguish races are based on a. the idea that there are three main races. b. the same ideas and criteria in every major culture around the world. c. continuous rather than discrete traits. d. genetic traits that determine distinct behavior patterns.

c. continuous rather than discrete traits.

The prospects for positive changes in racial and ethnic relations depend on a. ignoring all racial and ethnic differences and treating everyone as equal. b. returning to past ways of handling racial and ethnic problems on teams. c. dealing directly with racial and ethnic issues and related challenges. d. eliminating the importance of racial and ethnic history and heritage.

c. dealing directly with racial and ethnic issues and related challenges.

Racial ideology became important to support Jim Crow Laws. These laws a. made it illegal to hire black workers. b. forced blacks to stay in southern states. c. enforced racial segregation in public settings. d. defined all people from southern Europe as "colored."

c. enforced racial segregation in public settings.

In the box, "Jumping Genes" in Black Bodies, it is noted that much of the research devoted to identifying performance differences by skin color is based on the idea that a. physical abilities vary from one culture to another depending on climate. b. skin color is more important for whites than blacks and other people of color. c. genes operate independently of the physical and social environment. d. jumping is a complex physical activity influenced by cultural factors.

c. genes operate independently of the physical and social environment.

The NCAA allowed Florida State University to keep their mascot Chief Osceola and his horse Seminole, because the university a. funds political action to eliminate poverty among Native Americans. b. bans the sale of any items containing the image of their chief. c. has permission from a few tribal representatives to use their name and image. d. donates profits from "Osceola products" to schools for Seminole children.

c. has permission from a few tribal representatives to use their name and image.

Racial and ethnic exclusion occurs today at the community level, where it is a. tied to ethnic traditions that discourage sport participation. b. perpetuated by the racism of people who work in public sport programs. c. hidden behind participation fees and lack of access to transportation. d. based on a lack of knowledge about how to organize sports

c. hidden behind participation fees and lack of access to transportation.

The author notes that the racial and ethnic relations challenges faced by sports in the future will a. fade because sports create positive forms of social integration. b. decrease because conservative governments will ban most immigration. c. increase due to more migration of athletes and other workers worldwide. d. increase as more athletes come from working class backgrounds.

c. increase due to more migration of athletes and other workers worldwide.

Research done by sociologist Christina Chin showed that Japanese parents in her study formed and supporteda youth basketball league for their children in the hope that it would a. encourage the children to move back to Japan in the future. b. help their children more fully embrace dominant culture in the United States. c. lead ther children to form relationships with other Japanese children. d. show their children the advantages of ethnically segregated activities.

c. lead ther children to form relationships with other Japanese children.

The most effective way for people to defuse the influence of racial ideology is to a. use humor and sarcasm when referring to race or dealing with racial issues. b. ignore race and skin color in all social relationships and situations. c. learn each other's history and heritage and work together to achieve goals. d. compete against each other in sports and other activities.

c. learn each other's history and heritage and work together to achieve goals.

In the box, Identity Theft? Using Native American Names and Images in Sports, it is noted that team a. names like Savages inspire pride among most Native Americans. b. names like Chiefs inspire white students to respect Native Americans. c. mascots like Chief Wahoo is a form of bigotry. d. mascots like Seminole, the Florida State horse, reaffirm Native American history.

c. mascots like Chief Wahoo is a form of bigotry.

Data show that sport participation rates in the U.S. are highest in a. low-income black communities. b. racially mixed communities. c. middle- and upper-middle income white communities. d. low-income communities regardless of their racial makeup.

c. middle- and upper-middle income white communities.

Ethnic population is used in the chapter to refer to a category of people regarded as socially distinct because they a. live in similar neighborhoods and communities. b. have physical traits matched with their cultures. c. share a history, a way of life, and an identity. d. have experienced long term discrimination and mistreatment.

c. share a history, a way of life, and an identity.

An accurate view of race today is that it is a. a useful concept for classifying people into categories of intellectual potential. b. a valid biological concept to use in Africa but not in North America. c. an idea being preserved by ethnic minorities in search of identity. d. a biological myth based on social created ideas about human variation.

d. a biological myth based on social created ideas about human variation.

Using the definitions in the chapter, Native People in the U.S. would be a. an ethnic group that is not a minority group. b. a racial group that is not a minority group. c. a racial group that is not an ethnic group. d. an ethnic group that also is a minority group.

d. an ethnic group that also is a minority group.

Sport participation among Native Americans is limited due to poverty, poor health, a lack of equipment and facilities, and the fear that plaing mainstream sports will a. lead to serious injuries that will interfere with occupational success. b. violate the ancient religious traditions of their ancestors. c. lead to conflict with other minority athletes on their teams. d. cut them off from their cultural roots and identities.

d. cut them off from their cultural roots and identities.

The author recommends that sport programs should involve athletic directors, coaches, trainers, and athletes in a. biofeedback training focused on thought control. b. behavior modification exercises focused on being kind to others. c. teamwork training focused on cooperation in groups. d. diversity training that critically examines diversity issues in society.

d. diversity training that critically examines diversity issues in society.

Sports are described in this chapter as "sites" where a. people from all backgrounds are automatically treated as equals. b. skin color is erased as a relevant characteristic. c. meanings associated with skin color are always grounded in racism. d. ideas about skin color and ethnicity are formed, reaffirmed, and put into action.

d. ideas about skin color and ethnicity are formed, reaffirmed, and put into action.

Racism is defined as attitudes, actions, and policies based on the belief that people in one racial category are a. unique compared to people in other racial categories. b. likely to dislike people in other racial categories. c. likely to exert power over people in other racial categories. d. inherently superior to people in one or more other categories.

d. inherently superior to people in one or more other categories

The racial ideology that became widely accepted in the United States during the 19th and 20th centuries supported white Americans as they sought to a. accurately identify the heritage of various mixed-race people. b. keep the black race biologically pure. c. encourage mixed-race marriages. d. justify political expansion and racial segregation.

d. justify political expansion and racial segregation.

The sport participation patterns of undocumented workers from Latin America are a. the same as their co-workers who are born in the U.S. b. usually tied to their jobs and sponsorship support from their bosses. c. shaped by the need to learn English and interact with U.S. citizens. d. largely unknown because reliable data are difficult to obtain.

d. largely unknown because reliable data are difficult to obtain.

Racial ideology in the United States is based on the one-drop rule. The original purpose of this rule was to a. accurately identify the heritage of various mixed-race people. b. keep the black race biologically pure. c. encourage mixed-race marriages. d. maintain power and property in the hands of white men.

d. maintain power and property in the hands of white men.

Research on Major League Baseball indicates that Latino players a. have poor performance records in the major leagues. b. have declined in numbers in recent years. c. demand higher signing bonuses than other players. d. make up about 25% of all players on major league teams.

d. make up about 25% of all players on major league teams.

When Native Americans and other ethnic minorities have strong ethnic identities, one of the strategies they use when they play mainstream sports is to a. return to their native homelands at least six times a year. b. find teammates to whom they can teach their heritage. c. demand that teammates take ethnic history courses. d. redefine sport participation to fit their cultural beliefs.

d. redefine sport participation to fit their cultural beliefs.

Racial ideology influences social context to the point that black female athletes engage in a presentation of self that a. highlights their confidence and intelligence. b. portrays an exotic, fashion-model look. c. deemphasizes their athletic skills and physical stature. d. tones down their toughness and make them appear nonthreatening.

d. tones down their toughness and make them appear nonthreatening.