Social Psychology Exam #2

selective avoidance

A tendency to direct attention away from information that challenges existing attitudes.

theory of reasoned action

A theory suggesting that the decision to engage in a particular behavior is the result of a rational process in which behavioral options are considered, consequences or outcomes of each are evaluated, and a decision is reached to act or not to act. That decision is then reflected in behavioral intentions, which strongly influence overt behavior.

downward social comparisons

a comparison of the self to another who does less well than or is inferior to us

stereotype threat

Can occur when people believe that they might be judged in light of a negative stereotype about their group or that, because of their performance, they may in some way confirm a negative stereotype of their group.

systematic processing

Processing of information in a persuasive message that involves careful consideration of message content and ideas.

collective guilt

The emotion that can be experienced when we are confronted with the harmful actions done by in-groups against outgroups

ego depletion

The lowered capacity to exert subsequent self-control following earlier efforts to exert self-control.

upward social comparisons

a comparison of the self to another who does better than or is superior to us

stereotype

a belief about social groups in terms of the traits or characteristics that they are believed to share

common group identity model

a theory suggesting that to the extent individuals in different groups view themselves as members of a single social entity, intergroup bias will be reduced

cognitive dissonance

an internal state that results when individuals notice inconsistency between two or more attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior

self-promotion

attempting to present ourselves to others as having positive attributes

glass ceiling effect

barriers based on attitudinal or organizational bias that prevent qualified women from advancing to top-level positions

gender stereotypes

beliefs about the different attributes that males and females possess

mere exposure

by having seen before, but not necessarily remembering having done so, attitudes toward an object can be formed

tokenism

can refer to instances when individuals perform trivial positive actions for members of outgrips that are later used as an excuse for refusing more meaningful beneficial actions for members of these groups

explicit

consciously accessible and easy to report

discrimination

differential behaviors directed toward members of different social groups

persuasion

efforts to change attitudes through the use of messages

attitudes

evaluation of various aspects of the social world

bona fide pipeline

uses implicit measures to assess prejudices that people may be unaware they have

possible selves

image of how we might be in the future- either a "dreaded" potential to be avoided or "desired" potential that can be strived for

intergroup comparison

judgments that result from comparisons between groups

intragroup comparison

judgments that result from comparisons between individuals who are members of the same group

prejudice

negative emotional responses based on group membership

reactance

negative reactions to efforts by others to reduce or limit our personal freedom

singlism

negative stereotyping and discrimination directed toward people who are single

implicit

not consciously accessible or controllable

subliminal conditioning

occurs in the absence of conscious awareness of the stimuli involved

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

social comparison

our tendency to compare ourselves with others to determine whether our view of social reality is or is not correct

tightness versus looseness

people are expected to act in ways that are consistent with prevailing social norms

social identity theory

prejudice is derived from our tendency to divide the world into "us" and "them"

self-depreciate

putting ourselves down or implying that we are not as good as someone else

terror management theory

reflects our own existential anxiety so is especially likely to be high when our morality is salient

above average effect

seeing ourselves more positively than we see most other people

theory of planned behavior

suggests that in addition to attitudes toward a given behavior and subjective norms about it, individuals also consider their ability to perform the behavior

ingratiation

tactics that convey respect for others

forewarning

the knowledge that someone is trying to change our attitudes

self-verification

theory that addresses the process by which we lead others to agree with our views of ourselves; wanting others to agree with how we see ourselves

modern racism

thinking minorities are seeking and receiving more benefits than they deserve and a denial that discrimination affects their outcomes

autobiographical memory

when people compare their present self to their past self, the further in the past that self is the more we downgrade it relative to our present self

pluralistic ignorance

when we collectively misunderstand what attitudes others hold and believe erroneously that others have different attitudes than us

shifting standards

when we use one group as the standard but shift to use another group as the comparison standard when judging members of a different group

glass cliff effect

women are more likely to be appointed to leadership positions following a crisis and when there is greater risk of failure

People who are convicted of violence and theft-related crimes view themselves as being higher than the average community member in terms of morality, kindness, generosity, trustworthiness, and honesty. What is the cause of this? (a) Above average effect (b) Upward social comparison (c) Below average effect (d) Downward social comparison

(a) Above average effect

One approach to reducing prejudice and bias is to encourage individuals to recategorize outgroup members and ingroup members as both being part of a larger single social entity. This approach is known as the ________ model. (a) common ingroup identity (b) inclusiveness (c) shifting standards (d) social learning

(a) common ingroup identity

Judy has recently been reflecting about all of the positive personal and professional life changes she has experienced over the past decade. The MOST likely reason she is engaging in this reflection is because she (a) finds it gratifying to see improvement over time. (b) has little interest in considering her future self. (c) finds it useful in planning for her future self. (d) currently is experiencing many negative life events.

(a) finds it gratifying to see improvement over time.

If one reflects on achievements, self-esteem ________. If one reflects on failures, self-esteem ________. (a) increases; decreases (b) increases; increases (c) decreases; increases (d) decreases; decreases

(a) increases; decreases

Mrs. Smith has a son, Brad, who is in the military and who is specially trained in interrogation tactics. Brad is currently on duty in Afghanistan. Mrs. Smith cannot fathom her own son being tortured, but she feels that his torturing of terrorist operatives is warranted. Mrs. Smith is experiencing (a) moral disengagement. (b) collective guilt. (c) superordinate goals. (d) priming.

(a) moral disengagement.

According to __________, events trigger our attitudes and, simultaneously, the appropriate norms for how people should or typically do behave in a given situation. (a) the theory of reasoned action (b) the theory of planned behavior (c) the attitude-to-behavior process (d) the implementation plan

(c) the attitude-to-behavior process

heuristic processing

processing of information in a persuasive message that involves the use of simple rules of thumb or mental shortcuts

Ingratiation involves __________, whereas self-deprecation involves __________. (a) praising another person or using flattering language; lowering an audience's expectations of one's abilities (b) leading others to agree with one's views; lowering an audience's expectations of one's abilities (c) emphasizing one's credentials; praising another person or using flattering language (d) lowering an audience's expectations of one's abilities; emphasizing one's credentials

(a) praising another person or using flattering language; lowering an audience's expectations of one's abilities

Terrence, a black man, just moved to a new town. The town is predominantly white. Terrence realizes that he needs to get a job, so he visits a few of the town's manufacturing companies. With each application, Terrence is asked to note his race. With each application he completes and submits, Terrence experiences (a) stereotype threat (b) discrimination (c) self-deprecation (d) unrealistic optimism

(a) stereotype threat

Which of the following is an example of an intragroup comparison? (a) Ursula, a college student, compares herself to Diana, a high school student. (b) Dan, a firefighter, compares himself to Bill, his colleague. (c) JiYoo, a Korean, compares herself to Amanda, an American. (d) Janine, a liberal, compares herself to Colleen, a conservative.

(b) Dan, a firefighter, compares himself to Bill, his colleague.

Which form of conditioning causes many children and young teens to hold political, religious, and social views that are very similar to those of their parents? (a) Classical conditioning (b) Instrumental conditioning (c) Ethnic conditioning (d) Modern conditioning

(b) Instrumental conditioning

Upon learning that soda sales are in decline, a soda manufacturer, ABC Fizz, decides upon a new advertising tactic. Using demographic data, ABC Fizz discovers that 30-34-year-olds show a strong affiliation with Apple products. In the new advertising campaign, the company repeatedly pairs images of its soda with 30-34-year-olds using Apple products. Before long, they find that sales of their soda increase within this demographic. This is an example of ________ conditioning. (a) positive (b) classical (c) neutral (d) instrumental

(b) classical

Research on self-control has demonstrated that engaging in self-regulation (a) allows us to conserve energy for use on more important tasks. (b) is like a muscle in that the more we practice self-control, the easier it becomes to self-regulate. (c) depletes our energy and provides us with limited ability to maintain self-control at a later time. (d) increases our ability to accomplish future goals that require self-regulation.

(b) is like a muscle in that the more we practice self-control, the easier it becomes to self-regulate.

In a study, participants were told an African American student had been discriminated against in the grading of a paper, and had either complained about it or dealt with it by accepting responsibility. Participants evaluated the student ________ in the complaint condition than in the responsibility condition. (a) more stereotypically (b) more negatively (c) about the same (d) more positively

(b) more negatively

Irene considers herself to be an environmentalist, and she wants to reduce her carbon footprint. One day, her husband comes home and says that he sold their electric lawn mower and used the money, plus some savings, to by a new, powerful gasoline-powered mower. Irene is shocked, but when she uses the mower, she decides that she really likes it. This makes her feel uneasy, so she reminds herself of all the good environmental work she has done in the past. Irene is engaging in (a) insufficient justification. (b) self-affirmation. (c) trivialization. (d) reactance.

(b) self-affirmation.

The belief that we can achieve a particular goal through our own actions is known as (a) self-concept. (b) self-efficacy. (c) self-esteem. (d) hubris.

(b) self-efficacy.

Which of the following can contribute to a person showing attitudinal change when confronted with a counterattitudinal message? (a) Selective exposure (b) Reactance (c) Ego-depletion (d) Selective avoidance

(c) Ego-depletion

Due to the fact that we can define ourselves differently at any time, we have many selves. Can we say that one of these selves is the "true" self? Why or why not? (a) Yes, because we always will have a true self even if we don't recognize it. (b) No, because how we define ourselves is often inaccurate and exaggerated. (c) No, because all selves can be accurate, depending on the context and comparative dimension. (d) Yes, because one self will be much closer to our true identity than the others.

(c) No, because all selves can be accurate, depending on the context and comparative dimension.

When Matt was married to Kim, he sometimes wondered what it would feel like to get divorced. When, 10 years later, he actually did get divorced, he found out that what he thought he would feel was completely wrong. Matt's post-divorce feelings didn't match his (a) false conclusion (b) intergroup comparison (c) affective forecasting (d) self-verification

(c) affective forecasting

Marcus felt clearer about his attitude regarding a school policy after meeting with other students about it. The change came about because (a) he realized how the students at the meeting were dissimilar to him. (b) others' arguments about the policy seemed quite strong (c) he was able to repeatedly express his own attitude about the policy. (d) during the meeting, the school seemed ambivalent toward its own policy.

(c) he was able to repeatedly express his own attitude about the policy.

Erin works at a think tank in Washington, DC. She is a progressive liberal and, as most of her colleagues are around her age and come from similar backgrounds, she makes the assumption that her colleagues are too, even though a large percentage of them do not identify as such. Erin has fallen susceptible to (a) social network conditioning (b) social comparison (c) pluralistic ignorance. (d) implicit attitudes

(c) pluralistic ignorance.

Thom is a junior in college who is studying creative writing. He often daydreams about what he will be like when he is in his 30s. He usually imagines himself siting at a writing desk in the attic of a house surrounded by a dense forest and a lake. On the desk is his Nobel Prize for Literature award, and downstairs are his wife and two children. Thom has constructed a(n) (a) autobiographical memory (b) role model (c) possible self (d) self-construal

(c) possible self

Dr. Hammouda surveyed the graduating class of a small private university. One of his findings was that over 50 percent of the graduating class expected to receive a salary of at least $100,000 a year within 5 years of graduation. Dr. Hammouda knows that the actual percentage of recent graduates attaining that level of salary is much lower than 50 percent. The students are displaying (a) realistic pessimism (b) the below average effect (c) unrealistic optimism (d) self-evaluation maintenance

(c) unrealistic optimism

Marion hopes to come to a deeper sense of self-understanding. Which of the following, according to research, should Marion do to gain self-insight? (a) She should take a class on introspection techniques. (b) She should read the most up-to-date self-help books. (c) She should analyze the reasons for actions she has taken. (d) She should try to view herself as others do.

(d) She should try to view herself as others do.

Some people feel that certain groups of people have some underlying, biologically-based features that distinguish that group from other groups. These supposed distinguishing features are known as (a) traits (b) stereotypes (c) genes (d) essences

(d) essences

Joanna is part of a writer's group that meets each week. A friend of Joanna's recently asked her about the group, saying that she'd like to join, but she had also heard of another writer's group in town. Joanna knew the other group and said, "Don't join that one. Ours is focused on workshopping each other's work and providing constructive feedback. The other one just meets once a week to drink. They barely even talk about writing, let alone workshop anyone's work." This is an example of a(n) (a) social identity continuum (b) intragroup comparison (c) self-construal (d) intergroup comparison

(d) intergroup comparison

Recently, Annabelle got a short story published in an online literary magazine. She was very excited because this was her first publication. However, 2 weeks later, she read a masterful story by Toni Morrison, one of the most famous writers in America. Annabelle then didn't feel so great about her own story or the fact that it was accepted for publication. This is an example of ________ social comparison. (a) intragroup (b) lateral (c) downward (d) upward

(d) upward