Social Psychology, Timothy Dugas, Exam 1, Social Psychology Dugas Exam 2, Social Psychology Dugas Exam 3, Social psychology Exam 4
BIRGing
"Basking in reflected glory." a strategy by which we reinforce our positive self-concepts by identifying ourselves with successful others.
Social psychologist rely on four categories of research design
1. Pre-experimental. 2. True experimental. 3. Quasi-experimental. 4. Correlational.
Three possibilities for why averaged faces are rated as more attractive:
1. Procedural artifact. 2. We may experience average faces as comforting because they "fit our cultural expectations". 3. Average faces are symmetrical cues to genetic health. small variations that might indicate genetic abnormalities, which could be passed on to potential offspring, disappear as faces are averaged and become more symmetric.
Two types of loss as explanations for social loafing:
1. Process loss 2. Coordination loss.
For benefits of cohesiveness (groups)
1. Provides social support. 2. Gives us a sense of identity. 3. Gives us a sense of safety and security. 4. Gives us meaningful information.
How do stereotypes turn into prejudices?
1. Realistic conflict theory. 2. Scape goat theory which leads to frustration aggression theory. 3. Social identity theory . 4. Stereo content model.
Three theories that determine how individuals develop self-concept
1. Social comparison theory. 2. Social identity theory. 3. Self-schema theory.
Infants try to imitate others as early as ________________, and show a preference for pics of other babies at __________________.
3 weeks, 4 months.
Malala Yousafzai
A Pakistani activist for female education and the youngest-ever Nobel Prize laureate.
Evaluative belief
A belief about an object, person, place, or idea that leads to or includes a positive or negative judgment. Example: Santa Claus is kind and generous therefore I like Santa Claus.
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
A committee of people who consider the ethical implications of any study. The IRB must approve this study as ethical before the researcher can start to collect data.
average face
A computer generated composite face created by combining several individual faces, so that it does not contain any unusual or strange features.
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
A computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. Easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations. Famous and controversial; some say it is not valid or accurate, the rapid mental associations do not necessarily predict actual prejudiced behavior.
Stressful situations
A crisis requires groups to make fast decisions based on incomplete information; this can promote the illusion that there is a clear consensus of opinion.
Generational influences
A cultural beliefs or norm that transcends the replacement of people; when individuals continue to conform even when the originator of the behavior is no longer present.
culture of honor (346)
A culture where individuals, especially men, tend to perceive insults as a threat to their reputation for masculine courage, pride, and virtue that must be restored through dominance and aggression.
Uni-valenced decision
A decision based on an attitude about an attitude object that is either good or bad, but not both. Don't require a lot of thought. These type of judgments and preformed beliefs are risky because we might be wrong. For example the little rascals case. The prosecutor, jury, and many townspeople in Edenton all arrived at the same uni-valanced decision; guilty.
Two observations that support social identity theory
1. Adolescent bullies tend to have high self-esteem. 2. When people with high self-esteem feel their are self-concept is threatened, they will protect their self-concept by putting other groups down.
informational belief
A fact based belief that includes no positive or negative judgment. Example: Santa Claus exists and lives at the north pole.
bogus pipeline
A fake lie detector machine used to circumvent social desirability bias.
Referring to men and women as opposite sex encourages belief in?
A false dichotomy. There are several intersex conditions in which people may not identify with a traditional label because they have ambiguous genitals, less common chromosomal combinations, or less common testosterone reactivity. Also using only the simple categories of men and women excludes people who don't feel comfortable with either of these labels. There are more than two sexes and more than two sexual orientation's.
Procedural artifact
A finding that results from how a researcher conducted the experiment, rather than introduction of the independent variable. For example, the finding of the average face as more attractive could be the result of an order effect because seeing an average face after seeing so many similar faces engages the mere exposure effect.
Inter-dependence theory ( what keeps people together?) AKA social exchange theory.
A model for understanding romantic relationships that suggest that relationship stability is predicted by commitment, which is, in turn, predicted by a combination of satisfaction within the relationship and the potential for quality alternative relationships. So, relationship stability is predicted by commitment. In turn, commitment is predicted by two variables; satisfaction and alternatives.
social learning theory
A model for understanding social behavior that proposes that we learn attitudes by observing and imitating others. Proposes that we pass down behaviors, attitudes, and stereotypes, through parents, media, and rewarding these beliefs.
Social learning theory
A model for understanding social behavior that proposes that we learn attitudes by observing and imitating others. Researchers observed that people who watch CSI: New York, Numbers, House and Grey's Anatomy, showed more positive attitudes towards organ donation after viewing these television shows featuring characters in need of transplants. The effect was even more pronounced if the viewers had become emotionally involved in the storyline. (172)
Big Five Model of Personality
A model of personality that posits that five fundamental personality traits differentiate between people and predict behaviors: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
prejudice
A negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority.
self-concept
A personal summary of who we believe we are. This can be an assessment of our positive and negative qualities, relationships to others, and our beliefs and opinions.
authoritarian personality
A personality characterized by three major behavioral tendencies: submission to authority, discipline toward those who defy authority, and the tendency to conform to conventional beliefs.
Trait
A personality disposition the individual has, that gives the individual consistent behavior.
Machiavellianism
A personality trait that describes people who are manipulative, distrustful of others, and egocentric.
Conscientiousness
A personality trait that includes striving for achievement, attention to detail, and a sense of responsibility.
Agreeableness
A personality trait that includes the willingness to be flexible, to cooperate, and to try to please other people.
foot-in-the-door technique
A persuasion technique that occurs when agreeing to a small, initial request makes an individual more likely to later agree to a much larger request.
door-in-the-face technique ( 190)
A persuasion technique that occurs when compliance is gained by first making a large request, which is usually refused, and then following up with a smaller request, which is usually excepted.
lowball technique
A persuasion technique where an incentive is offered at the beginning of a deal, such as a low price, but then is later removed due to the terms of the agreement being changed. Despite the change, cognitive and emotional commitment to the item from the original deal often leads to acceptance of the new, less attractive deal.
participant observation
A potential solution for reactivity. Scientist disguise themselves as people who belong in the environment in order to fit in and be unobtrusive.
Satisficing
A practical solution to the problem of information overload that occurs when an individual takes mental shortcuts to make decisions; criteria are not exhaustively examined but are deemed "good enough" under the circumstances.
third variable problem
A problem that occurs when the researcher cannot directly manipulate variables; as a result, the researcher cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest..
Classical conditioning (Watson)
A process that occurs when individuals learn to associate one thing in their environment with another due to personal experience.... and that thing triggers an automatic response (fear happiness disgust).
Operant conditioning ( Skinner)
A process that occurs when individuals learn to predict the outcomes of give him behaviors based on the outcomes they've experienced for those same behaviors in the past.
Deindividuation
A psychological process that occurs when self-awareness is replaced by a social role or a group identity, resulting in the loss of individuality.
Post hoc matched groups design
A research design used when random assignment is not feasible the experimenter first identifies an experimental group, then create a control group with matching characteristics (sex, age, etc.).
Cultural perceptions of blackness have important and tragic effects when they are applied to people on a racial level, and these effects are especially sad when they affect children.
A series of four studies showed that black children are dehumanized more than white children. If a black child is compared to an objectively equal white child, the black child will be perceived as less innocent, older, and more responsible for his or her actions, and more appropriate targets of police violence.
Protestant work ethic
A set of personality traits that includes valuing discipline, honoring commitments, and doing a good job in any setting. A collectivistic culture trait.
Ingratiation
A short term impression management tactic to increase attractiveness and liking by complementing the other person and seeming to admire them. There are two techniques for this. 1. Other enhancements (compliments). 2. Opinion conformity (endorse the opinions of other).
Falsification
A skeptical approach to determining the accuracy of an idea by testing whether a hypothesis can be disapproved. Remember, we can't prove anything we can only support.
Stanford Prison Study (210)
A social psychological study conducted at Stanford University by Philip Zimbardo. Its aim was to study the impact of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play the role of either prisoner or guard. This study was terminated early because of the role-induced punitive behavior on the part of the "guards." Prisoners mentally broken. Rapid Deindividuation.
Hypothesis
A specific statement made by a researcher before conducting a study about the expected outcome of the study based on prior observation and pre-existing theories. Hypothesis can be proved false.
cognitive dissonance
A state of psychological discomfort that occurs when an individual tries to maintain conflicting beliefs and behaviors. When we have this phenomenon we try to reduce the discomfort so sometimes we start justifying.
ANOVA (analysis of variance)
A statistic used to compare the difference between three or more groups or three or more levels of an independent variable. In a between subjects design we would have three different groups.
t-test
A statistic used to compare the difference between two groups or two levels of an independent variable.
Communion
A stereo typically female oriented pattern of behavior that emphasizes being friendly, unselfish, other oriented, and emotionally expressive.
Agency
A stereo typically mail oriented pattern of behavior that emphasizes being masterful, assertive, competitive, and dominant.
stereotype
A stereotype is the thought ( a cognitive act). Can lead to prejudice. A type of oversimplified and over generalized schema that occurs when an individual assumes that everyone in a certain group has the same traits.
Meta-analysis of the many studies about testosterone and aggression have found?
A strong, positive correlation in nonhuman animals and a smaller, but still positive correlation in humans.
Cognitive Neo-Association Analysis
A theory that predicts aggression is based on both negative emotional reactions and cognitive, logical interpretations of our environment. When we are frustrated, it's because we perceive that we might not attain goals we've set for ourselves. Our aggression is an attempt to regain what we feel like we're losing. Further, our decision whether to fight or flee is often based on logical thought, we only fight if we calculate that our chances of winning are good.
instrumental/proactive aggression
A thoughtful, reason-based decision to harm others in order to gain resources such as territory, money, self-esteem, or social status.
Yanomamo tribe (Cultural influence on aggression)
A tribe of South America that is known for being particularly violent, in a state of chronic warfare with other local tribes. They sing songs about killing and how they hunger for flesh.
Factorial design
A type of experiment in which two are more independent variables are used for each participant. The combination of independent variables creates several layers of experimental conditions.
Obedience
A type of explicit social influence were individuals behave in a particular way because someone of higher status ordered them to do so. That's usually involves a person in a position of authority for instance, your boss, a parent, law-enforcement personnel etc. Obedience can be considered a more extreme version of compliance in that there is often punishment involved for not responding in a favorable way to the order. Example: being given a ticket after being caught speeding.
compliance
A type of explicit social influence where an individual behaves in response to a direct or indirect request. With compliance, there isn't necessarily any threat of punishment for not doing the behavior, it is a request, not a demand. For example, when healthy graduate students on a New York City subway ask people to give up their seat, about 2/3 of the subway riders complied just because someone asked.
Social roles
A type of implicit social influence regarding how certain people are supposed to look and behave. We all share stereotypes about how elementary school teachers, rock musicians, clergy, and presidential candidates publicly engage with others (i.e., how they act).
Conformity
A type of implicit social influence where individuals voluntarily change their behavior to imitate the behavior of others. For example, 25 years from now, you will probably look at a current picture of yourself and wonder how you could have made such terrible fashion choices Wayback when. At the time, you were probably wearing what everyone else was wearing. When you're in an elevator you face the door.
task leader
A type of leader who focuses on completing assignments, achieving goals, and meeting deadlines.
social leader
A type of leader who focuses on the people involved and invest time in building teamwork, facilitating interactions, and providing support.
Transformational leader
A type of leader who uses inspiration and group cohesiveness to motivate group members; these leaders are useful for challenging established rules or procedures. Research suggests that these are the type of leaders that can influence society towards positive change.
transactional leader
A type of leader who uses rewards and punishments to motivate group members; these leaders help to maintain the status quo.
Stereotype
A type of oversimplified and overgeneralized schema that occurs when an individual assumes that everyone in a certain group has the same traits.
central path
A type of persuasion in which appeals are direct, elaborate, and systematic; requires close attention and careful evaluation of alternatives by the individual being persuaded.
Friends with benefits:
A type of relationship where an individual has casual sex repeatedly with the same person over time, remaining friends with that person instead of starting an official romantic relationship. Seems to be quite popular with modern college students; approximately 1/2 report having at least one friend with benefits while in college. Men report their primary motivation to be regular access to sex, while women report their primary motivation is an emotional connection with someone.
Self-Schema Theory
A way to think about how this self-concept is formed whereby memory structures that summarize and organize our beliefs about relevant self information create a cognitive framework within which the individual interprets the events of their lives.
Example of Frustration-Aggression Theory
After the American Civil war, after the slaves were freed, a negative correlation was found between the price of cotton ( went down) and the number of lynchings ( went up).
Are we shaped more by biological factors or by environmental factors; nature versus nurture? (BQ)
Again, a combination of both. Most behaviors are influenced by both nature and nurture, it's more a question of the degree of influence each one has. This question is a false dichotomy.
Social roles/pressures can overwhelm someone's?
Personality
Both Willhelm Wundt and Sigmund Freud were concerned with?
Personality and individual perception.
Prior to World War II U.S. labs focused on learning with nonhuman animals while European labs focused on
Personality, abnormal behavior, senses, and memory
Messages are more persuasive if the topic is framed well and it is
Personally important to you.
Repetition is
Persuasive.
Men's rights movement
Pg. 299 example of modern symbolic prejudice.
Two kinds of exposure in the Westgate housing apartments:
Physical distance and functional distance.
Attraction is linked to?
Physiological changes such as increased heart rate, breathing, and sweating. However the same physiological changes can occur for other reasons.
prejudice
Prejudice is the emotion. Can lead to discrimination. Emotion centered judgments or a valuations about people based on their perceived membership in a particular group.
5 steps to disobedience ( Milgram)
Private inner doubt. Public expression of doubt. Dissent. Threat. Disobedience.
Brainstorming outcomes can be helped by?
Procedural rules such as reminding members not to judge ideas, taking breaks, asking for individual generation of ideas first, and encouraging diversity in the group. Successful brainstorming includes using a facilitator to stay on task, encouraging rest periods, beginning with independent writing, and embedding a diversity of viewpoints.
secure attachment style
Produced by consistently supportive parents, tends to translate into healthy long-term, adult relationships, and this person tends to have high self-esteem and low jealousy. Weren't overly concerned when parent left a room, showed curiosity and explored the room, happy when the mom returns.
avoidant attachment style
Produced by consistently unsupportive caregivers. Translates into a general lack of trust and isolating behaviors within adult relationships. These people tend to become loaners, to isolate, and are afraid of form intimate relationships. Often have one night stands. Seemed uncaring when the mother left the room, explored the room, ambivalent when the mother returned.
anxious/ambivalent attachment style
Produced by inconsistent parents, sometimes loving sometimes not. Translates into low self-esteem and high jealousy. Wants to maintain high and frequent contact with partner. Easily upset when the mother left the room, hi anxiety, did not explore the room, and continued to cry when the mother returned.
Rationalization trap
Progressively larger self justifications that lead to harmful, stupid, and immoral outcomes.
Specificity principle
Proposes that the link between attitudes and behaviors is strong when the attitude and behavior are measured at the same level of specificity. In other words the more specific the behavior, the more likely the attitude can be predicted.
pros and cons of surveys
Pros: cheap, quick, and self-report. Cons: participants may lie when answering questions. The risk of malingering and social desirability.
Attitudes are a good example of a ___________________, an abstract and theoretical idea.
Psychological construct.
social identity theory
Psychological theory that proposes that are self-concept is composed of two parts: a personal identity that is based on personal characteristics and a social identity that is based on social role characteristics.
Foot in the door technique study
Psychologist posing as volunteers, asked homeowners to display a 3 inch square " Be a safe driver" sticker. Most said yes. Two weeks later those same homeowners were asked to display a huge, ugly billboard in their yard reading drive carefully.. 76% of these residents agreed to the billboard request. The conclusion was that people who agreed to the initial, small request viewed themselves as agreeable, civic minded citizens who cared about safe driving in their neighborhood. So refusing a request on the same issue later it would be inconsistent with their view of themselves. Commitment and consistency led them to agree to actions that most other people saw as unreasonable.
The catharsis hypothesis refers to the idea that
Purposefully engaging in aggressive behavior releases built up aggression, reducing aggressive thoughts and behaviors overall. Example: throwing darts at an enemies picture on a dartboard or a punching bag.
Hypotheses are never stated as a _____________, but as a specific statement.
Question.
Surveys
Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions.. Self-report. Researchers collect data by asking participants to respond to a question or a statement.
Why is it difficult to study prosocial behavior?
Random assignment to groups is almost always the best way to conduct an experiment. However, social psychologist can't go around randomly assigning people to be in a life-threatening emergency as part of a comparison group for an experiment. This is why they use post hoc matched groups design.
What can increase external validity?
Random sampling and replication.
Psychological research is
Reactive.
In naturalistic observation the presence of a researcher within the environment present a challenge because of
Reactivity
social exchange/ pro social trading.
Refers to the evolution of pro social trading of resources that strengthens the group. Social exchanges between humans are universal and highly elaborated across all human cultures. We exchange favors with neighbors, exchange money for electronic devices, and even exchange promises when negotiating complex treaties between nations. The advantages of sharing food probably led to other prosocial exchanges such as cooperative hunting, mutual defense, communal childcare etc.
Examples of discrimination
Refusing to board an airplane with anyone perceived to be Muslim. Not voting for female political candidates. Choosing a gay man as your hairdresser.
Modeling peacemaking and forgiveness has also successfully decreased
Aggression in observers.
Early in their lives, boys tend to be more physically aggressive than girls, but
Aggression peaks in both men and women when they were in their 20s.
Prosocial behavior is positively correlated with
Agreeableness.
Being a member of a small, in the group provides?
All the advantages of groups in general with the added benefit of elite status that provides prestige and pride.
correlational design
Allows scientists to analyze two or more variables to determine their relationship or association with each other. A correlation looks at variables that the researcher cannot manipulate, because of this you cannot state causation.
impression management
Also known as self presentation theory; a tendency to adjust yourself and perform in slightly different ways for different people to gain social acceptance and influence.
pretest post test control group design
Also known as the before/after design; The dependent variable (outcome) is tested both before and after the experimental manipulation
Reciprocal altruism
Altruistic behavior that occurs because individuals expect that their helpfulness now will be returned in the future. Example: Vampire bats (306)
Evidence that self and brain are interconnected
Alzheimer's disease and self recognition: when the red dot recognition test is given to Alzheimer's patients, as the disease progresses they lose self-awareness. Phineas Gage. The presence of self insight or self monitoring.
Claude Steele
American social psychologist best known for his work on stereotype threat
Malingering
An attempt to look worse than you are.
Political orientation
An attitude held by an individual concerning matters of politics and government often characterized by the possession of liberal or conservative ideas.
Westgate Housing Study (372)
An early study that tested the mere exposure/proximity affect hypothesis. Westgate housing project located on the campus of MIT; the students who had very close proximity to each other and who passed each other's apartments tended to socialize together and become friends quicker.
one-group pretest-posttest design
An experiment in which a researcher recruits one group of participants; measures them on a pretest; exposes them to a treatment, intervention, or change; and then measures them on a posttest. Allows the researcher to measure the dependent variable from the group, then to implement the independent variable, and then to measure the dependent variable in the group after treatment.
within-subjects design
An experimental design where one group of participants receives all levels of the IV. Also known as repeated measures design.
between-subjects design
An experimental design where participants are randomly assigned to different groups. Each group receives a different level of the IV.
Maximizers
An individual who engages a heavier cognitive load by exhaustively examining criteria when making decisions.
prosocial moral reasoning
An individual's ability to analyze moral dilemmas in which two or more people's needs conflict with each other and where formal rules are absent.
self-efficacy
An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
commitment
An individual's decision to stay in a romantic relationship for the long term.
Satisfaction
An individual's perception of whether a romantic relationship is better or worse than average. Inter-dependence theory suggests that we take two mental steps to make this determination. The first step is to think about the rewards versus the cost. The second step is to compare our current outcomes (the ratio of good to bad) to a mental comparison level, which is our abstract idea of what an average relationships good to bad ratio might be.
GABA
An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
Attitudes
An inner tendency to judge or evaluate something or someone either positively or negatively.
Autokinetic affect
An optical illusion that occurs when an individual perceives a stationary object is moving due to natural, intermittent movements of the eyes.
positive stereotypes
An over generalized believe about a group that is positive, can still lead to problems such as unrealistic expectations.
collective self-esteem
And evaluation of self concept based off of group membership, includes things like sports, political affiliations, regional associations, religions and others.
Hostile/Reactive Aggression
And impulsive, emotion-based reaction to perceived threats.
self-esteem
And individual subjective, personal evaluation of your own self-concept.
current outcomes
And individual's perception of the total combined of positive and negative outcomes of a relationship, which can be represented as a ratio of rewards to costs. Rewards might be things like companionship, support for ideas, someone to help us overcome difficulties, and emotional and sexual satisfaction. Costs might be the things like sacrifices you make to be with each other, time away from friends, money spent on the relationship.
actor-observer bias
And individuals tendency to think of personality when explaining other peoples behavior but external, situational causes when explaining their own behavior.
Steps from anonymity to disinhibition
Anonymity leads to decreasing self-awareness, which increases deindividuation, which leads to social disinhibition.
A lower moral conscience and lack of impulse control are symptoms of the mental illness associated with serial killers and people who torture animals known as?
Antisocial personality disorder.
Paternity insecurity
Anxiety experienced by men when they doubt that the child is theirs
prosocial behavior
Any action performed to help others, either on an individual level or a group level.
Variable
Any characteristic that can change.
ingroup
Any group in which an individual is a member; these groups can be based on chosen or non-chosen characteristics such as race, nationality, sex, etc.
outgroup
Any group in which an individual is not a member.
Peripheral path
Any type of persuasion in which appeals are indirect, implicit, and emotion-based; requires little effort by the individual being persuaded, leading to quick and easy conclusions.
External validity of self fulfilling prophecies/ expectancy effects:
Applies across a variety of settings such as parents, children and drug use ( children of parents who suspected them of using Mary Jane, were more likely to), Managers, employees and productivity, Judges, juries and verdicts ( judges expectations can influence a jury) and caretakers in nursing homes can influence the health of the elderly just with their expectations!
Evidence of the persistence of aggression:
Archaeologist have found large collections of stone ax heads at sites occupied by our ancestors. It is likely that primitive people stock piled these ax heads to use as weapons. Evolutionary psychology asserts that we inherited their primal anxieties, and still stockpile weapons.
heat and aggression
Archival direct connected heat to increases in violent crimes; murder rates, rape, assault, robbery, burglary, larceny/theft, and stealing cars all went up with higher temperatures. Prison riots more likely to occur during high temps.
Female empowerment in different cultures is correlated with how frequently women were victimized by aggression (archival data):
As gender equality and individualism increased, female victimization decreased; a negative correlation.
Humans have become efficient killers. The weapons have changed but that psychology remains the same.
At the battle of Gettysburg in 1863 it required three days to kill approximately 8000 union and confederate soldiers; the deaths occurred in hand to hand combat or from gun blasts at close range. On the first day of the battle of the Somme in 1916 it required only one day to kill approximately 19000 British soldiers, most died from machine guns. Near the end of World War II in 1945 it required less than one second to vaporize approximately 75,000 Japanese soldiers and civilians, the atomic bomb.
One of the most popular frame works for research on adult romantic relationships:
Attachment theory; in the past 10 years, over 4000 studies have been published on the topic.
Higher cognitive dissonance leads to
Attitude change
implicit attitudes
Attitudes based on automatic, unconscious beliefs about an attitude object.
Do you attitudes come from nature or nurture
Attitudes develop from an interaction of both. You may be genetically predisposed to certain attitudes but the environment that you grow up and live in also has some influence.
explicit attitudes
Attitudes that are the product of controlled, conscious beliefs about an attitude object.
defensive attribution
Attributions made by individuals to avoid feeling fear about the potential for a future at negative events.
Sigmund Freud
Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality development ; founded psychoanalysis. Laid the groundwork for therapy and the theory of personality.
3 personality constructs linked to prejudice:
Authoritarianism. Social dominance orientation. Religiosity.
While empathy is the main component of the empathy altruism hypothesis, empathy alone is not enough to predict helping we must also:
Be capable of helping (can't help a friend with calculus if we don't know the math). Perceive that our help will actually benefit the person.
How might the " what is beautiful is good effect" be an example of self-fulfilling prophecy?
Beautiful people are giving more opportunities to practice their social skills. In this way, the benefits and privileges society gives to beautiful people allow them to have more status, education, and attention; these benefits may result in really making them more interesting and or cultured.
How can we say that attitude deals with social influence?
Because people are always trying to influence your attitudes in various ways.
aggression
Behavior intended to harm others who do not wish to be harmed. Our focus on the intention to harm allows us to include non-violent forms of aggression such as backstabbing office politics, the interpersonal aggression portrayed in acts like bullying, taking credit for someone else's efforts, gossip about a romantic rival, are using unnecessary roughness to defeat an opponent during an athletic competition.
Lewinian Equation
Behavior is a function of interaction between environment and personality.
Relationship personality
Behavior patterns that describe an individuals habitual interpersonal dynamic with others. Patterns we might see..... Some people are inherently trusting, while others tend to be jealous. One theory differentiates between people who have an exchange orientation versus people who have a communal orientation. Attachment theory.
Magical thinking (wishful thinking)
Beliefs based on assumptions that do not hold up to reality, such as " if only" thinking, counterfactual thinking, and optimistic bias.
Examples of stereotypes
Believe that men wearing any kind of headscarf are Muslim. Believe that women are emotional. Believe that gay people are stylish.
Intelligence and education influence how your attitude can be changed. For example,
Better educated people are more likely to understand scientific evidence.
Self-Serving Biases
Biases we use that explain outcomes in ways that advance or protect our personal interests.
Intuition _________ on mental accessibility , priming ___________ mental accessibility, and experience ____________ mental accessibility.
Relies, increases. Improves
In science, others repeating your experiment and getting the same result is more than just a good idea. _______________ is necessary.
Replication.
Example of using parallel heuristics that led to wrong information
Research study done in 2008 on a bombing in London showed that more participants had false memories of the coverage where the coverage was super high, and less people had boss memories where the coverage was low.
Research using the door in the face technique
Researchers asked students to volunteer to chaperone a group of juvenile delinquents on a field trip to a zoo; 83% refused. But that was only the baseline comparison rate. Their rate of acceptance tripled when they first asked students to do something much more demanding: to spend two hours per week for at least two years as counselors to juvenile delinquents. The field trip now seem to like small potatoes by comparison. Asking for some thing big first, and then being turned down, makes it easier to engage the norm of reciprocity and gain compliance with a second, relatively smaller request.
Twin research
Researchers compare the eating attitudes between 11-year-old twins and 17-year-old twins. They found that, among the younger children, the genetic influence on eating disorders was 0%. However among the adolescence, the genetic influence on eating disorders jumped to 54%. In this case the genetic influence on food intake appeared to be activated during puberty, possibly due to changes in the hormones.
Replication
Researchers conduct the same study using the same methodology but with different people.
Priming study number one
Researchers created three experimental conditions by having college students complete word puzzles featuring: words concerned with being rude, words concerned with being polite, or neutral words, and then sent the students on an errand that required them to interrupt two people who are talking and ask them for directions. A higher percentage of participants who had been primed with rude words, interrupted the two people talking.
Weapons Effect Study (356)
Researchers created three experimental conditions by placing on a table either badminton rackets, a rifle and a revolver, or nothing at all (control group). The group of participants who had been primed by seeing weapons on the table later demonstrated higher levels of aggression.
Priming study number two
Researchers discovered that people want more slowly after being prime with roads related to aging such as Florida, gray, careful, and bingo, compared to a neutral condition.
There can be benefits to having a relationship with someone who is different from you. They might be able to strengthen your weak areas and vice versa.
Researchers find that most couple members can perceive the differences between themselves, and couple members who perceive these differences as an opportunity to learn from each other view this lack of similarity as a positive instead of as a negative.
Examples of stereotypes
Black men can rap. Black peoples are good at sports. Women are emotional. Native Americans are wise and in touch with the land.
Environmental cues associated with aggression:
Black uniforms, hot temperatures, loud noises, unpleasant odor's, ozone levels, crowding, and pain, are all associated with negative feelings that lead to increased aggression. One explanation for this may be environmental cues activate (or prime) pre-existing mental and emotional connections. Any kind of unpleasant experience in the environment activates brain connections that trigger the impulse to either escape or to attack (fight or flight).
Support for universal hypothesis
Blind , breastfed baby that smiled and turned her head at the sound of her morher's voice ( she had never seen a smile to emulate). People in various literate cultures were shown photos of people expressing six basic emotions. The facial expression were recognized across cultures. Two isolated tribes in New Guinea who were preliterate were told short, emotional stories and then asked to match the pictures portraying various emotions to the stories and they did.
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
Born during the American Civil War, fought to study psychology at Harvard even though the school had a policy against allowing women to enroll. First female president of the APA.
Are people basically good or basically evil? (B Q)
Both a practical and a philosophical question. Consider the robber cave study (two groups of boys in camp competition); common goal needed
Researchers analyzed 17 years of penalty records in the NFL and the NHL focusing their attention on teams that were black uniforms or switched to black uniforms
Both experimental and archival studies found consistently high rankings in penalties for teams switching to black uniforms or already wearing black uniforms. We see black uniforms and then expect violence.
Men favor direct aggression and women favor indirect aggression. However,
Both men and women seem to benefit when aggression raises their social status in ways that create better opportunities for mating.
Yvonne Ridley (Stockholm syndrome)
British reporter who was kidnapped by the Taliban in 2001. After being held prisoner for 11 days ridley was released and she proceeded to convert to Islam, praise the Taliban's practices, and announce Western values. Unlike Hearst, Ridley refuse the idea of Stockholm syndrome and claimed that her experience had simply opened her eyes.
Westgate Housing Study (232)
Built at the end of World War II, MIT created housing complexes to accommodate returning soldiers and their families going to college on the G.I. Bill. Apartment somewhat isolated geographically from the rest of the area, but all similar in style and space, the resident shared similar backgrounds and ambitions. Research team discovered that the friendships and group cohesiveness that involved in this setting could be predicted, not by personality but by functional distance. Residence of each building formed friendships with people they saw and interacted with more, simply because those people happen to live in an apartment that was physically located in a spot with a lot of social traffic. Mother is in these projects work together to raise their children.
Examples of operant conditioning
Burn your mouth on hot chocolate..... don't like hot chocolate. If people laugh at your jokes... you're more likely to use humor in your conversations. Teenagers have a more positive attitude toward drinking when they believe drinking is rewarded by popularity.
Buss' reasoning for universally attractive features:
Bus reasons that if researchers can identify certain physical characteristics or traits that are universally considered attractive, regardless of one's upbringing or culture, then these traits probably come from ancient, inherited instincts. Evolutionary advantage.
There may be a cycle in which testosterone increases aggression,
But anger increases testosterone.
leadership study
Came about because of Lewin's observations about the followers of Adolf Hitler (how could so many good people follow such an evil person?) Studied how groups interact with different kinds of leaders. School children divided into three groups to see how they interacted with three different kinds of leaders: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire
Pros and cons of intuitive decision making
Can be quick and effortless. Takes much less energy . Can sometimes be very useful, but can also have disastrous consequences.
Example of the lowball technique
Car salesman
Typologies
Categorical systems that help individuals think more clearly about complex but related events.
People high in the need of cognition use the _______________ route of persuasion.
Central
What route of persuasion did the girlfriend in the movie my cousin Vinny use?
Central route
universally attractive features
Certain physical characteristics that seem to be universally appealing to everyone, regardless of age, ethnicity, or culture. Symmetry, average faces, waist to hips and waist to shoulders ratios.
Strong attitudes are harder to
Change.
context variables
Characteristics concerning how a persuasive message is delivered that can make it more or less persuasive, including distraction, forewarning, and repetition.
message variables
Characteristics of a message that can make it more or less persuasive, including whether the listener personally cares about the topic and how the message is presented. Personal important and framing.
source variables
Characteristics of individuals that make their message more or less persuasive, including their level of credibility, their attractiveness, and their social power.
recipient variables
Characteristics of the people receiving a persuasive message that make them more or less likely to be persuaded, such as their attitude strength, intelligence, personality, self-esteem, and need for cognition.
Explicit expectations
Clearly and formally stated expectations for formal behavior. Direct. Not subtle. Example: The speed limit or a sign in the library that says "no talking please".
Stereotypes have both
Cognitive and emotional aspects.
A possible explanation for the backfiring of catharsis hypothesis:
Cognitive neo association theory could explain these results. The participants emotions were negative, and when this was mixed with the cognitive environmental cues of punching, aggression just went up. Catharsis backfired.
culture of honor study
College students from the University of Michigan (from both the north and the south) were bumped into and called an ******* buy a confederate. After being bumped and called a name, the men from the south were more likely to think that their masculine reputation had been threatened, be emotionally upset, become primed for aggression, and engage in more aggressive behavior.
Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Study
College students in lab. Told to perform super boring task over and over again, then asked to rate it. Most said it was boring and no fun. One group paid 20 bucks to tell new participants that the experiment was fun, another group paid a dollar. 20 buck group had good justification and thus no attitude change. Dollar group had insufficient justification and experienced cognitive dissonance. Most changed their attitudes when reinterviewed about their experience.
Cognitive dissonance is not always harmful
College students who made a video advising other college students on how to improve their fruit and vegetable intake, actually ended up improving their own vegetable and fruit intake.
quasi-experimental design
Compare pre-existing groups on an outcome. No random assignment. Variables are categorical but we cannot manipulate them. Examples of a quasi-independent variable would be political affiliation, race, sex etc. Because you do not manipulate the variable in a quasi-independent design you cannot state causation.
Public conformity
Conforming thoughts or behavior shared with others; these actions may not be genuinely endorsed. Ex: I am with a church group and the church group says that drinking is a sin and abstain from alcohol. I don't believe that drinking is a sin, and I occasionally drink, but I agree with them anyway.
Private conformity
Conforming thoughts or behaviors that are kept to oneself and or felt genuinely by the individual.
Random assignment reduces
Confounding variables.
attributional ambiguity
Confusion individuals have concerning the cause of the way others treat them, experienced most often by members of stigmatized groups.
People who are high in knees personality traits are less likely to engage in social loafing
Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and protestant work ethic.
Reliability
Consistency of measurement over time or multiple testing occasions.
The "father" of social psychology, Kurt Lewin, pointed out the importance of understanding how people ________ their social environments.
Construe.
To minimize group thinking
Consult outsiders, be critical of your own ideas, have someone play the devils advocate.
Positive illusions we tend to use
Control: we cling to the belief that we can control our lives more than we actually can. Optimism: we tend to hold unrealistic optimistic views for the future. Meaning: we try to give meaning to critical life events such as death, in order to make ourselves feel better. Subjective age: older individuals say that they feel younger than their chronological age.
Kirk Lewin
Created first social experiment on leadership. Social psychology pioneer. Author of the Lewinian equation. Interactionist.
What is the purpose of random assignment?
Creates equivalent (similar) samples in different conditions; individual differences are spread equally across both groups reducing the influences of the differences on the dependent variable.
Groupthink sacrifices our own?
Critical thinking.
And alternative explanation for differences in jealousy between men and women
Cultural expectations differ between men and women. In most cultures it is more socially acceptable for men to be sexually promiscuous than it is for women. Cultural expectations guide women to be relatively chaste and loyal but men may be expected to cheat on their wives and girlfriends simply because it's the cultural expectation.
How much are thought and behavior is influenced by culture? (BQ)
Cultural influences link to personality, aggression, stereotypes, and group dynamics. It affects our view of the world and of other people. Some cultures value independence and competition while other cultures value cooperation and self-sacrifice.
Cultremes
Culture specific, nonverbal communication such as inside jokes, religious symbols, government seals, and corporate branding that represent cultural communication not understood by those outside of the culture and convey widely shared social impressions.
Social cognition is influenced by?
Culture.
Stockholm syndrome is defined as:
DEVELOPMENT IN HOSTAGES OF POSITIVE EMOTIONAL FEELINGS TOWARD CAPTORS. 8% of hostages end up agreeing with their captors and developing feelings of friendship or romantic feelings.
Who first observed imitation as self-awareness?
Darwin: observed that his 10 month old son would try to imitate the sounds that he heard. This indicated that he realized the sounds were separate from himself.
The effect of self-fulfilling prophecy _______________ over time.
Declines.
Two people are more likely to become attracted to each other when they are similar in?
Demographic ways such as age, race, and social class; common interest and basic values.
Asch Experiment ( normative social influence)
Demonstrated how people would rather conform than state their own individual answer even though they know the group's answer is wrong. " fitting in beats being right"
BIRGing (Basking in Reflected Glory)
Derived from sports fan psychology; connecting yourself to the winning team, a method of soften hands in it that involves affiliating ourselves with that in-group, when that group has been successful and distancing ourselves when the group fails.
Alice Eagly
Devoted her career to studying how to understand and reduce prejudice, with a particular focus on sexism. Social role theory.
Brainstorming outcomes can be hurt by?
Diffusion of responsibility and by evaluation apprehension, especially when the members of the group have social anxiety.
There are two ways to measure attitudes
Direct Approach for explicit attitudes. Indirect Approach for Implicit attitudes.
Central route of persuasion
Direct and explicit; people using this route will logically think and deliberate on the situation. Attitude change will last longer.
hitting or stabbing someone would be considered what type of aggression?
Direct-Active (Physical)
Insulting someone or putting them down would be what type of aggression?
Direct-Active (Verbal)
Giving someone the silent treatment to punish that person would be what type of aggression?
Direct-Passive (Verbal)
Positioning your car to prevent someone else from changing lanes would be what type of aggression?
Direct-Passive (physical)
Discrimination
Discrimination is the behavior. Unfair behaviors toward a particular group or members of a group based on a stereotype or prejudice.
People in independent, self reliant cultures are more likely to use _________________ explanations than people in collectivistic, relationship-oriented cultures.
Dispositional Ex: American Olympic athletes attributed their success to dispositional causes such as Hardwork, whereas Chinese Olympic athletes were more likely to say their success was due to national support.
Social psychology values
Diversity
Some examples of cognitive dissonance and justification
Dorothy Martin and her alien believers: when the aliens didn't appear and the flood didn't happen, many of her followers were even more committed and increased their faith. President Lyndon Johnson's stubborn justification for continuing to commit American troops to Vietnam, President Richard Nixon's desperate justification for the Watergate affair.
Matsumoto Study ( further evidence of the universality hypothesis).
Double Blind Compared authentic emotions between athletes who were born blind, blind but had experienced sight, and sighted athletes. Athletes and photographer unaware of study. Athlete's photographed at 3 crucial times during Olympics . Both blind and sighted individuals expressed the full range of emotions in their facial expressions.
Criticisms of authoritarian personality scale
Double-barreled items. Right wing authoritarianism scale: implies that people with this personality trait are only found on the right wing side of the political spectrum.
How a false belief can turn into a self-fulfilling prophecy:
During the depression, a bank that was actually flourishing ended up going bankrupt because rumors of insolvency were believed and everyone withdrew their money.
Moral and religious convictions can?
Encourage disobedience to authority.
Example of minimal group paradigm
English schoolboys and dots, some told they were overestimaters and some told they were underestimaters. These groups showed ingroup preference. Also, klee or kandinsky paintings. Page 272
An aggressive response can be triggered by particular? (Cognitive neo association analysis)
Environmental cues and our perception of the situation.
Social psychologist are bound by?
Ethical obligations.
Milgrams study prompted negative reactions by many in the scientific community over the?
Ethics of his experiments. Caused emotional distress to participants. NSF approved, but not IRB. Deceit without debrief. Minimized negative consequences. Recent archival evidence shows that Millgram did not stick to the script.
Factors linked to aggression
Evolutionary, heart rate, alcohol, testosterone, cultural influences.
Researchers identified 25 relatively peaceful societies. They range across continents and varied geographies. They vary in how they obtain food, how much they interact with the outside world, and the degree of aggression in their communal stories about themselves.They're only commonality is that each society?
Evolved in its own distinct of ways to reduce conflict.
Adolf Eichmann
Example of obedience in pursuit of a higher cause. Nazi officer who was main organizer of concentration camps.
Attributions can be used as causal explanations. In other words, the attribution is the explanation.
Example: " that person jumped in front of me in line because they wanted to be first."
Athletic competition has many positive benefits, but it can also create a dangerous subculture of aggression. Athletes, their support staff, their coaches, and fans have all displayed purposeful aggression.
Examples: Tonya Harding escalated her aggression from competition on the ice by arranging for her former husband to cripple her arrival with a telescopic baton. Mike Tyson bit off 1 inch of a Vander Hollyfield's right ear during a boxing match. One father in France confessed to spiking the water bottles of 27 of his daughters tennis opponents (one player fell asleep at the wheel and died on the way home), in Australia, a 19-year-old referee officiating a 13 and under rugby competition was chased into the dressing room by angry parents, and tennis star Monica Seles was stabbed in the back during a match by a fan of her rival.
Couples may have relationships with other couples where they interchange sex partners With the common understanding that
Exclusivity of both an intimate and sexual nature is not a necessary precursor to love and commitment.
Collectivistic Societies are more likely to?
Exhibit prosocial behaviors than individualistic cultures. However, individuals in collectivistic cultures are especially likely to help people in their own group.
self-fulfilling prophecy also known as?
Expectancy effect.
Willhelm Wundt
Father of psychology. Created first psychology lab in 1879 in Lipzieg, Germany. Used introspection to study sensation.
Six facial expressions that are universal
Fear. Disgust. Surprise. Anger. Sadness. Happiness.
Following an insult, individuals from a culture of honor are more likely to?
Feel threatened, be emotionally upset, become physiologically primed for aggression, and engage in aggressive or dominant behaviors.
Aronson and Mills (1959)
Female participants, who were joining a discussion group about the psychology of sex, were either accepted into the group (control condition), had to go through a mild initiation, which involved reading aloud sex-related words, or had to go through a severe initiation by reading aloud explicit sex words (Aronson 1959). When the participants were later asked the rate the discussion and the group members, those who went through severe initiation rated both categories much higher than both the control and mild initiation groups. Because the female participants had to justify the effort and humiliation they experienced to enter the group, they rated the group as more attractive than the other conditions. Evidence supports the idea that the more effort we put into getting into the group, the better attitude we have towards the group.
Good Samaritan study (314)
Field experiment that pitted the power of religious norms against the power of an immediate situation. 40 seminary students all pass the same needy person in an alley who was really a confederate of the research team. The results of this study showed that only about 40% of the seminary students stop to help the needy man. It was observed the individuals who had a lot of time and got the good Samaritan speeds were most likely to help. In other words time influence whether you are more likely to help in general. There was no significant difference in the willingness to stop and help between individuals who read the good Samaritan lecture and individuals who read the jobs lecture. There was statistical significance in the willingness to stop and help between individuals with a high urgency to get across campus and those with low urgency. High urgency less likely to stop and help.
The urinal game 245
Found that the presence of another person approaching the personal space if someone else did not facilitate the individuals performance at the urinal. In fact, the closer someone else was to the participant, the longer it took him to get going. This suggest that the body does react physiologically to the presence of others.
Recent research about attachment style proposes
Four attachment styles instead of three. This new model is organized around two different explanations (or attributions) that people often use when a relationship doesn't go well. View of self or view of others.
W.I.D.E: how we process objective information can influence our self-concept
Four steps that affect our subjective processing; Who we are comparing ourselves to. How we interpret those comparisons. Directing our comparisons upward or downward. Esteem, we protect our self-esteem which influences our self-concept.
Examples of realistic conflict theory
French Quebecers. Colonizers who take land from the natives. Prejudice towards immigrants, especially when the economy is bad. Page: 278
When cognitive errors accumulate, they can lead to faulty social perceptions such as the?
Fundamental attribution bias and the actor observer bias.
Most major world religions have norms that support prosocial behavior. For example,
Giving a percentage of your wealth to the poor as one of the five pillars of Islam, there is a similar obligation within Judaism which emphasizes that giving is a matter of justice rather than generosity. Hinduism promotes Yajna, sacrificing for others as a way of behaving in harmony with universal laws. And Jesus advises extreme altruism when he says love your enemies and do good to those who hate you.
High group cohesiveness
Group members who feel connected to one another are less likely to criticize themselves.
Makes groups more desirable:
Groups that recruit rather than take applications. Groups that have dues or initiations. Groups that require you to put in more effort.
Egoistic altruism
Helping others in exchange for some kind of personal benefit.
Altruism ( also known as pure or true Altruism)
Helping others purely out of selfless concern for their well-being.
Descriptive Typology
Helps us to understand how, but not why, people become aggressive. This typology subdivides aggression according to three categories. Physical or verbal, direct or indirect, and active or passive. Real life aggression often blurs the lines between the categories. For example, Tom witnessed a nursery school complex when one child, denied a toy by the other, called him a big poopy head and then ran to his friends to giggle with them over how clever he had been. The name-calling was direct, active, verbal aggression. Getting other children to join and put down was also active and verbal, but it was more indirect because he used others to make the first child feel bad.
Group norms can create a?
Herd mentality.
social identity theory
Hey Siri that proposes our self-concept is composed of two parts; a personal identity based on personal characteristics in a social identity based on social role characteristics.
Scripts governor great deal of our lives especially cultural scripts.
Hey survey of over 2100 college students found that participants, regardless of their sexual age, predicted a stronger marriage if the couple head conformed to a more traditional proposal script.
paternalistic prejudice
High in warmth, low in competence. Prejudice against people who are low in status and do not compete with ingroup. Our emotional responses include pity and sympathy. Elderly people, people with disabilities, housewives.
What we learned from the Milgram study was high risk, but also...
High reward.
A positive view of self means?
High self-esteem and you feel worthy of being loved and believe you would make a good relationship partner.
High self-monitors vs Low self-monitors
High self-monitors-easier to modify their behavior based on the situation; more likely to change their beliefs and opinions depending on who they're talking to Low self-monitors consistent throughout all; don't change to fit the environment.
Admiration Prejudice
High warmth, high competence. Prejudice for people who have high status and do not compete with the in group. Our emotional responses include pride and admiration. Ingroup s and allies.
The Doll Studies
Highlighted the problems of internalized racism and negative self-esteem in school children during segregation.
Cognitive associations with alcohol
Researchers found that images of alcohol could trigger aggression even when no alcohol had been drunk. Another study showed participant subliminal images of alcohol and found that these individuals later showed more aggression toward the experimenter then people who saw neutral subliminal messages. Thus, you don't have to actually drink alcohol to be aggressive, just being around it, even on a subliminal level appears to prime aggression.
Mark and Scott Kelly
Identical twin astronauts who have devoted their lives to space exploration. In 2012, Scott volunteered to spend a year in space so that scientist could study long-term damages to his body due to space travel, and his twin Mark served as the earthbound control condition participant.
Example of personal perceptions
If someone's shoes are neat and polished, we also may expect self-control, neatness, and organization in other parts of the personality. If someone is wearing hand-painted combat boots, we might expect them to be creative, outgoing, and non-conforming.
Forewarning
If you were trying not to be persuaded by a message, knowing that the arguments are coming up can help you prepare for them.
Changing patterns of Gender Socialization: A recent study showed that women are high in communion and increasing in agency, and men are
Iin agency but not increasing in communion.
Example of the principle of non-common effects
Imagine that your friend gets engaged to someone who is mean-spirited, unmotivated, dishonest, and extremely wealthy. You might notice that three of these traits are negative, so it's easy to make the attribution that your friend is marrying for money. Wealth is the non-common factor that stands out as different from the others and therefore become salient as the most probable explanation.
Upward counterfactuals ( if only thoughts)
Imagined outcomes that are better than reality. May cause regrets or resentment. " If only I had bought a lottery ticket from that store, I could've been a winner!"
downward counterfactuals ( at least thoughts)
Imagined outcomes that are worse than reality. Silver lining thoughts: " I had a car accident, but it would have been so much worse if it were rush hour!"
Social influence takes two basic forms:
Implicit expectations which includes conformity and social roles. Explicit expectations which includes compliance and obedience.
One of the most famous cases in the history of the civil rights movement demonstrates the connection between prosocial behavior and belief in a just world:
In 1943 in Montgomery, Alabama A bus driver ordered a black passenger named Rosa parks to get off his bus and then re-enter through the rear door (the standard policy for black passengers at the time), while she was off the bus and heading to the back door he closed the door and drove away. 12 years later the same bus driver ordered a black woman to give up her seat for a white man, and it was the same woman he left waiting on the side of the road. This time, Parks refused to obey. Her defiant made her into one of the heroines of the civil rights movement. This type of blatant discrimination did not fit into many peoples beliefs that the world should be just and fair. (307)
Iceman(336)
In 1991, two hikers stumbled over evidence that aggression has always been part of the human story when they made the discovery of an almost perfectly preserved 5300 year old skeleton of a man who came to be known as the iceman. Died with a dagger in his right hand, the preserved blood of two other people on his body, a bow and quiver with 14 arrows, and a 1 inch arrowhead that had entered through his back.
Study on negative emotions and prosocial behavior (page 309
In an experiment two groups of college students were asked to complete a multiple-choice exam in exchange for extra credit, and each participant was given information about the correct answers from a confederate when the researcher was out of the room. When the researcher returned an asked the participants if they had any knowledge of the study, some participants lied and said no. All of the participants were then asked if they would help the researchers by volunteering to score some of the test. Participants who had not lied earlier in the study helped for an average of about two minutes. In contrast, those who had lied stayed for over an hour! We can infer that the people who lied may have felt guilty and volunteered to help as a way to relieve the negative emotion.
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. Baseline group.
Example of inclusive fitness
In his book on the origin of species, Darwin pointed out that cattle breeders wanted cattle with "flesh and fat well marbled" together. But when they found such an animal, farmers couldn't breed the animal because they had already slaughtered it. So the cattle breeders did the next best thing, they bred the dead animals closest living relatives. Darwin realized that these English cattle (and dog) breeders understood the principal now called inclusive fitness.
Sobriety and detecting symmetry
In one study sober individuals were good at detecting asymmetry in faces and found them less attractive, while drunk people couldn't tell when faces were asymmetrical.
Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment (modeling)
In this experiment children watched a model attack a doll and then the children were put in a room with toys including the same doll. 3 studies conducted: Study 1: Imitating adults; little boys and girls watched an adult beat up Bobo...both boys and girls were more likely to copy the behavior, especially if the adult was the same sex as themselves. Study 2: Imitating adults on TV; aggressive models on television produced the same results. The children were even more likely to imitate when they saw the adult models get rewarded for the aggressive behavior (candy), but less likely when they saw the model get punished. Study 3: Imitating children on TV; kids watch a conflict between two boys, Rocky and Johnny, with various outcomes to the scenario. The boys who saw Rocky being rewarded for aggressive behavior displayed the highest levels of aggression, but the girls who saw Rocky triumph did not imitate him. Their overall level of aggression was similar to those who had seen Johnny turn the tables on Rocky. For them, gender identification was an important role of modeling aggression. Also, 4 year olds quick to blame the victim.
Ratios and evolutionary psychology:
In women: large hips equal good childbirth, small waist equals aerobic fitness. More likely to survive childbirth and the first year of raising the child. In men: men with a smaller waist also indicate aerobic fitness, broad, strong, shoulders indicate physical strength. strength would be an advantage for any physical task and might be important when a woman or child needs protection.
One study on rejection sensitivity found that having participants simply watch someone else being ridiculous because his acne was so bad produced?
Increase social conformity in observers.
Cross cultural research suggests that the fundamental attribution error may not be quite as fundamental ass was want to believe. One study found that simply being in a happy mood ________________ attributions to someone's personality.
Increases.
For women, status and mating motives increase?
Indirect aggression such as social exclusion.
Peripheral route of persuasion
Indirect and implicit; relies more on emotional appeals. Attitude change is shorter using this route..
Cheating in a competition or hiring a hitman would be what type of aggression?
Indirect-Active (Physical)
Spreading rumors or negative gossip about someone would be what type of aggression?
Indirect-Active (Verbal)
Refusing to stop the bleeding of an enemy soldier would be what type of aggression?
Indirect-Passive (Physical)
Failing to defend someone who you know is being accused unfairly would be what type of aggression?
Indirect-Passive (Verbal)
Comparison level(389)
Individuals abstract idea concerning what an average relationship's ratio of rewards to cost might be based on relationships the individual has previously seen, including their own past relationships, their relationships of their parents and their friends, or relationships seen in the media. For example, perhaps you think that an average relationship has five rewards or good things for every one cost or a bad thing, thus, your comparison level ratio is 5 to 1.
Individuals from a collectivistic culture are less likely to socially loaf then?
Individuals from an individualistic culture.
In a study of 21 different countries with collectivistic cultures, it was observed that?
Individuals were less likely to help strangers but more likely to help family members.
Social agents
Individuals who send messages about cultural beliefs and expectations that help transmit ideas from one generation to the next; social agents include any source that transmits information, such as parents and the media.
social dominance orientation
Individuals with a tendency to exhibit outgroup prejudice due to a desire for social hierarchy and power within a situation. People high in this more likely to be prejudice, against social equality, unethical decision makers, polluters, exploiting workers in less developed countries. Resent out group discrimination, support ingroup members who claim it.
Debriefing
Informing the participants about the true nature of this study, participants are allowed to ask questions and see the results and learn about the deception used. They are also thanks for participating. Even if deception was not used in the experiment it is still a good idea to dBrief the participants.
Impression management tactics
Ingratiation, self-promotion, conspicuous consumption.
Priming
Initial activation of a concept within a semantic network that allows related ideas to come more easily to mind.
Priming
Initial activation of a concept within a semantic network that allows related ideas to come more easily to mind. Priming means that after initially thinking about something, thinking about it again later will be easier and faster.
Whenever you decide to conduct a study, the first thing you must do is submit a research proposal to the?
Institutional review board (IRB).
Studies show that heterosexual men are more likely to feel committed to a relationship based on tangible investments such as jointly shared objects but homosexual men care more about
Intangible investments such as sacrifices to be together.
Rosenthal and Jacobson
Intelligence and learning, self-fulfilling prophecy; Study Basics: Researchers misled teachers into believing that certain students had higher IQs. Teachers changed own behaviors and effectively raised the IQ of the randomly chosen students; became known as intellectual bloomers.
Individualistic vs collectivistic cultural influence Independent minded Americans experienced dissonance when their personal sense of competency was threatened. By contrast,
Inter-dependent minded Asians experienced more dissonance when they were threatened with group rejection.
Paul Eckman: Emotional Expression
Interested in the universality of facial expressions: facial expressions carry same meaning regardless of culture, context, or language. Use of microexpressions to detect lying. Namer of the Duping Delight.
Similarities such as attitudes, interest, values and so forth are all
Internal characteristics. ( predictors )
Though you might publicly conform at first, sometimes you eventually
Internalize and privately conform.
Extroverts can tolerate more dissonance than
Introverts.
Human decision-making seems to include an?
Intuitive sense of inclusive fitness, due to the egoistic altruism motive of helping pass on our genes, even if that has to happen indirectly through our blood relatives.
Micro-expressions
Involuntary flashes of emotional honesty.
self-monitoring
Is an individual's ability to notice and adjust their own behavior in order to fit in. High-self monitors Low-self monitors
The goal of aggression according to evolutionary theory:
Is not to just win but to survive and reproduce. That's the strategy that worked for our ancestors, so our bodies inherited biological mechanisms that select for what ever strategy is most likely to be effective in a given situation.
internal validity
Is the confidence that the manipulation of the independent variable caused my dependent variable to change and nothing else. Internal validity increases when you have more control over extraneous/confounding variables.
Getting revenge leads to short term satisfaction but,
It actually increases aggression in the long term.
Inclusive fitness study
Researchers interviewed 300 randomly selected white, middle-class Los Angeles women about patterns of helping between kin and non-kin. They discovered that the women were more likely to help (a) those who were more closely related and (b) those with high reproductive potential (Women who were a childbearing age). In another study researchers found a similar pattern when they presented undergraduates with life or death moral dilemmas. The students consistently recommended more help for close relatives and for a younger people. They even recommended more help for premenopausal rather than postmenopausal women.
Social comparison study with musicians
Researchers interviewed 36 rock 'n' roll bands and four country bands. Ask them to assess musical ability by (A) writing their own musical ability, (B) rating each others musical abilities, and (c) Rating how they thought the other musicians would write them. Research team found that self appraisals conformed most closely with reflected appraisals. Conclusion: your sense of self identity is influenced by how others see you; being in a group helps us define our own talents and purpose in a larger social world.
Groups make us feel safe (234)
Researchers observed that participants who were threatened with the possibility of electric shock what a cluster closer together (misery loves company)....Schachter study. It was also observed that anxious people did not tend to cluster with other anxious people but preferred to cluster with com people. Zimbardo study. Conclusion: the type of emotion you feel can influence the type of people you want to be with.
Culture influences conformity
Researchers observed that the Tamny people of Africa were more likely to conform because they had one predictable crop a year and had to work together (collective culture) while the Inuit of Canada more less likely to come form because they're a search for food was your around (individualistic culture).
Classical conditioning Experiment
Researchers randomly assigned some women to complete a computer task in which they were led to associate very thin models with the words false, phony, artificial, Cham, and bogus and they assigned normal size models with the words natural, true, genuine, authentic, and sincere. Compared to women in the control group who didn't receive the training, women who had the classical conditioning training found very thin models to be less idea and we're more satisfied with their own bodies.
Prosocial behavior study
Researchers started by identifying people who had provided first aid after a traffic accident that happened naturally; that became group one. Then they created a meaningful comparison group, group 2, by matching the people in group one with others who were similar in sex, age, and socioeconomic status, and including only people in group 2 who had witnessed an accident and not helped. The comparison between these two groups indicated that people in group one (those who had helped) were more empathetic. But they dug even deeper and found that group 1 helpers also believed in two social norms: a just world and social responsibility.
Supports the Facial feedback hypothesis
Researchers tested self perception theory by asking participants to place a pen in their mouth by holding it with their teeth only ( forces a smile) and then with their lips only( forces a frown). We're asked to rate a cartoon they watched while holing the pen. Those who were forced to smile rated the cartoon as funnier, than those who were forced to frown.
Genetics of political orientation
Researchers use twin studies to explore political orientation, and attitude that would appear to lean heavily toward the nurture side of the debate. But they also found that personality disposition shape by our genetic inheritance influence political attitudes. So nature and nurture.
Self-esteem is not
Self compassion, narcissism, or self-efficacy.
Brain damage can limit
Self presentation ability.
Direct approach for explicit attitudes
Self-report. Popular and efficient. However, Possibility of social desirability( people lie), and some people are not aware of how they feel.
Priming triggers the
Semantic network.
When you play a word association game and you hear the word dog, many other words come to mind such as food, play, Pat, Companions at Cetera. This is the idea of a?
Semantic network.
Carefully defined gender roles within particular cultures influence how aggression was expressed:
Sexist attitudes and approval of wifebeating increased women's victimization but were not associated with general levels of violent crime. In some cultures apparently beating your wife was OK but being aggressive in general was not.
Students with the Secure style are more likely to send regular texts to a partner, whereas avoidant/fearful students are more likely to send?
Sext Messages with sexual content or illicit photos.
Pansexual
Sexual attraction based on individuals personal characteristics, regardless of their sex, gender, or gender identity.
Women dislike emotional cheating, men dislike (394)
Sexual cheating. For women, emotional infidelity threatens resources. For men, sexual infidelity causes paternity insecurity. This is an evolutionary explanation.
Cultremes convey?
Shared social impressions whose meanings are immediately understood within a particular culture but not understood by people from other cultures.
deception
Should only be used as a last resort and can only be used if the IRB approves it. Hiding the true nature of an experiment from a participant to prevent a change in how the participant responds. Example: conducting research on the bystander effect.
Shaky Bridge Study (373)
Shows that physiological arousal can be misattributed to attraction. Dutton and Aron; physically attractive confederate stood on a bridge in a park and asked men who crossed the bridge to complete a survey. Upon completion of the survey the physically attractive confederate gave them her card with her phone number and told them to call her if they had anything to add to the survey. She did this on a high and shaky bridge, she also did this on a stable low bridge. Results: of the men who crossed the shaky bridge, 50% called the experimenter while only 12.5% of the men from the stable bridge called.
Demographic variables such as age, social class, political leanings, and race or ethnicity may be important when it comes to similarity. What's behind this tendency to be attracted to someone similar to ourselves?
Similarities decrease arguments between couples. Similarities make it easier to plan a life together. Similarities validate our worldview. People with similar beliefs make us more comfortable with our opinions and affirm that we are logical, smart human beings.
Three reliable predictors of attraction:
Similarity, mere exposure, physiological arousal.
Symphonic self
Simultaneously draws from different brain regions and integrates all these parts into one sense of self, like a symphony. Self creates coherence.
Social facilitation requires that the individual already has some _______________ at the task, and that the task be fairly easy.
Skill. For example, more skillful pool players sank and even higher percentage of shots when others were watching and less skillful players sank a lower percentage of shots when others were watching.
______________ _______________ and ____________ ____________, are forms of impression management.
Social desirability, self-management
Evolutionary benefits of prosocial behaviors
Social exchange and prosocial trading, kinship selection and inclusive fitness, reciprocity.
We are so sensitive to rejection that participants in experiments experience painful rejection even when
Social exclusion comes from members of an out group. Rejection is caused by a technical problem that's not even perceived as the participants fault or as personal. Ostracism comes from a computer instead of from another person. And even when being ostracized leads to a financial reward. These irrational reaction signal that the self perceived rejection as an existential threat.
Mahzarin Banaji
Social psychologist from Harvard who helped create the IAT test Interested in how stereotypes and prejudice might affect all of us without us even realizing it.
How do you social roles change our behavior
Social roles tell us how to act, think, feel, and behave in a variety of situations. They profoundly influence behavior in uncertain conditions.
Three main areas of social psychology
Social thinking, social influence, and social behavior. All of these interact to develop applied social psychology.
Studies show that cultures of honor, while common in the south, are not bound by geography.
Sociologist found a culture of honor in a densely populated (northern) Chicago housing projects that the police seldom patrolled.
Fields that are similar to social psychology
Sociology: sociologist study how groups change over time, how cultures evolve etc. ( social psychologists study individuals). Anthropology: The study of culture and human behavior over time (typically focuses on one particular culture at a time and uses observational methods). Clinical/counseling psychology: Studies abnormal (versus normal )social behaviors. Positive psychology: the scientific study of human strengths, virtues, positive emotions, and achievements.
Rejection threatens
Survival, need to belong, self-esteem, need for control, and sense of existence both metaphorically and in reality.
Bilateral symmetry from an evolutionary perspective:
Symmetry may be an easy to see indicator of genetic quality, a heuristic cue that helps us make fast (but often unfair) judgments about others. In other species, asymmetry has been linked to developmental instability. For example, in scorpion flies, lop sided individuals are more likely to have negative reactions to environmental pollution and to carry disease. Honeybees also prefer to pollinate symmetrical flowers.
The two forms of thinking, intuition and logic may also be labeled as?
System one versus system two. Automatic versus effortful. Implicit versus explicit.
Pros and cons of logical decision making
Systematic and often accurate. Considers the choices and outcomes objectively. But takes more time and effort and may result in missed opportunities.
In a classic study on empathy and altruism it was observed:
That most female participants who were asked to listen while another woman received painful electric shocks, were willing to take that woman's place, even though they had no incentive to do so. They were even more likely to do this if they believed that the other woman was similar to themselves in attitudes and interest ( helped the participants empathize).
Initiation rituals a firm the social hierarchy, values, and goals of
That particular group.
A consequence of embracing a social roll can be?
That self can disappear into the social role.
A positive view of others means?
That you find other people trustworthy in general and seek out healthy relationships.
Right to withdraw
The IRB ensures that you inform the participants that they have the right to withdraw from the study at any time, for any reason, without punishment or negative consequence. Can also skip a question on a survey.
Examples of tend and befriend reaction:
The Mundurucu women of Brazil travel in groups for mutual protection. When women in the Wape area in Papau, New guinea, hear the sounds of an escalating domestic dispute, they have been known to descend upon the house and stand around it until the woman joins them outside.
Researchers compared adolescents from Spain and Turkey. Spain and Turkey were chosen because both are quickly moving from agricultural, patriarchal, and traditional cultures to modern and more egalitarian cultures; Spain has moved along this continuum more quickly. As researchers expected,
The Spanish adolescents displayed higher levels of pro social moral reasoning and prosocial behavior. The researcher suggests this may be due to different emphasis in the school systems, with Spanish schools emphasizing abstract and deductive reasoning. However, they noted that motives for helping might change based on culture. The data indicate that in Spanish culture helping is motivated by gaining the approval of others (egoistic altruism).
Two famous field studies of housing projects:
The Westgate housing projects at MIT and the Robert Taylor homes. Both of these studies observed similar patterns: group cohesiveness emerged from apparently minor features of design. Architectural features of the physical set up of the buildings influenced group cohesiveness. Group cohesiveness, intern influence the social support experience by the people in the housing projects.
logic
The ability of humans to use reason, to think systematically and carefully, and consider evidence about possible futures
critical thinking
The ability to analyze, apply, and explore ideas in new and open minded ways.
A recent radical interpretation of the Milgram study suggested that?
Some of the subjects of his study were obedient because they thought they were serving a higher ( noble) cause.
The employment rate of women in Sweden is the highest in the European Union. In addition women in Sweden gain more education, have higher salaries, and are more likely to be board members of companies than the average woman in Europe. At the same time, Sweden is the rape capital of Europe.
Some people believe that women's relative equality and Swedish culture creates a backlash when some men are threatened and feel the need to show aggression toward them as a way of re-gaining power (348).
Comparative social psychology
Species level comparisons of social behavior such as comparing animal behavior to human behavior. Usually used to determine uniqueness of human behavior. People are both unique and similar to others.
Comparative social psychology
Species level comparisons of social behavior usually used to determine the uniqueness of human behavior.
Three stages of provocation model:
Stage one: - in stage one provocation doesn't lead to a particularly aggressive response. Our cognitive response is annoyance. Characteristics: Cognitive; irritated, but capable of good judgment. Emotional arousal; low to moderate. Behavioral; cautiously assertive with self control. Stage two: we experience angrier thoughts and become mildly physiologically and emotionally aroused. Characteristics: Cognitive; angry thoughts and less empathetic. Emotional arousal; moderate to high. Behavioral; strongly assertive, unyielding, hostile. Stage three: this is a stage of explosive physical or verbal attack with the intention to harm the other. Characteristics: Cognitive; biased conclusions, no empathy, with illusions of power. Emotional arousal; extremely high. Behavioral; impulsive, explosive, and irresponsible.
nationalistic call for war: (situational influences)
Start of the Civil War, millions of young men enthusiastically join their respective armies, caught up by the patriotic fever surrounding them. Mass social psychology made killing and risking being killed a courageous necessity in service of a nobler cause.
Micro invalidations
Statements or behaviors that invalidate the target's feelings on an individual or a group level. For example, telling a person of color that you don't see color; telling a transgender person that he or she needs therapy.
Optimal margin theory (positive illusions)
States that a slight to moderate range of healthy distortions of reality improve psychological and physiological well-being.
attribution theory
States that humans have a need to understand the behavior of those around them. We do this by forming common sense explanations for the cause of their behavior, either dispositional or situational.
social comparison theory
States that we use social comparisons to construct our self-concept when no other objective standard is available.
Research indicates that the more media you are exposed to, the more ________________ you will be.
Stereo typical
external validity
The ability to generalize your studies findings to the broad general population.
intuition
The ability to know something quickly and automatically; a gut feeling that takes little mental effort. Emotionally-based and works well in emergency situations.
dual processing
The ability to process information using both logic and intuition.
Experience is the best teacher and makes knowledge more accessible. Evidence of this is seen in
The accurate impressions formed by college students after first meeting their new professors and homosexuals ability to intuitively detect someone's sexual orientation in still photographs and 1 second videos.
Alternatives
The actual number and quality of other relationship options individuals would have if they ended their current romantic relationship. This is the second predictor of commitment. (Satisfaction is the 1st)
cognitive load
The amount of information that an individual thinking systems can handle at one time.
Investments
The amount of time, energy, and resources put into a relationship that would be lost if the relationship were to end.
action research (Kurt Lewis)
The application of scientific principles to social problem-solving.
social cognition
The atudy of how people combine intuition and logic together to process social information.
example of terror management theory
The belief in life after death, such as reincarnation or going to Heaven.
False uniqueness bias ( AKA Lake Woebegone effect).
The believe that we are more unique than others when it comes to socially desirable traits.
There is a correlation between group cohesion and
The benefits of being in that group.
The finding that the likelihood of being helped in an emergency is negatively correlated with the number of people who witnessed that emergency is known as
The bystander effect.
Little rascals case
The case of a small child care in North Carolina where the owners and several of their employees were accused of child sexual abuse. Powerful negative attitudes against child abuse over took normal cognitive reasoning and the owners and their employees were labeled the Edenton seven. Owner found guilty and sentenced to several lifetimes in prison which were later overturned by the courts.
Memory structures/ mental structures
The cognitive structures that form the mind and organize and interpret social information, namely schemas, scripts, and stereotypes.
The color black: a cultural Cue for aggressive behavior (349)
The color black conveys a deeply negative cultural bias. For example, the great depression began on a black Thursday, it is a bad thing to be blackballed, blacklisted, or blackmailed. We even eat white angel food cake and black devil's food cake.
The exotic effect
The commonly held believe that people with exotic features are particularly attractive.
Our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by many things such as
The company we keep. Norms of the local community. Regional norms. National norms. Where we live. Our cultures. Memories of our loved ones. Media, and more.
Unlike the inter-dependence theory which would predict that low satisfaction and high alternatives would make the relationship end, the investment model argues that?
The couple members might decide to stay together if they have a high level of investments. For instance, if two people have been together for years, share a car and a mortgage, have children, have made sacrifices for each other, and simply know each other better than anyone else, all of this time and effort might make one hesitant to leave.
White privelage
The cultural benefits of being white in a white-centric society.
group cohesiveness
The degree to which members of a group feel connected to one another.
Religiosity
The degree to which one is religious and why. Page:284
self-justification
The desire to explain one's actions in a way that preserves or enhances a positive view of the self. Used to reduce the discomfort caused by cognitive dissonance. Example: you say that you don't like pop music but you find yourself dancing to it one day in the mall. You justify it by saying it's just this one song that I like.
Internal locus of control
The general belief that an individual is in control of his or her own fate.
External locus of control
The general believe that one's future is up to faith, Chance, powerful other people, or some higher power, rather than within that person's own control.
Alcohol disinhibition hypothesis
The idea that alcohol interferes with the brain's ability to suppress violent behavior by lowering anxiety and harming an individual's ability to accurately assess a situation. Example: Charles Barkley was in a bar when he threw George Lugo through the window. Alcohol is implicated in aggressive behavior more than any other illicit drug.
self-expansion theory
The idea that all humans have the basic need to grow. They improve and enhance their self-concept specifically through close social relationships. Inclusion of other in self scale.
terror management theory (TMT)
The idea that an awareness of our own mortality terrifies individuals, forcing them to clean to comforting beliefs.
Theory of Planned Behavior
The idea that attitudes are only one of three categories of belief; attitudes, subjective norms, and perceive control, that together predict behavioral intentions which then predict behavior.
Which is more influential, personality or environment? (BQ)
It is a combination of both. Your personality influences your behavior, but a great deal of human behavior is governed by specific social expectations about the situation or environment. Remember Kurt Lewin's formula: B=f(P,E)
When it comes to prosocial behavior and religion
It might not matter so much what religion you belong to, but what it is that motivates your religious belief; in other words the " whyyou are religious" influences the "how you are religious".
In one study children were randomly assigned to watch either movies showing professional wrestling or Christian gospel musicals. Then the children got to play with inflated balloons and behaviors were coded for aggression.
It was found that children who watched wrestling were significantly more likely to play violently, and this was true for both boys and girls.
In a study which focused on fifth through 10th grade students and their prosocial moral reasoning, children from the United States were compared to children from Brazil when they were presented with dilemmas and had to indicate what the main character should do.
It was observed that children from the United States had higher moral reasoning on average than children from Brazil. Researchers suggested that this difference may be due to the emphasis on critical thinking in US school systems. Furthermore, participants who were more so focused on their own pleasures were less likely to be prosocial while those who were "other oriented" (communal) were more likely to be prosocial.
Simple, evolutionary approach to aggression (341)
It works. People who automatically respond with aggression tend to gain resources that improve their reproductive opportunities. Example; Genghis Khan.
Representativeness heuristic example
Jack, who works as a bank teller, is stunned when a well-dressed, elderly woman pulls out a gun and tells him to hand over all the money in his cash drawer. You assume that someone wearing a blue shirt in the Academy store is an employee because you know that academy employees wear blue shirts.
Many people from the southern United States display a culture of honor mentality. For example,
Just two weeks after the 9/11 attacks students from a Southwestern University desired the deaths of the terrorist responsible for the attacks more than their northern counterparts. This is despite the fact that the northern students (Penn State) went to a college not far from where flight 93 crashed into Shanksville Pennsylvania.
The scientific study of what situations make people more or less likely to help was inspired by a grizzly murder.
Kitty Genovese was murdered on her way home to her apartment in 1964. Two weeks later the New York Times ran a story that made her famous when it pointed out that 37 people saw the murder and didn't call the police. This murder was eventually turned into a film which pointed out a variety of reasons why people might not have helped: interpreting her cries for help as a radio program, not hearing the noise due to family arguments, attributing the noise to mental illness, concerned that the police might ask uncomfortable questions about the neighbors personal lives. While the newspaper story was sensational, it was also wrong. Investigations would later show that several people did call the police and one neighbor yelled at the attacker to leave her alone. Many of the neighbors assumed that someone else had already called the police.
Claude Steele and Mahzarin Benaji
Known for research attempting to understand how culture and stereotypes affect people of color.
Historical context to the studies of social influence:
Kurt Lewis: German foot soldier ( WW1) who got us started by trying to explain social influences on his fellow soldiers in the trenches. Sherif created auto-kinetic studies, to see how social influences lead to conformity under conditions of uncertainty. Asch created line judgement studies that explored conformity when everyone knew what was happening. Zimbardo explored the power of social roles and uniforms could lead to deindividuation and cruelty. Milgrams studies added the power of obedience.
Cultures that valued individualism more than collectivism experienced
Less female victimization, along with slightly more male victimization.
Two types of thanking which are the basic elements of social cognition
Logic and intuition.
Interpret results and refine hypothesis:
Look at the statistical output and determine if your hypothesis is supported. Did what you expected to occur actually occur? If so, present findings. If not, refine hypothesis and test again.
envious prejudice
Low warmth, high competence. Prejudice toward people with high status who compete with the in group. Our emotional responses include envy and jealousy. Asians, Jews, rich people and feminists.0
contemptuous prejudice
Low warmth, low competence. Prejudice toward people with low status who compete with ingroup. Our emotional responses include contempt, discussed, anger, and resentment. Welfare recipients, poor people
Prosocial behavior is negatively correlated with
Machiavellianism.
Prosocial behaviors are negatively correlated with people who are high in
Machiavellianism.
Observing a pattern can happen anywhere and anytime
Making every day observations can cause you to see a situation or behavior and start to wonder why this occurred, you would then research as much on this topic as possible to develop a hypothesis.
mere presence hypothesis
The idea that being in the presence of others, even if they aren't watching, will increase an individuals physiological arousal, and this arousal will help performance on easy tasks and hinder performance on difficult tasks.
social-responsibility norm
The idea that each individual has a duty to improve the world by helping those in need. The social responsibility norm can be tricky: it must be strong enough to compel people to provide aid, but sensitive enough to help only those who deserve help. (308)
empathy-altruism hypothesis
The idea that feelings of empathy and compassion create a purely altruistic motivation to help. The foundational idea of this hypothesis is that when we see people who need help, we empathize with them; we put ourselves in their shoes and feel compassion.
genetic determinism:
The idea that genetic influence alone determines behavioral outcomes. Evidence for genetic determinism can be seen in the monarch butterflies. They are genetically directed to fly to the same place in Mexico that their ancestors occupied. It takes four generations to complete the annual journey, but each generation somehow knows where to go and what to do next.
contact hypothesis ( 291)
The idea that increasing contact or exposure may reduce prejudice if the groups members perceive themselves to be of equal status, group members interact on an individual level, authority figures appear to be supportive, and the groups have common goals.
Optimal Distinctiveness Theory
The idea that individuals can simultaneously achieve the advantages of being seen as a unique and important individual and of being in a group by being an identifiable member of a small and elite group. Moderate level of distinctiveness; where are the member is distinct but not too unique. This is a way to balance the need for independence and belonging.
frustration-aggression theory
The idea that individuals frustration builds a physical and psychological tension that they feel must be let out, frequently in the form of aggression towards weaker targets.
just-world hypothesis
The idea that individuals have a need to believe that they live in a world where people generally get what they deserve, which can lead to incorrect internal attributions for others behavior.
Facial feedback hypothesis
The idea that individuals infer their own emotions based on the facial expressions they are making.
Principle of non-common effects
The idea that individuals make attributions by looking for a single factor that seems to account for what occurred based on its degree of difference from the other possible factors. The most salient factor is the perceived cause of the behavior.
Kelley's covariation model of attribution
The idea that individuals make attributions concerning the cause of an event between two people, the actor and the target, by assessing these three dimensions: why are there other people typically act that way towards a target (consensus), whether the actor typically behaves that way (distinctiveness), and whether the actor and target always act this way together ( consistency).
norm of reciprocity
The idea that individuals respond in kind to courtesies and concessions from others.
Self affirmation theory
The idea that individuals try to impress themselves to preserve their sense of worth and integrity; they focus their thoughts and attitudes on what makes them feel good about themselves ( about impression management). In several experiments, participants who have just been reminded of attitudes or values they hold that are viewed positively in society exhibit less stress and are better at problem-solving.
Universality hypothesis
The idea that nonverbal facial expressions are universal, regardless of culture.
Urban Overload Hypothesis (Milgram)
The idea that people in cities avoid social interactions with strangers simply because they are overwhelmed by the number of people that encounter each day.
Similarity attraction hypothesis
The idea that people tend to form relationships, romantic and otherwise, with others who have the same attitudes, values, interests, and demographics as themselves.
interactionist perspective
The idea that personality and situation jointly affect an individuals social behavior.
scape goat theory
The idea that prejudice is the result of one group blaming another innocent group for its problems. Leads to frustration/aggression.
realistic conflict theory
The idea that prejudiced results from the justifications we create to determine that our in group should receive an unfair amount of limited resources.
negative state relief model
The idea that seeing another person in need causes individuals emotional distress, and helping this decreases those negative emotions. This model supports the egoistic or selfish aspect of helping behaviors that may appear to be pure altruism are really done for selfish reasons.
Kernel of Truth Theory
The idea that stereotypes can be at least somewhat based on truth, even though they contain other fictitious elements, may be exaggerated, and/or are out of date. Example: Jews are cheap, rich people are condescending.
social role theory
The idea that stereotypes form when individuals observe the roles that different kinds of people occupy in the world, and then reinforce those roles by assuming the people occupying them are well-suited to the roles.
Ironic conformity
The idea that sub groups or subs so societies will create social norms, although the reason they formed was because they didn't like social norms. For example hippies and goths.
Adaptive Categorization
The idea that the instinct to group and label other people and things in the environment arose because it was a benefit to survival. It is automatic In-groups vs Outgroups.
Theory of informational and normative influence
The idea that there are two ways that social norms cause conformity; informational conformity and normative conformity.
contingency theory of leadership
The idea that there is no one best leader ship style; different types of people, environments, and situations call for different kinds of leaders
When tested and controlled experiments, La Piere's surprising findings turned out to be the rule, not the exception.
Students attitudes toward cheating did not predict whether or not they actually cheated. A positive attitude toward religion did not predict church attendance. These are all examples of converging evidence that attitude does not predict behavior.
Pluralistic Ignorance Study
Students on a large Midwestern University campus falsely believed that their personal reservations about using alcohol were not shared by others. Students believed that not drinking made them social deviants. Essentially, people changed their behavior because they thought (incorrectly) that their opinion was unique and that others all felt differently.
twin studies
Studies in which sets of twins can be compared to each other, this can help quantify the interacting influences of nature and nurture on attitude formation.
The bystander effect has been found in a wide variety of settings:
Managers who know a fraud occurring in their organizations are more likely to report it when they alone have the relevant information. The number of witnesses to cyber bullying has been shown to have a negative correlation with each witnesses sense of responsibility and intention to intervene. Less helping behavior occurs when people play multiplayer video games them when they play single player games, the during gameplay and afterward.
Experiments allow us to isolate causality, why?
Manipulation of the independent variable and random assignment.
Values in a Culture of Honor:
Masculine Courage; men should be able to take pain. Pride in Manhood; men should be independent. Socialization; men with honor stand up to bullies. Virtue; fighting is admirable if done out of honor. Protection; men should protect women. Provocation/Insult; men should not accept insults. Family/Community bonds; family is a man's first priority.
Statistics
Mathematical analysis that reveals patterns in data.
Disadvantages of being beautiful?
May have difficultly diagnosing the sincerity of compliments received about their skills or abilities. Confusion over the motivation behind the compliment.
Groups provide cognitive clarity by supplying?
Meaningful information.
One surprisingly reliable way to predict extreme adolescent antisocial and aggressive behavior is by?
Measuring the child's resting heart rate. Researchers studied studied 1800 British school boys and found that a low resting heart rate at age 11 was a fairly strong predictor of delinquency at age 21. Subsequent meta-analyses have confirmed this counterintuitive effect.
Sex differences in attraction
Men and women seem to want different things in a potential partner and these differences in what we find attractive seem to be true across most cultures.
Men vs. Women
Men: prefer younger women (the older the men get, the younger they want their heir partner to be). Narrow waist, wider hips, Focus on physical looks (over everything else). Women: prefer slightly older men (this trait stays stable). Narrow waist and wider shoulders. Focuses more on money and resources that the man can offer. Intelligence. Men pursue a "quantity strategy" while women pursue a "quality strategy".
Intuition comes from
Mental accessibility and mental availability ( The information already salient in one's mind, leads to mental accessibility).
Scientific Method
Method used to build a body of knowledge on the topic objectively.
Robert Taylor homes study (233)
Study of a Chicago drug gang operating out of a notorious city housing project. It was observed that friendships and group cohesiveness were influenced by functional distance and physical features of the dilapidated housing development. The researchers report contradicted the television stereotype of macho drug dealers wearing expensive jewelry, listening to music and beautiful women. Most of these dealers live with their mothers and worked long hours for low pay and often at high personal risk. The game was a cohesive group that satisfied deeper survival needs for friendship, money, and social support. Mothers in these projects shared and maximize resources; worked together to keep children safe.
Overly pursuing self-esteem may trigger?
Negative behaviors. Individual may be more likely to cheat, scheme, make excuses, and blame others.
examples of prejudice
Negative emotions towards Muslims (judgment that they are all terrorists). Negative judgment that women make for bad leaders. Positive judgment of gay people and their fashion sense.
There is a _____________ correlation between social loafing and being identified in a group (individualized).
Negative.
The white helmets
Nickname for the Syria civil defense organization, a non-governmental, nonprofit group whose members tried to save lives of civilians in Aleppo, Syria, affected by the war there.
Social cognition is a
Sub area of social psychology in which researchers try to understand how individuals think about and remember other people and social situations.
Was LaPiere's study a perfect one?
No. There was no proof that the letters were answered by the same people who served them, and the Chinese couple both spoke unaccented English, which may have influenced decisions.
The connection between testosterone and physical aggression is stronger among ___________ animals than humans.
Non-human And one's testosterone study, low ranking hands were administered testosterone and then began growing, and acting like roosters. In fact, the social order of the entire flock began to change..
Two explanations for group polarization
Normative influences and informational influences.
The traditional sexual script includes a nearly universal sexual double standard that gives men greater sexual freedom. This shows that?
Not all scripts are beneficial, many can be harmful.
Super ordinate goals
Objectives that cannot be achieved without the cooperation of an out group; super ordinate goals often result in overcoming personal differences for a shared reward and therefore can reduce prejudice.
Steps of the Scientific Method
Observe a pattern. Generate a hypothesis. Test the hypothesis. Interpret results and refine hypothesis.
Naturalistic observations
Observing subjects in their natural habitat. There is no manipulation of a variable.
Old-fashioned prejudice
Obvious, overt prejudice that is considered inappropriate by most social standards today, such as forcing people of a specified race to drink only from a certain water fountain.
Social influence can be
Obvious; a robber with a gun clearly wants to influence you to give up your money, or subtle; advertisers try to influence us with images and jingles.
anchoring and adjustment heuristic
Occurs when an individual makes a decision using information within a problem that unduly influence is his or her final answer. The tendency to adjust a little when a plausible estimate, or anchor, has been provided, despite not knowing whether the information is reliable.
Moral hypocrisy
Occurs when an individual's desire to appear moral while avoiding the costs of behaving morally.
converging evidence
Occurs when different types of studies from independent researchers using different methods reach the same conclusions.
Moral integrity
Occurs when individuals are motivated to live up to their own standards of morality and ethics, resulting in an increase in altruistic behavior.
Truly False Consensus Effect
Occurs when individuals believe that others share their beliefs, even after they have objective, statistical information that contradicts that belief.
hindsight bias
Occurs when individuals believe they could have predicted the outcome of a past event but only after they already know what happened; the false belief that "they knew it all along."
representativeness heuristic
Occurs when individuals make a decision based on how closely their observations resemble the typical case. The tendency to classify observations according to a pre-existing, typical case and using that process to come to a conclusion.
Confirmation bias
Occurs when individuals only search for evidence that confirms their beliefs, while ignoring evidence that contradicts their beliefs.
cherry picking data
Occurs when people select only the data that support what they want to believe and ignore contradicting data. This is whyFestinger turned from historical data to controlled laboratory settings such as the famous lie telling experiment.
Facial Leakage
Occurs whenever concealed emotions are betrayed by automatic muscle responses.
Social comparisons and career choices
On a larger scale, participating in groups can help us figure out what career path best matches our ambitions. We do this by looking at our groups and making comparisons.
Pro social social norms increase helping
One explanation for a prosocial behavior is that helping behaviors result from a groups social norms.
More evidence of the link between testosterone and aggression:
One study found higher than average levels of testosterone among a psychiatric group of older boys with disruptive behavior (9 to 11). Testosterone levels among female inmates in a maximum-security state prison were also related to aggressive dominance, and both aggression and testosterone declined as inmates got older.
Catharsis may feel good but it can be dangerous:
One study found that websites designed to let users write angry rants actually lead to worse moods. Another showed that venting anger by complaining to a third-party resulted in even more anger. And while many people argue that violent video games help them relieve pent up frustration, results show that playing violent games only makes things worse.
Disinhibition Is not the only way that alcohol influences aggression:
One study indicated the intoxicated people had more trouble seeing their romantic partner's point of view about a complex. Violence is more likely when your soggy brain can't resolve even minor disagreement. Among 1400 women surveyed in a family practice clinic, 20% reported currently experiencing some type of intimate partner violence, most often physical or sexual, and substance abuse was the strongest predictor of that violence.
Aggression and bullying occur in a wide variety of social situations and settings;
One study observed that bullying can occur even in psychology graduate programs. Some professor's drive for status, recognition, and money lead them to abuse their graduate students. Even professors who are motivated to understand human behavior can ironically become examples of the worst kinds of the very behavior they are studying.
Hook up
One time sexual interactions that are typically focused on sexual pleasure rather than fostering personal, psychological bonds. Research found that men are significantly more likely to report enjoying the one night stand encounter afterward, compared to women, and implies that at least some heterosexual women hook up because they perceive sexual coercion from their dates. Variability quite large, a self-reported range in college student hook ups between zero and 65 in a single year.
Why do stereotypes and prejudice exist and persist? (B Q)
One view is evolutionary, it says that in the early days, people had to be wary of anyone who was unfamiliar as they may pose a threat, or take much needed resources.
According to the Study on Personality and prosocial behavior,
Only agreeableness was significantly correlated with helping behaviors. Being higher in openness to experience, conscientiousness, or extroversion had no relationship with prosocial behaviors in this study. ( 313)
People high and openness are more persuadable due to their
Open minds.
Because we study things that are abstract, it is very important that we?
Operationally define our variables.
A disadvantage of within subjects design is the possibility of?
Order effects.
Controversy over priming study on aging words
Other researchers using similar procedures have not been able to replicate the slower movements of students down the hall after being exposed to words associated with aging.
Our conclusions tend to be biased by factors such as?
Our belief and adjust world, which leads us to blame victims for their misfortunes, and conclusions are biased when we are reminded of our own mortality.
There is a negative correlation between our alternatives and
Our level of commitment. The more alternatives we have, the less committed to the relationship we will be.
We are more likely to experience dissonance when we are worried about being perceived as a hypocrite or when
Our self-concept is threatened.
In a study that compared attitudes toward six different types of lies among Euro-American an Ecuadorian college students it was observed that,
Overall, euro Americans rated lying as more acceptable than Ecuadorians, but people in both cultures rated lying to an out group as more acceptable than lying to their in group.
Micro-assaults
Overt behavior is meant to psychologically harm someone. For example calling someone by a racial slur, spray painting hate symbols such as a swastika on property.
Pinker's research into worldwide violence rates argues that?
Overtime, humans have become more intelligent; and with increased intelligence comes a decrease need for violent aggression. So, although we have become far more efficient at killing one another, our actual killing of one another through homicides, genocide, wars, terrorism, and the like is decreasing.
informed consent
Participants are told exactly what will occur in the study, what the potential risks are, what we are studying, and how we will study the topic.
Catharsis hypothesis testing (358-59)
Participants were angered by having a confederate insult them. Half of the participants were then randomly assigned to a catharsis condition where they would work out their anger by hitting nails with a hammer for 10 minutes; the control group had no catharsis opportunity. Contrary to the hypothesis, individuals allowed to vent their anger through hammering were significantly more hostile toward the confederate afterward.
Risky shift study
Participants were asked to read an excerpt and then come up with possible solutions on their own, they were then asked to form a group and come up with a final solution. It was observed that the group decisions were more extreme and individuals were more willing to except risk.
Behaviors that are operantly conditioned and positively reinforced become?
Particularly strong and persistent overtime.
Women who form bonds with other women are more likely to survive and then
Pass those bonding instincts to the next generation.
modern-symbolic prejudice
A form of prejudice where individuals think of themselves as valuing equality and respect for all people while they simultaneously oppose social change that would allow equality to occur. People high in this think that racism is no longer a problem, don't like affirmative actions.
Fundamentalism
A form of religiosity in which people believe their chosen faith is the only true faith, that religious texts should be taken literally, and that the forces of evil are active and present all around them. Correlation with prejudice against race and homosexuals.
religion as quest
A form of religiosity in which people view religion from a philosophical and spiritual stance, involving skepticism, doubt, and exploration.
mass psychogenic illness (MPI)
A form of social contagion were physical symptoms of an illness appear within a cohesive social group, although the illness appears to have no physical cause.
Hamilton's inequality
A formula for understanding when prosocial behavior will emerge that can be written as (r x b)> c, When the genetic relatedness of the person who needs help X the benefit of helping > cost of helping.
Attachment Theory (Bowlby)
A framework for understanding relationships that focuses on how an individuals familial environment during the formative years affects his or her ability to begin and maintain normal, adult relationships.
Scatter plot
A graph that displays two quantitative variables by displaying plotted participant responses on the graph.
Brainstorming
A group approach to problem-solving that emphasizes nonevaluative creative thinking where members generate lots of ideas, encourage wild ideas, don't judge any idea, and actively modify or expand other peoples ideas.
Modeling forgiveness:
A group of college students who participated in a study were told that some of them would be the learner and some of them would be the teacher. The person in the role of teacher would have to shock the learner when they didn't get word pairs correct. At the beginning of the study a confederate acted obnoxious and insulted the other participants, and then always volunteered to be the learner. The study showed that the participants who saw the first teacher give the obnoxious learner lower shock levels, were more likely to do so themselves.
Strong, directive leadership
A group structure with a strong, directive leader will tend to isolate the group from alternative opinions and discourage disagreement.
Tennessee high school outbreak
A high school teacher in Tennessee noticed a gasoline like smell soon after getting to work, she's doing developed a headache, nausea, shortness of breath, and dizziness. The school was evacuated, 80 students in 19 staff members went to the emergency room resulting in 38 hospitalizations. The school reopen five days later but the epidemic was not over; 71 more people went to the emergency room even though extensive testing could find no physical causes or evidence of toxic compounds.
Groups that are difficult to get into invite?
A higher level of commitment from group members. This may be due to cognitive dissonance, As shown by the Aronson and mills study.
Events attributed to groupthink
Pearl Harbor, the failed invasion of Cuba: Bay of pigs, escalation of the Vietnam war, the Watergate coverup, destruction of the space shuttle challenger, 9/11 terror attacks, destruction of the space shuttle Columbia, the US invasion of Iraq, and the Penn State sex scandal.
Do people think logically or intuitively? (B Q)
People are much quicker to think intuitively, thinking logically uses more energy.
What are the benefits and drawbacks of living in groups? (B Q)
People are social animals with a desire to regularly connect with others. There are advantages to group life such as increased resources, but there are also costs, such as increased competition.
strange situation procedure (381)
A laboratory procedure designed by Mary Ainsworth to capture individual differences in attachment; it involves separating infants and toddlers from their caregivers for brief periods and observing their responses when the caregivers return. As a result, researchers develop three types of attachment style.
3 Ways to inoculate people to resist messages attempting to persuade them:
People can: Think of examples from their own lives that contradict the message. Read counter arguments provided to them, to get them started down the path of resistance. Generate their own counter arguments.
exchange orientation
People expect and desire reciprocity in their social interactions and relationships. The type of person who keeps track of everything that occurs in a relationship, wants to keep things equal.
How do people decide whether to maintain romantic relationships? (BQ)
People experiment to find a good match. This is a large research focus in social psychology. Some of the things that social psychologist study in this area are same-sex marriage, polygamy, monogamy, one night stands, and sexual behaviors.
intrinsic religiosity
People high in intrinsic religiosity attempt to internalize their faith teachings and live according to them.
Continuum of intentionality
People lie for a variety of reasons. The lies are not always conscious.
Langlois Attraction Study
People tend to rate the 32-face average is more attractive than the two-face average. In addition, the averaged faces are rated as more attractive than any of the individual faces used to make them, as long as the average face is a computer-generated composite of at least 16 faces. *** Any face that was averaged 16 times or more was rated as more attractive.
Free riders
People who gain more benefits from the group then they contribute to the group; social loafers or slackers.
Self-esteem has similar effects as intelligent:
People with high self-esteem have the confidence to analyze a message and come to a recent conclusion. Note, however, that both intelligence and high self-esteem can have a drawback people can become stubborn in their opinions, believing their opinion is superior
Person perceptions
Peoples perceptions of one another based on initial impressions of their behavior and assumptions concerning what characteristics correspond with that behavior.
Celebrities endorsing products involves?
Peripheral persuasion.
What route of persuasion did the lawyer use in the movie a time to kill?
Peripheral route
People low in the need of cognition use the ________________ rout of persuasion.
Peripheral.
football hooliganism. (Cultural influence on aggression)
Unruly, violent and destructive behaviour by over-zealous supporters of association football clubs. Soccer; rivalry between team fans have become extreme, fighting has caused deaths of fans, police, and innocent bystanders after a riot police attempted to break things up using body armor, teargas, dogs, water cannons, and armored vehicles.
Implicit expectations
Unspoken rules enforced by group norms that influence an individual's behavior. For example, no one has to tell you that you will likely be expected to dress differently at formal religious events compared to attending, say, a rock concert.
social norms
Unwritten rules about how members of a group are expected to act. Some of these norms are specifically about helping such as reciprocity.
Social identity theory creates an ?
Us versus them mentality.
In gay couples, anxious/ambivalent men are less likely to require a partner to?
Use a condom during sex.
Distractions during delivery of a message will make you less likely to be persuaded, but more likely to
Use the peripheral route.
quest religiosity
Uses religion as a way to question, doubt, and re-examine values and beliefs.
wisdom of crowds
Using the collective insights of many people to test, develop, and refine new ideas, products, and services: also called crowdsourcing. Example: Wikipedia
The positive of playing video games:
Video games are contributing to education and many creative ways. Video games have contributed to our understanding of artificial intelligence and more effective ways to teach. This may be because the principles have a good game design parallel established learning principles of psychological science.
Social norms may start off as externalized, but eventually they become internalized
We come to believe they are our own social norms.
Memory structures allow us to processed large amounts of information very quickly. However, there is a trade off:
We don't like to change our minds, because even a small change in thinking can have far reaching implications.
Being included or excluded can affect how?
We interpret emotions.
Why is intuition our default mode of thinking?
We usually only use logic when necessary so as to conserve energy.
Descriptive norms
What an individual perceives to be the behavior of most people in a specific situation; what most people do, or what is commonly done.
injunctive norm
What an individual perceives to be the socially acceptable behavior in a specific situation; what is socially sanctioned, or what society says people are supposed to do.
How is social thinking shaped by cultural influences?
What is regarded as normal and appropriate in one culture might be regarded as abnormal in another. Cultures may be individualistic or collectivistic. Some cultures encourage uniqueness while others encourage blending in. Some cultures are all about following the rules while others encourage speaking up.
Both collectivistic and individualistic cultures experience cognitive dissonance, but
What triggers the dissonance is different.
Descriptive Norms vs. Injunctive Norms
What we think everyone else is doing; what is commonly done. Example; littering at voodoo fest, driving over the speed limit on the interstate. vs. What is social sanctioned; what we are supposed to do. Example; driving the speed limit, not cutting in line, not littering.
Affect blend
When 2 or more contradictory emotions are shown on different parts of an individual's face, making it difficult to accurately understand his or her expression.
group polarization
When a group makes more extreme decisions than the average of individual decisions towards either a more or less risky position.
coordination loss:
When a lack of cooperation and communication weekends a groups effectiveness, leading to a loss of productivity.
pluralistic ignorance
When a majority of individuals in a group get the false impression that others do not share their private perspective, making them less likely to express their opinion.
Results of Asch Study
When alone: correct 98% of time. With confederates: wrong 37-38% of time. 76% answered wrong at least once. Conformity increases when: majority size increases, stimuli are ambiguous, majority is ones in group, or the proportion of women increases.
halo effect
When an entire social perception of a person is constructed around a single positive trait.
Dehumanization
When an individual cognitively perceives another individual as lacking positive human qualities but retaining negative animalistic qualities.
Diffusion of responsibility/bystander effect
When an individual feels less responsible for an outcome due to the presence of others. Example: group projects at school... Diffusion is more likely when the project is big or involves many students, and less likely when students get to grade one another.
dual attitudes
When an individual holds contrasting positive and negative beliefs about the same attitude object. Example: an addict will both love and hate whatever drugs she is addicted to, a teenager might both love his parents and also feel embarrassed or annoyed by them.
extrinsic religiosity
When an individual is religious because of social or practical rewards.
Cognitive load shifting
When an individual to thinking systems interact by smoothly shifting back-and-forth between intuition and logic. Example: as the driving example suggests, evolving traffic situation required that our two thinking systems interact by smoothly switching back-and-forth between intuition and logic.
self-fulfilling prophecy
When an individual's expectations about someone else changes his or her behavior, which then changes the other person's behaviors such that they fulfill the first individuals expectations.
Spiral of Silence (produced by groupthink)
When fear of rejection leads people to keep silent about a private opinion, miss perceive the louder opinion as a majority opinion, and therefore become even less likely to express their private opinion.
Maltreatment effects
When hazing elicit social dependency that promotes allegiance to the group. By the end of the process, the abuse person starts to connect with or even love the people who hurt him or her.
hostile sexism
When in individual exhibits overtly aggressive behavior toward or dispenses harsh judgment toward women who do not get prescribed gender stereotypes.
social facilitation
When individuals exhibit improved effort and individual performance in the presence of others. Example: joggers ran faster when a woman was seated facing them then when her back was turned. Bicyclists racing times were faster when racing against each other then against the clock. People gave more money to charity in the presence of a group, and people work harder when other people are around.
Polyamory
When individuals have multiple committed relationships at once. There are several types including polyandry,one man with multiple female partners; polygyny, One woman with multiple male partners; and polygamy multiple people involved that are legally married.
intrinsic religiosity
When individuals hold sincere beliefs in their faith teachings and attempt to apply them to every day behavior. They exhibit less prejudice if their faith teaches tolerance.
Escalation trap (sunken cost fallacy)
When individuals increase their commitment to a failing situation to justify previous investments of time, effort, or resources. Example: A poker player that refuses to fold a losing hand and instead escalates his bets. Car owners may keep throwing good money into a bad car because they have already spent so much to repair it. Romantic partners will continue a harmful relationship simply because they have already invested so much into the relationship.
Normative social influence
When individuals publicly conform to gain social acceptance and avoid rejection.
informational social influence
When individuals voluntarily conform to group standards because they are uncertain about the correct answer or behavior. Example: when you go to a fancy dinner and they bring a salad, if you're not sure which fork to use, you look to others to see which fork they pick up and follow their lead.
social loafing
When people working in a group reduce their individual level of effort. This also appears in other species. Example: this is why college students hate doing group projects.
what is beautiful is good effect ( one type of halo effect)
When physical attractiveness creates a halo effect such that individuals who are beautiful are also perceived to have several other positive characteristics.
Example of the anchoring heuristic
When respondents are asked, " on average, how many full-time college students in the entire United States drop out before graduation, more than 200 students or less than 200? Please answer with you own estimated number." Most respondents will answer with a number somewhere in the area of 200, because 200 was provided in the question as a starting point.
Bilateral symmetry
When the 2 halves of an object, face, or body perfectly match. Faces with bilateral symmetry are often deemed more attractive than those without bilateral symmetry. For example, one study found the amount of symmetry in male college students to be significantly and positively correlated with ratings of how attractive their faces were. The effect was much stronger for men than women in this study.
Situations in which diffusion of responsibility seems to decrease:
When the specific situation requires help from multiple people instead of just one, when the protagonist looks dangerous (thief stealing a bike) but only when other witnesses were present, and people are also more likely to help if they know security cameras are present and filming them.
Group
When two or more individuals interact with one another or are joined together by a common fate.
conspicuous consumption
When you publicly display the use of expensive products and objects in an attempt to impress others.
Example of intuitive versus logical thinking
When you try to push your way through a pull door. As you approach the door your brain is on automatic pilot and relying on intuition. So when you get to the door and push, it takes a few seconds to realize that you need to pull the door. This is your logical thinking kicking in.
Parallel heuristics
When you use multiple heuristics to make a decision. Heuristics can operate simultaneously. They can be combined to become extremely persuasive but they can also be wrong. They can also create an entirely false memories of it event.
Hazing (237)
Whenever members of a group establish arbitrary rituals for new members that may cause physical or emotional harm, which can be a type of escalation trap for aspiring members. This has been common among fraternities and sororities, athletic teams, military, college marching bands and even graduate school.
Brain imaging studies suggest that racial stereotypes trigger automatic reactions to perceived dangers- even when those dangers do not exist.
White participants shown facial images of both blk and white people, images flashed for either 30 milliseconds or 525 milliseconds. Initial fear greater, but leveled off with longer exposure, suggesting that logic came into play.
Daniel Kahneman
Won the Nobel prize for his research on intuitive versus logical decision making.
self-compassion
a healthy form of self-acceptance in the face of perceived inadequacy or failure. And orientation to take care of one's self.
random sampling
a method of poll selection that gives each person in a group the same chance of being selected; randomly selecting people to be in your study.
investment model of commitment:
a model of interpersonal relationships maintaining that three determinants make partners more committed to each other: relationship satisfaction, few alternative partners, and investments in the relationship. A statistical model for understanding romantic relationships that includes all three predictors of commitment; satisfaction, alternatives, and investments.
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
a model of persuasion maintaining that there are two different routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route
directionality problem
a problem encountered in correlational studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable. We cannot be certain if it is variable A affecting variable B or if it is variable B affecting variable A.
negative relationship
a relationship between variables characterized by an increase in one variable that occurs with a decrease in the other variable.
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype, so a person who is a minority might actually do worse on an exam because of the knowledge of a negative stereotype associated with them and the anxiety that knowledge causes.
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
Phineas Gage
railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function.
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1) Usually seen as a lowercase r= a number between -1 and 1.
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
factorial design
a study in which there are two or more independent variables, or factors
cognitive misers
a term that conveys the human tendency to avoid expending effort and cognitive resources when thinking and to prefer seizing on quick and easy answers to questions.
evaluation apprehension theory
a theory holding that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others are seen as potential evaluators.
Need for Cognition (NFC)
a trait that describes how much people like to think. Can be high or low. Example: A study observed that some sports task are better suited for intuition, while others are more successful when the athlete switches to logical thinking ( kicking the ball vs running a complicated play down the field).
posttest-only control group design
a true experimental design in which the experimental group is exposed to the treatment but the control group is not and no pretest measure is taken. Posttest measures are taken on both groups. Test units are randomly assigned
Stereotype
a widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person Our thoughts and assumptions about others
social disruption
a worsening of performance in the presence of others; occurs on tasks we find difficult or that we are new to.
case studies
studies that involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals. Example: Phineas Gage Disadvantage: lacks external validity. Advantage: case studies give evidence that rare phenomena can exist and allows us to understand it.
While priming does increase mental accessibility of concepts, sometimes that mental accessibility
takes us into a semantic network of associations that leads to error.
belief in a just world
the assumption that life is essentially fair, that people generally get what they deserve and deserve what they get
what is beautiful is good effect
the assumption that physically attractive people will be superior to others on many other traits. Physically attractive people are perceived as having several other positive qualities as well.
Dependent Variable (DV)
the behavior or mental process that is measured in an experiment or quasi-experiment (the effect).
GABA is affected by
alcohol. Stops it from inhibiting the violent response.
single-blind experiment
an arrangement in which participants remain unaware of whether they are in the experimental group or the control group.
positive relationship
an association between two variables in which they increase or decrease together.
types of descriptive research
case study, survey, naturalistic observation, archival studies.
basic research
pure research that aims to confirm an existing theory or to learn more about a concept or phenomenon
self-serving bias
the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors
frustration-aggression theory
the theory that frustration - the perception that you are being prevented from attaining a goal - increases the probability of an aggressive response.
social role theory
the theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women.
attribution theory
the theory that we explain ours or someone else's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.
Independent Variable (IV)
the variable that a researcher actively manipulates, and if the hypothesis is correct, will cause a change in the dependent variable
Self perception theory
theory that we acquire our attitudes by observing our behaviors. We make assessments of what and who we are or how we feel based off of the behaviors that we do.
automatic vs. controlled processing
unconscious vs ordered, conscious, and deliberate Example: when you were learning to drive a car you had to concentrate and it took effort. Once you got used to driving and no longer takes so much concentration and effort therefore it is more automatic.
tend-and-befriend response
under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend). This is a common instinct among social animals such as honeybees, squirrel monkeys, and prairie voles.
The results of the Westgate housing project study showed
The individuals were more likely to label people who were physically closer but also functionally accessible as persons whom they would like to know socially. Likes apartment seven and five, but not apartments three and six.
nature (Dispositional)
The influence of biological factors such as genetics, hormones, neurology, and inherited physiological traits has on our personality.
nurture (Situational)
The influence that life's circumstances and environmental factors have on our personalities.
Food accumulation hypotheses
The likelihood of conformity based on harvest.
social disinhibition
The loosening of customary social restraints.
To persuasion techniques that work on commitment and consistency
The lowball technique and the foot in the door technique.
Amazing Randi
The magician James Randi exemplifies skepticism. He has tested and debunked a variety of psychic phenomena.
nonverbal communication
The many ways individuals communicate through body language, tone of voice, and facial expressions.
Message learning Approach
The model used to explain the persuasion process which states that there are four elements to persuasion.
Not so free samples
The norm of reciprocity makes people more likely to fork over some money if they first have been given a small gift. In addition to sampling the product, we feel guilty about getting something for nothing, especially when it comes from a smiling and friendly person. ( Hare Krishnas)
The door in the face technique and the free incentives are both examples of
The norm of reciprocity.
Promiscuity
The number of casual sexual partners one has. Highly promiscuous people are willing to engage in casual sex.
attitude object
The object, person, place, or idea an individual explicitly or implicitly evaluates and directs his or her attitude toward. In the little rascals case, the attitude object shifted from child sexual abuse in general to the seven people in particular believed to be guilty of that crime.
comparison level for alternatives:
The perceived next best relationship people could have if they ended their current relationship. Includes all of the other people who might want to date us if we were suddenly single. Another alternative is to be in no relationship at all.
outgroup homogeneity
The perception that all members of a particular outgroup are identical to each other, but that members of our ingroup are individually different.
out-group homogeneity
The perception that all members of a particular outgroup are identical to each other.
benevolent prejudice
The perception that members of certain groups have positive qualities that should be praised and valued; benevolent prejudice can be condescending and paternalistic toward the out group, which resulted in unfair standards, harsh judgment, and restricted opportunities.
Aggression in holy books (336)
The persistence of aggression is vividly reported in books that many revere as holy. The Bible is full of violent Commandments to sacrifice, knife, stone, and burn people. These histories recommend or warn about plucking out eyes and cutting off various body parts.
ideal self
The person we aspire to be
ought self
The person we believe we are supposed to be based on other people's expectations, senses of duty, and responsibility.
actual self
The person we perceive ourselves to be in this moment, includes both good and bad qualities.
Racism
The physical manifestation of prejudice; the actual behaviors.
field of eligibles:
The potential dates and mates available for an individual not in a committed romantic relationship, based on that individual's criteria for a romantic partner.
inclusive fitness
The probability that our genetic heritage will be preserved in the offspring of relatives.
assortative mating (romantic relationships )
The process by which organisms that are similar tend to mate with each other, meaning an individual is more likely to mate with someone who shares his or her features and interests.
One way that nature and nurture interact is through assortative mating:
The process by which organisms that are similar tend to meet with each other, meaning an individual is more likely to meet with someone who shares his or her features and interests.
attitude inoculation
The process of building up resistance to attempts at persuasion.
operational definition
The process of specifying how a construct will be defined and measured. Example: I hypothesize that people in a short-term relationship will love their partners more than those in a long term relationship. Quasi-independent variable: long-term vs short term. Define long term, short term relationship....anyone in a relationship over three yrs is long term. Define love (dv); can be defined using physiological response, behaviors, or self report. Define love
mis-attribution of arousal
The propensity for individuals to miss attribute physiological reactions to environmental stimuli as attraction.
Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR)
The ratio comparing the circumference of the waist to the circumference of the hips, which often plays a role in determining female body attractiveness. Most desirable ratio is .7
waist to shoulders ratio
The ratio comparing the circumference of the waist to the circumference of the shoulders, which often plays a role in determining male body attractiveness. Most desirable ratio is .7 ( waist should be about 70% of the circumference of the shoulders).
Process Loss
The reduction of effort, and thus productivity, in group settings that comes from a lack of motivation often due to social loafing.
The empathy altruism hypothesis suggest that pure altruism is possible under
The right circumstances..
social psychology
The scientific study of how people influence each other's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
A field study conducted in bars throughout Amsterdam showed that?
The size of the bar's crowd had no influence on helping (a lack of the traditional bystander effect). However, the amount of alcohol consumed before the help was needed did influence how quickly help was offered: drunk or people helped faster.
Rejection hurts. One study scanned participants brains when they were suddenly excluded from a computer game of virtual ball tossing. The social pain of being excluded occurred in the same part of the brain, the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, that registers our physical pain. In other words,
The social pain of rejection is experienced as a real neurological event.
Group dynamics
The social roles, hierarchies, communication styles, and culture that naturally formed when groups interact. In group dynamics, some people will emerge as leaders, while others prefer to stand back. The leaders may choose very different styles and these choices will have an influence over how the group members perform and feel.
social contagion
The spontaneous distribution of ideas, attitudes, and behaviors among larger groups of people. Example: researchers observed that one person stopping on a busy New York sidewalk and staring at a 6th floor window caused a small group of others to look as well. After 60 seconds , the first person left and then new groups of confederates stopped and repeated the measure. Researchers observed that the bigger the initial crowd, the more compelling it was for other people to join it. The Takeaway: the mirror existence of a crowd justified conforming to it. When more people engage in a particular behavior, others will feel more pressure to follow along.
There is scientific evidence that lifting someone's self-esteem may not always be beneficial
There was a movement in the 80s to build the self-esteem of students because the correlation was found between low self-esteem and poverty, crime, and drug abuse. However, research indicates that boosting peoples self-esteem can be dangerous, it can lead to narcissism, can create entitlement especially when high self-esteem is created from false beliefs (everyone gets a trophy). Receiving negative feedback can actually boost performance.
Internal attributions can be dangerous because?
These can lead to higher rates of prejudiced, stereotyping and victim blaming. Ex: judging the dress or behavior of a victim of rape. Assuming that someone who is obese is lazy or greedy.
ringelmann's rope pulling study (248)
These experiment demonstrated that both individual people and oxygen would pour less hard on a rope when working together then when working alone. Ringleman also observed that the larger the group size, the lower the individual effort. Today, we refer to social loafers as free riders.
self-fulfilling prophecies do occur in the classroom, but?
They are only one of many influences on a student.
People with low self-esteem can be persuadable if
They judge others as more qualified to make decisions.
For most men, status and mating motives increase direct (face-to-face) aggression but only when?
They know that other men are watching.
Groups can be beneficial for:
They provide evolutionary advantages, such as sharing resources, working together, shelter, protection etc.
Indirect approach for implicit attitudes
This approach is particularly useful under two circumstances; when people might not want to admit to their true attitudes and when we are trying to assess beliefs that participants can't articulate or are not aware of. IAT
Micro-aggressions
This is a relatively new, and somewhat controversial, conceptualization of aggression. It is controversial because aggression is defined as an attempt to do harm, but some people may not be purposefully causing harm as they are unaware of their micro aggressions. Defined: statements or behaviors that subtly insult a marginalized group by expressing an aggressor's prejudice and discrimination, with or without their conscious intent to do so. Micro aggressions include micro insults, micro assaults, and micro invalidations.
Pre-experiment
This is conducting a small scale version of your study to make sure the large study will not have any problems; checking to make sure the IV has an effect, the participants understand the directions, and the methodology does not have any flaws.
true experiment
This is the only research design that we can state causation, the reason why is because we manipulate a variable and randomly assign participants to two or more groups.
Prejudice seems to be targeted towards groups perceived as?
Threats to getting or keeping the resources we decide we want. Conflict over those resources inspires prejudice as a way to justify simply taking what we decide we deserve.
Tanganyikan laughter epidemic
Three girls attending a small, missionary run boarding school in what is now Tanzania started laughing. The laughter quickly spread to the other students and was accompanied by fainting, a rash, unexplained pain, and occasional screaming. The teachers never caught the laughing disease but when it eventually infected 95 of the students the school had to be close. The students took the laughter home and the laughter spread throughout the communities.
Attitudes can come from experience
Three theories can offer insight: social learning theory, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning. ( environmental influences)
In World War I, trench soldiers were deliberately kept occupied with football for the men and rugby and cricket for the officers, because military planners did not want?
To allow soldiers too much opportunity to act and think as individuals. In this case, sports competition had been co-opted by top military planners to keep levels of aggression (and obedience) high.
Shelley E Taylor and Susan Fisk
Together wrote the book called social cognition. Cognitive misers.
True/False: In a true experiment design, you can have two different types of research designs.
True.
While similarity is a strong predictor of commitment in heterosexual couples, it is not as strong of a predictor in homosexual couples (21 % of same sex couples are interracial). Why?
Two reasons: Homosexual culture puts an emphasis on being different so diversity is more accepted . Field of eligibles. Less possible partners for homosexuals, because of this, they may be more likely to date someone different from them.
Meaningful information studies
Two studies found that pre-surgery coronary bypass patients preferred roommates already recovering from surgery because in that situation information was more important than empathy Patients with information rich roommates (roommates who had already gone through the surgery) were less anxious, began walking sooner after their surgeries, and were discharged sooner from the hospital compared with patients who had single rooms in the hospital.
Do self-fulfilling prophecies do more harm or good?
Unclear. More research is needed.
People tend to conform in?
Unfamiliar situations: people are concerned with correct behavior; people are anxious to fit in. Example: when you start a new job you tend to imitate the other employees.
Examples of negativity bias
Unpleasant odor's perceived more easily and unpleasant odor is provoke a stronger response. People who live in tornado alley are more aware of dark clouds.
Bystander effect
phenomenon in which the likelihood of being helped in an emergency is negatively correlated with the number of people who witnessed that emergency.
One reason we might not interpret an emergency as what it really is could be,
pluralistic ignorance.
William James
founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment
kinship selection
preferential helping of genetic relatives, so that genes held in common will survive. **The evolutionary urge to favor those with closer genetic relatedness.
Sir Karl Popper
promoted idea of falsifyability as criterion for hypothesis.
Four theories that explain why some people are more likely to help then others:
1. Personality. 2. Religious norms. 3. Gender. 4. Culture.
Robber's Cave Study (Sherif)
- boys at summer camp were encouraged to have intragroup cohesiveness and intergroup conflict - several interventions attempted to reduce intergroup conflict (e.g., religious services emphasizing cooperation, providing a third group as a common enemy) - only the introduction of superordinate goals that could be achieved only if the groups worked together was successful
Johnson and Downing (1979) ( 213)
-1/2 dressed in KKK-like outfits, 1/2 in nurse outfits with a mask covering their face - participants given task to shock other person . -those who were deindividuated ( no name tag) showed less inhibition for both pro social and antisocial behavior, more extreme shocks for both groups. Individualized were more moderate.
Field study of deindividuation
1,300 children observed approaching homes during Halloween, where they were given the opportunity to steal candy and money from a home they visited. Children more likely to steal when: In a group, had not been asked for their names.
We tend to deal with information overload in to ways:
1. Cognitive misers. 2. Satisficing.
Two types of social norms that influence us
1. Descriptive norms. 2. Injunctive norms.
Three typologies that help define aggression:
1. Descriptive typology. 2. Motivational typology. 3. Micro aggressions.
Two types of counterfactual thinking
1. Downward counterfactuals . 2. Upward Counterfactuals.
4 ways in which teachers unknowingly communicate their expectations to particular students:
1. Emotional climate- through nonverbal cues that create a specific climate. 2. Expectations of effort- if they think the student is smart they may teach them more information and giving more difficult material. 3. Increased opportunities- giving some students more time and opportunities to respond. 4. Differential feedback- giving certain students more individualized feedback that allows them to assess their own progress.
4 reasons for altruism
1. Evolutionary benefits to the larger group. 2. Social norms... We help because it's what is expected or reciprocity. 3. To avoid negative emotion. 4. Empathy.
Two strategies for measuring self-esteem
1. Explicit, direct measures; includes self-report surveys and the Rosenberg self-esteem scale. 2. Implicit, indirect measures; measure association strength by reaction time as in the implicit attitudes test (usually used to test prejudice, but can also be used to measure self-esteem).
Four possible responses to biological threats:
1. Fight: first part of the fight or flight response. 2. Flight: second part of the fight or flight response. 3. Freeze: a non-aggressive survival strategy is freezing until enemies or predators pass. 4. Tend and Befriend.
Two reasons our brains sometimes make mistakes
1. Information Overload (TMI). 2. Magical ( wishful) Thinking.
Model of maltreatment affects based on attachment theory which generally predicts that people are comforted by having a secure homebase in other people such as parents, proposes a five step model:
1. Mal treatment creates confusion especially when delivered by friends or family members. 2. Confusion creates uncertainty about our value or place in a social world. 3. Uncertainty leads to emotional and vulnerability. 4. Vulnerability creates a dependency on the people who hold such power over you, you need their acceptance. 5. Dependency creates gratitude when your needs are met. For example, a stale piece of bread and a cup of water can feel like a deep kindness when you are starving, even when it comes from the enemy that is starving you.
According to the housing project studies, groups developed for two reasons:
1. New mothers away from their families and raising their children. 2. Individuals who interacted and saw each other frequently based on distance and location.
Latane and Darley's five step model of helping: (325)
1. Notice: you have to notice an event before you can decide whether or not to help. 2. Interpret: you must interpret whether or not it is an emergency. 3. Responsibility: when you're alone you feel more responsible. 4. Knowledge: do you have the knowledge to help? 5. Implement: implement decision to help. If you answer no to any of the first three then you won't continue down the list. Even if you answer yes to the first four you may not follow through with step five. This may be because you don't feel safe helping. For example a woman may not stop to help a stranded motorist out of fear, trying to stay safe.
Two interpretations of Obedience
1. Obedience to authority. 2. Obedience to a higher cause..
Three explanations for the differences in the promiscuity study; why women are less likely to engage in promiscuous behavior:
1. Parental investment; the amount of time, effort, and physical resources required to raise a child. 2. Cultural explanation; many cultures more accepting of sexual promiscuity in men. Men are studs, women are sluts. 3. Women's concern about safety and sexual assault.
Two possible explanations for the exotic effect: (378)
1. Sometimes models are dehumanized and made into animalistic images, which further objectifies and sexualizes them compared to most models. 2. Exotic features often highlight specific secondary sex characteristics that are hyper masculine or hyper feminine, such as square jars and pronounced eyebrows in men and large lips, large eyes, and high cheekbones in women.
Prosocial behaviors offer two advantages:
1. They help individuals survive by promoting opportunities to reproduce and thus pass on one's genes. 2. They help the group survive in times of need by sharing and exchanging resources (spreading food around etc.).
Three general conclusions from the auto kinetic study:
1. Uncertainty promotes conformity. 2. Conformity increased over time. 3. Conformity endures; across 5 to 8 generations, even when the original of the tradition is based on nothing but one persons incorrect statement.
Two types of social comparisons
1. Upward comparison - comparing yourself/attainments to people even better than you; perceiving competitor as advantaged; usually to improve a skill. 2. Downward comparisons - comparing yourself with someone of lower status; usually to make us feel better about ourselves.
Four factors that impede loafing (249)
1. When the task is difficult. 2. Your contributions can be identified as coming from you. 3. You believe that what you are doing is valuable. 4. You are working with people you know.
4 reasons to be cautious about your ability to detect lies:
1. You're not an expert at discerning micro-expressions. 2. Affect blends are tricky and can look like lies. 3. We are more sensitive to negative than positive information. 4. Even if you do accurately detect a lie, there are many alternative explanations for why someone might lie.
Babies can distinguish between fake and real smiles at ?
10 months.
Psychology is about how old?
150
Stanley Milgram
1933-1984; Field: social psychology; Contributions: wanted to see how the German soldiers in WWII fell to obedience, wanted to see how far individuals would go to be obedient; Studies: Shock Study Classmates with Phillip Zimbardo ( prison guy). Still an adolescent in the aftermath of world war 2, trying to understand.
Patty Hearst and the SLA
1974, newspaper Eres Patty Hearst was kidnapped by the Symbionese liberation Army and then join their cars. The SLA robbed several corporate banks in San Francisco and Hearst was famously caught on camera holding a gun and actively participating. Claimed Stockholm syndrome in court, was convicted and sent to prison for seven years, but President Bill Clinton eventually pardoned her.
Six steps of the communication persuasion matrix
1: Attention; capture attention (celebrity endorsements) 2: Comprehension; Audience needs to comprehend the message. 3: Learning : audience learns something from the message ( nutritional info etc) 4: Acceptance: audience accepts the message. 5: Ratain; audience retains the message. 6: Attitude change.
Four elements of persuasion: the message learning approach
1: source variables. 2: message variables. 3: recipient variables. 4: context variables.
The impulse to conform begins much earlier in life than you might imagine. Infants will imitate others when they are only
2 to 3 weeks old. Growing infants will automatically clap when others clap; as small children, they will whisper back when they are whispered to, and a little later they will imitate one another's eating habits.As we grow, we absorb these behaviors as social norms (also known as group norms).
The human brain accounts for _______ of our total body weight, but consumes about ________ of our energy resources.
2%, 20%
Egyptian cemetery(336)
59 skeletons in an Egyptian cemetery, estimated to be 12,000 to 14,000 years old, almost half the skeletons had embedded stone projectiles and other features indicating violent deaths, particularly of the male victims.
Religiosity/prosocial behavior study
60 religiously oriented women were confronted with someone in emotional distress. Those who are oriented towards intrinsic religiosity offered their help whether or not it was welcome; they were responding to their own internal need to be helpful (egoistic response). However, those oriented toward religion as a quest offered help only if the person wanted help; they were responding to the expressed needs of the victim (altruistic response).
Christmas Truce of 1914
A bottom up expression of mutual goodwill. It was initiated, maintained, and expanded by individuals in the trenches, without permission from high command. One of its highlights was a game of soccer between opposing units. The effect of playing soccer against their enemy was sobering. It was observed that many soldiers were surprised to find that their enemies seemed quite human. In this case, sports competition had supplied a humanizing framework for peace between combatants; soccer was used as a substitute for fighting and as a good-natured way to simply take a day off from the hard work of killing one another.
Schema
A cognitive and memory structure for organizing the world. It automatically directs and organizes incoming information by labeling and categorizing. We use these categories to understand the world.
Semantic network
A collection of mental concepts that are connected to one another by a common characteristic.
Ambivalent sexism
A combination of hostile and benevolent sexism that occurs when an individual views good women from a benevolent perspective but is hostile to women who fail to meet the standards.
central trait
A major characteristic of an individual's personality that indicates the presence of several associated traits, together creating a unified impression about the entire person.
arranged marriage
A marriage that was decided on by the couple members families for pragmatic reasons, such as good match in terms of socioeconomic status or family lands that border each other. While people from outside of these cultures often view arranged marriages as lacking in romance, people within the cultures often see them as more sacramental and more traditional. Research on satisfaction in these marriages find inconsistent results.
script
A memory structure or type of schema that guides common social behaviors and expectations for particular types of events; Scripts provide individuals with an order of events for common situations and expectations for others behavior. Guide common social behavior and expectations. Example; eating at a restaurant involves the same basic steps and rituals each time.
Heuristic
A mental shortcut that makes it easier for an individual to solve difficult problems by facilitating the mental accessibility of certain ideas. Examples include the anchoring an adjustment heuristic, the availability heuristic, and the representative Ness heuristic.
Credibility sources are considered more credible and thus more persuasive when:
A message is presented that seems unpopular or impartial. When the source seems to argue against its own self interest. When the source is an expert. When the source has social power. When the source is a tractive.
The positive correlation between satisfaction and commitment has been supported in several research studies including,
A meta-analysis that reviewed 52 individual tests of the correlation
mirror self-recognition test (Gordon Gallup)
A method for evaluating an animal's capacity to recognize itself in which researchers determine whether the animal looking at itself in a mirror behaves in a manner indicating its recognition of a mark made on its body. Place a red dot on the animals forehead, if the animal touches the dot on its head it indicates that it is self-aware, but if the animal touches the dot on the animal head in the mirror it shows no self-awareness.
Stages of provocation model:
A model for understanding aggression within which an individual's thoughts thoughts, feelings, and behaviors collectively contribute to the escalation of aggression in three stages.
Model of duel attitudes
A model for understanding attitudes that proposes that new attitudes override, rather than replace, old attitudes. Example: former lovers may fondly remember one another even through a bitter break up; the old beliefs and feelings do not magically disappear. They just acquire another complicating layer of beliefs.
Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion
A model for understanding how an individual can be persuaded, which proposes that there are two paths to persuasion: a direct, systematic path and an indirect, heuristic path.
Communication persuasion matrix
A model for understanding persuasion that proposes that there are six steps in the persuasion process, which build on each other due to exposure to the four elements of persuasion, resulting in attitude change.
violent video games and aggression
A study followed students across all four years of high school; results showed that sustained play of violent video games led to increasing aggression during that time, and that playing non-violent video games did not. However, Studies also showed that aggression goes up when the game is played on a big screen TV and with a gun shaped controller.
How priming can test for racism:
A study tested the strength of the associations between the concepts of African-American and weapons in danger using a sample of college students. The college students were asked to play a video game at scenes of a bus stop, a convenient store, a park, and others flash by in the scenes were either white or African-American people holding something in their hand. Participants had to push one computer button and shoot if they were holding a weapon in a different button to not sure if they were holding something else such as a wallet or a cell phone. The hypothesis was that for at least some of the participants the concepts of African-American and weapons would have a strong association for their semantic network. The hypothesis was proven correct when the college students were more likely to shoot the African-Americans on the screen compared to the white people on the screen, regardless of what people were actually holding. In this case priming lead to errors based on stereotypes.
Algorithm
A systematic, logical method of searching for a solution to a problem or a question. For example, are you psych info to come up with a hypothesis.
self-promotion
A tactic where we use positive statements about this self to enhance confidence. Two types: 1. Self-enhancement: when people imply their achievements are more significant than they actually first appear to be. 2. Entitlement: when you take credit for positive events that you had nothing to do with.
jigsaw classroom technique ( 293)
A technique used by teachers were students are first divided into "expert groups" that learn a certain set of information and then are mixed such that the second set of teams the "jigsaw groups" each include one member from the expert group. Jigsaw requires that the members rely on each other to learn the material.
social desirability bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself., in order to look good or make a favorable impression.
Women are more ethically sensitive, nurturing
Across cultures women behave with greater social and ethical sensitivity. Women have a higher degree of nurturance and a less degree of combativeness than men.
Study on generational influence ( Jacob's and Campbell)
Added a twist to Sherif's study, by adding a new participant to the group after everyone had made their first estimates. Even though the original confederate, the person who had started the tradition was no longer in the room the new round of estimates conformed around what the departed confederate had declared. Required 5 to 8 generations of new participants until the average estimate merged with the baseline estimate from the control group.
Attitudes come from three different sources:
Affect (emotions), behavior, and cognition. Also, they don't always come to the same conclusion. Example: we may get a feeling (the emotional component) that we should not trust someone. Nevertheless, we may act (the behavioral component) as if we trust that person because the individual belongs in the mental category of someone, such as a teacher or coach that we believe (the cognitive component ), we can trust.
Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark
African American psychologists who conducted research that influenced Brown vs Board of Education, a Supreme Court decision, changing the way many American schools treated minority students Dial studies
Kenneth Clark became the first
African-American president of the APA
example of halo effect
After reading a description of a speaker as "warm" , the students inevitably found him to be a likable speaker.
Alport's 4 criteria:
Authority figures must appear to be supportive of inter group cohesion. Group members from each group need to interact on an individual level. Group members must perceive themselves as equals. Super ordinate goals; common goals
negativity bias
Automatic tendency to notice and remember negative information, more so than positive information. Also more likely to see the negativity in any situation.
Prosocial behavior helps us to?
Avoid negative emotions. People help to decrease personal distress; experiencing guilt or sadness can increase prosocial behavior.
Lewinian Equation
B=f(P, E): behavior= function of interaction between an individual's personality and their environment.
Algorithms are a logical way of thinking, but they are not always
Efficient.
Secure people are less likely to accept violence or abuse in their relationships and are more likely to display
Emotional sensitivity and social skills.
Pro social behaviors are positively correlated with people who are high in
Empathy and need for approval.
People more likely to exhibit prosocial behavior have three things in common
Empathy, believe in a just world, and believe in social responsibility.
Converging evidence about attitudes and behavior (attitudes do not perfectly predict behavior)
Experiment by Richard La Piere questioned the assumption that attitudes always predict behavior. This sociologist spent two years traveling across the United States with a young Chinese student and his wife during a period in US history when Chinese people were the object of intense prejudice and discrimination. Together they stayed in 66 hotels and lodgings and ate at 184 restaurants but were refused service only once. Yet 92% of those same establishment who answered a letter from the sociologist declared that they would not serve Chinese people. ( the attitudes did not predict the behavior.
Double blind studies reduce ______________.
Experimenter bias.
External attributions
Explanations for an individuals behavior that are based on factors that are outside of the persons control, such as getting sick, the weather, or bad luck.
Internal attributions
Explanations for an individuals behavior that are based on factors that are within the persons control, such as individuals personality or conscious choices.
Exposure/Proximity
External characteristics ( predictors)
________________ is an important aspect of good research.
Falsification.
Clark and Hatfield; Promiscuity study
Five trained female Confederates and four trained male Confederates, sent out onto five college campuses. The Confederates ranged in attractiveness from slightly unattractive to moderately attractive. Each confederate walked around their college campus looking for people of the opposite sex who were sitting by themselves. When the opportunity arose, the experimenter approached the other person and gave a little speech and then asked one of three questions. Question 1: would you go out with me tonight. Question 2: would you come over to my apartment tonight. Question 3: would you go to bed with me tonight. The results of the study showed that attractiveness didn't really matter; in response to the question go on a date, 56% of women said yes and 50% of men said yes. In response to the question would you go to my apartment 6% of the women said yes and 69% of the men said yes. In response to the question would you have sex with me, 0% of the women said yes and 75% of the men said yes.
Cognitive errors accumulate into
Flawed perceptions. Example: False confessions of crimes are not unusual, but juries tend not to believe that and are usually persuaded by a videotaped confession. To a juror, a confession only makes sense if the person is guilty (internal attribution). A confession saves the jury from having to work so hard( cognitive miser) to reach a verdict. At trial, the video confession may be the first thing the jurors see from the prosecution ( first impressions). Negative information lasts longer in memory that positive info does( negativity bias). A confession of guilt makes it easy to judge everything else about the defendant as negative ( halo effect) and the jurors only notice evidence that supports what they already believe, while ignoring contradictory evidence ( confirmation bias). When all these cognitive errors accumulate, a social perception that is dead wrong can make perfect sense.
Motivational typology
Focuses on what motivates aggression and helps us to understand why people become aggressive. Subdivided into two categories, hostile/reactive aggression, and instrumental/proactive aggression.
There are some commonalities between heterosexual and homosexual couples:
For both couples, satisfaction and commitment went up with being happy about the division of labor in the relationship and with being appreciated for contributions to the home. Relationship violence appears to be a problem in all types of couples, regardless of sexual orientation. And just as we saw with heterosexual couples in jealousy research, lesbians are more upset with emotional infidelity and gay men are more upset over sexual infidelity.
Researchers measured men's and women's body and facial symmetry by comparing their left side and right side feet, ankles, hands, wrist, elbows and ears. Results showed
For both sexes, greater symmetry was associated with a higher number of sex partners. For men, symmetry was correlated with having sex at an earlier age.
Benefits of social norms
For humans and for many other species, it increases our odds of meeting, meeting, and protecting our offspring until they reach their own reproductive maturity. However, if we fail to meet social norms, our chances of being excepted by the group decrease.
social influence
How an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors respond to their social world, including tendency to conform to others, follow social rules, and obey authority figures.
Bilateral symmetry is positively correlated with?
How attractive the faces are perceived to be.
Attribution
How individuals explain the causes of others' actions and events.
sense of individual identity
How individuals perceive themselves to uniquely fit into a larger group. Such social comparisons and group role development contribute to individuals self-concept.
Physical distance refers to
How many steps you would have to take to get from one apartment to the other.
Attribution research explores?
How we automatically use science like reasoning to explain why people behave as they do. We try to isolate causal influences.
A leader is effectiveness depends on?
How well that leaders personality, abilities, and behaviors match the situation in which he or she operates.
Attitudes help explain how the psychological therapists made the situation much worse (little rascals case). The therapists had been asked to evaluate the children for signs of sexual abuse, the therapists perceived what they had been primed to believe; that the children would be suffering from symptoms due to the assaults, leading to a confirmation bias in their counseling and assessment sessions.
However, some children also named in the case were sent to psychological therapists in another region of North Carolina. These therapists had not been told to look for signs of child sex abuse, and those children were never identified as showing any sign of being traumatized or molested.
Crisis of masculinity (cultural influence on aggression)
Needs young boys to be aggressive, misogynistic, and homophobic.
Heuristics can be beneficial, but they can also lead to
Mistakes.
A longitudinal field study demonstrated that children's exposure to violence in the media early in a school year predicted:
More verbally aggressive, relationally aggressive, and physically aggressive behavior, as well as less prosocial behavior.
Gordon alport's declared that attitudes were social psychology's
Most distinctive and indispensable concept.
Most research is focused on differences between men and women in traditional, heterosexual relationships. Why?
Most people self identify as fitting into one of these categories. It is much easier to conduct research on heterosexual couples, because there are more of them available and they are not concerned with being stigmatized or stereotyped.
Discovery requires?
Multiple studies in multiple methods; study should be replicated and conducted in a variety of methods.
Kitty Genovese
Murdered outside apartment- prompted to investigate bystander effect due to diffusion of responsibility
example of scapegoat theory
Nazi party blamed Jews, gypsies, communists, and homosexuals for the nation's poor economy.
Part of what keeps people with a minority opinion silent is?
Pluralistic ignorance.
The direction of a correlational relationship can be either
Positive or negative.
An updated, four category model of attachment:
Positive view of self/positive view of others = secure, comfortable with intimacy. Positive view of self/negative view of others = dismissive, avoids long term intimacy, narcissistic. Negative view of self/ negative view of others = fearful, avoids social connections in general. Negative view of self/ positive view of others = preoccupied and jealous.
Why, would outward calm and children be correlated to aggression in early adulthood?
Possible explanation number one: perhaps children with a low resting heart rate are less sensitive to the negative consequences of their behavior and are therefore less likely to develop a moral conscience. In other words perhaps people with a low heart rate are less responsive to their environment, which might make them less empathetic towards others. Possible explanation number two: these children also might be more sensation seeking, they are bored, so they use aggression to create their own excitement.
Stereotype Content Model (SCM)
Postulates that stereotypes universally vary along two major dimensions: competence and warmth. Which creates 4 types of prejudice. Paternalistic. Admiration. Contemptuous. Envious.
self-discrepancy theory
Postulates that we struggle with three simultaneous selves, the actual, the ideal, and the ought self. A discrepancy results in negative emotions, for instants a clash between the actual and the ideal self can cause digestion, shame, disappointment, embarrassment or depression and a clash between the actual and the ought self can cause agitation, guiltiness, fear, anxiety and self contempt.
Soccer team loyalty study on prosocial behavior: (324)
Researchers wanted to know whether team loyalty would influence helping behaviors. They tested this question with participants who were fans of the Manchester United team in England. Each participant seemingly happened upon a person who was jogging along but then slipped and appeared to be hurt. The jogger was wearing a jersey that was either a blank, generic sports jersey; a Manchester United jersey; or one supporting Liverpool which was Manchester's rival team. The results showed that the confederate was much more likely to be helped if he was wearing a shirt indicating at least one similarity to the participant. In this case, only one participant failed to help a fellow fan of the team. In contrast people wearing a plane jersey or a rival teams jersey were helped by only about 1/3 of the participants.
Many sports, such as auto racing, boxing, American football, and soccer are associated with?
Risk for injury. Most concussions are associated with American football, hockey, and women's soccer. (348)
Self-fulfilling prophecy and experimenter bias
Robert Rosenthal did an experiment in which he gave student experimenters rats to train to run through a maze. He told some students that there a rats were bright and some students that their rats were dull, insinuating that the bright rats would perform better. Sure enough, the students who were told that their rights were brat reported that their rats performed better in the maze experiment. In other words, what they expected to happen, happened.
social norms
Roles that indicate how people are expected to behave in particular social situations, which, in combination with attitudes and perceived control, often predict intended behaviors.
Micro-insults
Rude statements that demean someone's heritage. For instance, asking a latinx student if they are legal citizens or refusing to sit next to someone wearing a headscarf on a bus or airplane.
When we do a correlation, we create a _____________________ to determine if there is a relationship between variables.
Scatter plot
Two types of scemas
Scripts and stereotypes.
consensus
The dimension of Kelly's covariation model of attribution that refers to whether other people tend to act the same way towards the target person in the situation. If not, you'll check for consistency, then distinctiveness.
Consistency
The dimension of Kelly's covariation model of attribution that refers to whether the actor in the situation tends to act the same way toward everyone.
Distinctiveness
The dimension of Kelly's covariation model of attribution that refers to whether the same actor and same target always act the same way when together.
The correlation coefficient tells us two things
The direction of the relationship and the strength or magnitude of the relationship.
There are two reasons we cannot stay causation with a correlational study
The directionality problem and the third variable problem
mental accessibility
The ease with which an idea comes to mind. Can be triggered through priming, experience, and heuristics. Think of the soldier in Iraq that stopped his men from approaching the car with two little boys in it.
Video games are powerful tools that can have both negative and positive consequences depending on?
The environmental cues delivered by particular games.
gender socialization
The expected patterns of behavior deemed appropriate for men and women by rewarding each sex for doing what is considered socially acceptable. This includes how and when to be helpful.
external validity
The extent to which the results of any single study can be applied to other people or in other situations; the ability to generalize one's findings beyond the sample to the larger population.
duping delight
The facial smirk ( mice-expression) that appears when people think that they have gotten away with a lie.
Functional distance refers to
The fact that, because of the buildings design, some apartments were more likely to be passed by then others. The occupants of these apartments were more likely to be seen by other occupants.
false consensus effect
The false assumption that other people share our values, perceptions, and beliefs.
rejection sensitivity
The fear of social rejection and ostracism.
Some cultural symbols change meaning or acceptance over time. For example,
The swastika represents a very different cultreme Treme to Buddhist and Hindu's than it did to Nazi's. Many questions today see an inverted cross as a symbol of satanic belief but originally, the inverted cross was a Christian symbol of humility. Saint Peter requested an inverted cross for his own crucifixion because he saw himself as unworthy of the same death Jesus received. A pentagram represents Satanism to Christians but in Judaism it represents the five books of the Torah, and for weekends it symbolizes the five elements of life.
Escalation of aggression effect:
The tendency for aggression between individuals to spiral into increasingly more aggressive exchanges from which the antagonists are seemingly unable to free themselves. For example, fights between sports fans often have exceedingly trivial beginnings, a stare or perhaps a gesture.
cognitive misers
The tendency for humans to take mental shortcuts to minimize cognitive load.
effort justification (initiation affect)
The tendency for individuals to convince themselves that a group they belong to is wonderful if they have gone through embarrassing, difficult, or expensive efforts to gain membership in the group. Heuristic: if membership is exclusive, it must be wonderful.
Proximity affect (also known as propinquity effect)
The tendency for individuals to like people who are in close geographic proximity to themselves, due to the mere exposure effect. Ex: becoming good friends with the people in your dorm because you are in close proximity and repeatedly exposed to them.
mere exposure effect
The tendency for individuals to prefer familiar objects and individuals, especially as exposure to them increases.
Principle of parsimony ( AKA Occam's Razor)
The tendency for individuals to prefer the simplest answer that explains the most evidence. You can think of scientist as intellectual bargain hunters who want a great theory without having to pay for it with exotic explanations.
in-group heterogeneity
The tendency for individuals to see wide diversity within their own groups.
Excitation transfer effect
The tendency for individuals to transfer their excitement over a situation to excitement about another person. Similar to Misattribution of arousal.
derogation of alternatives
The tendency for individuals who are highly committed to a current partner to downgrade possible alternatives, thus avoiding temptation.
Reactivity
The tendency for participants to change their behavior because they know they are being observed
Groupthink
The tendency for people and groups to minimize conflict by thinking alike and publicly agreeing with each other, especially in groups with high group cohesiveness, strong and directive leader ship, and a stressful situation to resolve.
functional distance
The tendency for people who are in close proximity due to the geographic and architectural design of an environment to be more likely to develop a cohesive group such as friendship or a romantic relationship.
weapons effect
The tendency for the presence of weapons to prime aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
risky shift phenomenon
The tendency of groups to make riskier or more daring decisions than the average of individuals; eventually became known as group polarization because it is bi-directional.
herd mentality
The tendency to blindly follow the direction your group is moving toward; when group norms encourage individuals to conform to those around them, especially when it comes to their beliefs. Can lead to authoritarian leaders and can also make small conflicts become dangerous confrontations. Example: prior to World War I, both sides recruited many thousands of enthusiastic volunteers. Both sides were certain that the conflict would be short and glorious but this war wasn't short or glorious, the herd mentality helps recruit and then destroy almost an entire generation.
counterfactual thinking
The tendency to imagine alternative facts or events that would have led to a different future; imagining what might have been.
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
The tendency to over estimate the influence of personality and underestimate the power of the situation when making attributions about other peoples behaviors. Example: we assume that a waiter who is nice to us during our meal is a nice person and the bus driver who was gruff with us on our ride home is a gruff person, when in reality the waiter is being nice to get tips and the bus driver is not intentionally being rough but trying to pay attention to his job to keep the passenger safe.
availability heuristic
The tendency to overestimate the frequency or importance of information based on how easily it comes to mind. Occurs when an individual makes a decision using the most easily available information.
self-perception theory
The theory that individuals form their self-concept by observing their own behavior and trying to infer their own motivations, attitudes, values, and core traits.
In a study that compared to German and Indian 19 month old toddlers, researchers played with the toddlers and pretended that a teddy bear's arm broke off. Prosocial behavior from the toddlers was measured by whether they tried to comfort the researcher (by hugging, kissing, etc.) or offered a new toy to replace the bear. And both samples, About 30% of the toddler showed prosocial behaviors therefore,
The two different cultures did not show statistically significant results. However it was found that the German toddlers were more likely to help because of empathy, while the Indian toddlers were more likely to help because of social norms.
self-awareness
The understanding that you are a separate entity from other people and objects in the world.
planning fallacy
The unjustified confidence that one's own project, unlike similar projects, will proceed as planned. For example, Australia's Sydney opera house, estimated for completion in 1963 at a cost of 7 million, did not open until 1973 at a cost of 102 million..
optimistic bias
The unrealistic expectation that things will turn out well. For example, many students underestimate their chances of being the victim of sexual violence.
Worldview
The way an individual perceives and approaches the world.
People have a biased view of
Their traits, their behaviors, and personal feedback.
construct
Theoretical idea that cannot be directly observed, such as attitudes, personality, attraction, or how we think.
Origins of Attachment Theory
World War II London during the blitz. Nightly bombing raids devastated buildings while citizens huddled underground. Parents fear the death of their children more than their own. To keep the cities young ones safe the British government evacuated the children to the countryside, after the war the families who survive were reunited. Physically the children were fine. However, an unforeseen side effect had occurred. Some of the children had been separated from their parents at a crucial time in their development, and as young adults they displayed a variety of psychological problems. Many of these adolescents were unable to form strong, loving ties with other people. Attachment theory evolved as psychological researchers tried to explain this pattern of behavior.
When forced to confront the possibility of death, we will clean to believes that help us feel comforted or meaningful. These beliefs are called our?
World views
example of self-fulfilling prophecy
You are going to interview a job candidate and your coworker tells you they knew the candidate 20 years ago and that they weren't very friendly. Based on this information you send non- verbal cues which in turn make the candidate nervous. Candidate gets more formal and the interview is stilted. In the end, you are thinking that the candidate wasn't friendly, which is exactly what you expected.
Examples of priming on behavior
You can prime someone to walk more slowly by having them read words such as leisurely or cautious. People are more likely to buy bread from a store that smells like fresh baked bread.
Researchers think of hostile and instrumental aggression as a continuum anchored at one end by our brain's automatic impulses (hostile aggression) and at the other end by reasoned, purposeful responses (instrumental aggression). For example
You may go into an automatic rage when you first learn of your lover's infidelity. However, those emotions can mature into a calculated plot to win back your lover, harm your rival, or regain your self-esteem. As you can see, motivational typology helps us understand why people are aggressive.
Example of how attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control interact to predict behavior: ( pages 169-70)
You may have a negative attitude toward cheating, but be more likely to cheat if you perceive that cheating is the subjective norm ( everyone else is doing it), and if you think you can get away with it ( perceived control). 169
According to interdependence theory
Your happiness or unhappiness is, at least to some degree, inter-dependent with that of the other person. You are no longer independent what affects your partner may also affect you.
Social comparisons and group development help you form?
Your sense of identity.
Muzafer Sherif
a Turkish psychologist, founder of social psychology, studied social norms, conducted Robber's Cave experiment.
False Dichotomy
a consideration of only the two extremes when there are one or more intermediate possibilities.
culture of honor
a culture defined by its members' strong concerns about their own and others' reputations, leading to sensitivity to insults and a willingness to use violence to avenge any perceived wrong.
communal orientation
a frame of mind in which people don't distinguish between what's theirs and what is someone else's Type of person who doesn't keep explicit track of things, you do just because you do.
Duchenne smile
a genuine smile that involves contraction of a particular set of facial muscles. Shows in the eyes, produces crows feet.
Confederate
a person who is given a role to play in a study so that the social context can be manipulated, but doesn't participate in the study.
high need for cognition
actively seek out information and critically process news; tend to think about things that don't even affect them.
Deindividuation increases intimacy and
aggression. Even in women.
double-blind experiment
an experimental design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until the results are calculated.
minimal group paradigm
an experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria and then examine how the members of these "minimal groups" are inclined to behave toward one another. Used to study ingroup dynamics.
experimenter bias/expectancy effects
any intentional or unintentional influence that the experimenter exerts on subjects to confirm the hypothesis under investigation
social behavior
any kind of interaction between two or more animals, usually of the same species. Helping behaviors, aggression, relationships, love...
situational attribution
attributing behavior to the environment
dispositional attribution
attribution of behavior to internal dispositions
Muhammad Yunus
began "microlending" in 1974: poorest women in Bangladesh receive microloans to purchase items that help them earn an income and improve their quality of life; benefits the individual and the environment. Basket Weavers. Started Grameen Bank in 1983. Nobel Peace Prize and Presidential Medal of Honor.
Watson ( behaviorist)
classical conditioning, little albert
normative influence
conforming because we want to be liked and accepted
informational influence ( we tend to polarize even more in this situation).
conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people; persuasive argument/information.
individualistic culture
culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy, Common in America.
collectivist cultures
cultures in which the self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with one's group is prized above individual goals and wishes Common in Asian countries.
Muzafer Sherif's Conformity Study (203)
evaluated the concept of norm formation; used *autokinetic effect*; found that the subject's solitary estimates of amount of light movement changed so that the group agreed upon the amount of movement. Both public conformity and private conformity increased over time, based on the artificial group Norm first announce, sometimes days earlier, by the original confederate. Individuals conformed to the group; their judgments converged on some group norm. Conclusion: people are likely to conform based off information.
Healthy Skepticism
examining issues from as many sides as possible; questioning what you hear and read;accepting the fact that we may be in error ourselves; and maintaining the goal of getting at the truth (or as close to the truth as possible). Too much skepticism will lead one to doubt everything and commit oneself to nothing, while too little will lead one to gullibility.
narcissism
excessive self-love and self-absorption
Subcultures are
groups that share many elements of mainstream culture but maintain distinctive customs and lifestyles. Bikers, swingers, hipsters, potheads.
Social Thinking
how we perceive ourselves and others, what we believe, judgments we make, and our attitudes. Schemas, Scripts, how we think about the world and how we define the self.
In the cockroach experiment involving maze showed that...
if the task is difficult, the presence of others decreases performance versus being alone.
Fake smile
just the bottom half of your face is active.
hypothesis testing
make and test an educated guess about a problem/solution. Design a study, collect the data, and run statistics.
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
measures global self-esteem. Has high face validity but is subject to social desirability bias.
Skinner (behaviorist)
operant conditioning; reward and punishment.
Milgram experiment on obedience
o Had people come to the study and they told them that they were apart of a learning experiment and they were randomly assigned to be teacher as confederate is the learner o Was identical for all participants. Anytime the participant tried to quit, the white coat told him that experiment depends on them to continue...Very threatening from authority stand point • Give shock when learner got something wrong o Shock ranged from mild to XXX- they knew that this was not a light punishment • Experimenter always said to continue- unless they absolutely refused • 65% went all the way until the end! ( 26 out of 40 students). • Why was it so effective o Experimenter did not have any alarm, was very calm. So people may have thought that this was a norm o The other person was in another room, so they couldn't see the person which led to distancing and to go to the end o The experimenter's pressure to continue ** strong force for obedience o In a follow up experiment, verbal script added, 65% still delivered maximum. Study with just women, still 65%. Learner in same room, 40% ( decrease). Hold hand to electric plate, 30 % ( decrease). Wh n observing others refuse, those who delivered max shock fell to 10%.
order effects
occur when the order in which the participants experience conditions in an experiment affects the results of the study.
low need for cognition
passive news consumers and rely on shortcuts to get information; don't care how it works, just that it gets the job done.
descriptive research
research methods that involve observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively and systematically; causality can not be stated.
archival studies
research that entails culling information from existing records ranging from magazine articles to Web site analytics. Using stored information to test a hypothesis.
applied research
research undertaken to solve a specific problem. Example: I want to apply these findings of how to increase job satisfaction at this business to increase the workers job satisfaction.
p-value < 0.05
statistically significant; indicate a less than 5% chance that the relationship observed is due to random chance and is 95% certain that it was the manipulation of the IV that caused the DV to change.
mortality salience
the degree to which subjects' mortality is prominent in their minds. Awareness that death is inevitable.
social influence
the effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior. Deals with things like other people's influence on your behavior, conformity, persuasion and prejudice.
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
attachment theory
the idea that early attachments with parents and other caregivers can shape relationships for a person's whole life.
interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor depends on another factor
bystander effect (diffusion of responsibility)
the social dynamic wherein the more people who are present in a moment of crisis, the less likely any one of them is to take action
information overload
the state of being overwhelmed by the enormous amount of information encountered each day.
Aggression can also be explained by situational influences such as,
times of war, modeling and environmental cues.
availability heuristic example
we are more likely to assess the divorce rate in our community by recalling the number of divorces among our own acquaintances. The effects of those scandalous headlines in tabloids sold at grocery checkout lines make us estimate that Hollywood couples are much more likely to have ugly divorces then they are to live happily ever after, simply because divorces get more attention and sell more tabloids.
We are more likely to help people who?
we like or who appear to be similar to ourselves.
