Social Studies
Alonso Alvarez de Pineda
1519 Sailing from a base in Jamaica, Alonso Alvarez de Pineda, a Spanish adventurer, was the first known European to explore and map the Texas coastline.
Cabeza de Vaca
1528 _________ shipwrecked on what is believed today to be Galveston Island. After trading in the region for some six years, he later explored the Texas interior on his way to Mexico.
Organic Law
3 November 1835 -- The Consultation met to consider options for more autonomous rule for Texas. A document known as the ________ outlined the organization and functions of a new Provisional Government.
Santa Ana
Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, the leading villain of Texas history, was born in Mexico on 21 February 1794. As a young military officer, he supported Emperor Agustin de Iturbide, and at one time courted the emperor's sister. He later rebelled against the government, gained considerable backing. By 1833, he was elevated to president of Mexico in a democratic election. He soon determined, however, that Mexico was not ready for democracy and pronounced himself dictator. Santa Anna was remembered as a particularly ruthless opponent by the Texans. Despite this, he was allowed to return to Mexico after his capture at the Battle of San Jacinto. After his return to Mexico, Santa Anna participated in the Mexican War and in 1853 sold territory to the United States including that area known as the Gadsden Purchase. He was later exiled from Mexico, but allowed to return a few years before his death in 1876.
Battle of the Alamo
After losing San Antonio to the Texans during the Siege of Bexar, Mexican General Santa Anna determined to retake this key location and at the same time impress upon the Texans the futility of further resistance to Mexican rule. With these goals, the vanguard of Santa Anna's army arrived in San Antonio about 23 February 1836. Some 145 Texans in the area took refuge in the fortified grounds of an old mission known as the Alamo, under the joint command of William B. Travis (for the regular army) and Jim Bowie (for the volunteers). Over the following two weeks, the Mexican forces continually strengthened to over 2000 troops. During the same period, a few reinforcements for the Texans answered Travis' famous Appeal for Aid and managed to penetrate enemy lines and enter the Alamo grounds, bringing the total strength of the defenders to about 189 men. After periodic bombardment, the siege ended on the morning of 6 March when the Mexicans storm the Alamo fortress. During the battle, all of the Texan defenders were killed. Several non-combatants were spared, including Susanna Dickenson, the wife of one of the defenders, Susanna's baby, and a servant of Travis. Partly to reinforce his goal of terrorizing colonists in Texas, Santa Anna released this small party to inform Texans of the fate of the defenders. Losses in the battle have been placed at 189 Texans against about 1600 for the Mexicans.
Convention of 1833
Almost before the Mexican authorities had a chance to reject the resolutions adopted by the Convention of 1832, a new convention was planned, to meet again in San Felipe, on April 1, 1833. The nature of this new convention was more aggressive than before. Of the fifty-five delegates that met in 1833, only a quarter of them had attended the earlier gathering. William H. Wharton, more volatile than Austin, was selected to preside. Sam Houston, a new leader on the Texas political horizon, attended from Nacogdoches. For the most part, the agenda for the convention was unchanged. The key addition to the reforms proposed earlier was the drafting of a constitution to be submitted to the Mexican congress. The constitution was patterned after those of the American states. Austin was chosen to present the petitions to the government in Mexico City. At first, Austin's meetings with the Mexican officials seemed to go well. But as time passed the chances for success dimmed--to a point that Austin was imprisoned in early 1834 without any specific charges. He would not return to Texas until September of 1835, on the eve of the Texas Revolution.
Robert Cavelir de La Salle
Already well known as an explorer and fur trader in Canada, Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de LaSalle wound his way in 1682 down the Mississippi, claiming the entire Mississippi watershed in the name of France. Two years later, French king Louis XIV supplied LaSalle with ships and colonists to return to the mouth of the Mississippi, and to further strengthen France's claim to the area. With four ships and over two hundred colonists, LaSalle set sail in July, 1684. After a somewhat perilous journey, the group missed their target and landed instead in the area of Matagorda Bay, Texas, in February 1685. Two of their remaining three ships were wrecked during the landing. Some of the party returned to France, but LaSalle and the others established Fort St. Louis, a settlement from which he made several expeditions in search of the Mississippi. On one of these excursions in March 1687, he was ambushed and killed by his own men, probably in the vicinity of present day Navasota in Grimes county.
Coahuiltecans
Are from the Texas Gulf Coast and lived as nomads. When the limited food supply ran out in one place, they moved their camp to another area. Their temporary dwellings were made of mud, animal skins, and brush. Living such a harsh lifestyle built the _______' toughness and endurance. Upon encountering the _______ men, the Europeans were amazed at their ability to run all day without tiring. They mostly gathered food, but sometimes hunted deer and rabbits.
Goliad Massacre
As part of the Mexican invasion of Texas in early 1836, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna and his main force of at least 5000 men followed an inland route toward San Antonio. At the same time, Mexican General Jose Urrea with some 900 troops, left Matamoros and followed a coastal route into Texas. The first town approached by Urrea was San Patricio, where on February 27 he encountered Frank Johnson and about 50 Texans. Johnson and four of his men escaped, but the rest were either killed or captured. A few days later, the Mexicans also fell upon James Grant and another 50 men, and all but one of the Texans were killed. Citizens of Refugio, the next town in Urrea's path, were slow to evacuate. To provide assistance, James W. Fannin, commander of forces at Goliad, sent two relief forces. The first of these groups numbered about 30 men under Aaron King, followed by a larger group of some 150 men under William Ward. Like Johnson's force, both of these groups were eventually killed or captured by the Mexicans. Meanwhile back in Goliad, Fannin and his remaining force of about 350 were called on to aid William Barrett Travis and the Alamo defenders. Afterwards, he was also ordered by Sam Houston to retreat with back to Victoria. Due to indecision and carelessness by Fannin, however, he failed to accomplish either of these missions. After a delay of about five days following Houston's order, Fannin finally began his retreat. It was not long, however, before the Texans found themselves surrounded on open prairie. Several attacks by Urrea resulted each time in the Mexicans being repulsed by the deadly fire of the Texans. By dusk, the Texans had lost about sixty men killed or wounded against some 200 of the Mexicans. Still heavily outnumbered and with no water and few supplies, the Texans waved the white flag of truce the following morning. Believing that they would be taken captive and eventually returned to their homes, the Texans surrendered the morning of March 20. The were escorted back to Goliad as prisoners. When news of their capture reached Santa Anna, however, he was furious that the Texans had not been executed on the spot. Citing a recently passed law that all foreigners taken under arms would be treated as pirates and executed, Santa Anna sent orders to execute the Goliad prisoners. Santa Anna's orders were followed. On Palm Sunday, the 27th of March, the prisoners were divided into three groups, marched onto open prairie, and shot. Thus, all of Fannin's command except a few that managed to escape and several physicians and others deemed useful by the Mexicans, were massacred, collected into piles, and burned. Like the defenders at the Battle of the Alamo who died only three weeks earlier, the men of Goliad served as martyrs for the remaining forces in Houston's army. Three weeks later, the Texans sought their revenge. Inspired by cries of "Remember Goliad" and "Remember the Alamo," the outnumbered Texans won one of history's most decisive victories at the Battle of San Jacinto.
Coke-Davis Dispute
Austin was a landmine in early 1874. People from all over the state had gathered to witness the inauguration of Democrat Richard Coke as its next governor. At long last, this would mark the end of Reconstruction and radical military rule in Texas. The mood was far from festive, however. Despite a Coke victory over incumbent E. J. Davis by a margin of more than two-to-one, Davis refused to relinquish his office. By proclamation on January 12, he cited a trumped-up ruling by the state supreme court, and declared the election invalid. Davis was supported by members of the Radical faction of the Republican party. Further, Davis and his Radicals claimed to have as an ally President U. S. Grant, and threatened that federal troops would be called in if necessary to maintain peace. In fact, unknown to the Democrats, Grant had already declined federal support. But Davis continued to believe that federal military backing would come, especially if the Democrats used force to make their case. By mid-January, the situation seemed grave indeed. Davis and his Radicals took control of the lower level of the old capitol building. Tensions among the city's armed citizens were strained to the point that any violence might easily trigger an uprising that could result in the deaths of hundreds of people. The newly elected members of the Legislature ignored Davis' proclamation. In short order, they organized and gained control of the legislative chambers on the second level of the capitol--one floor above Davis and the Radicals. They confirmed Coke as Texas' new governor, and Coke was inaugurated late the night of January 15. Texas now had two governments. And both of them were "holed up" in the same building. A violent showdown seemed unavoidable. The standoff continued. Then on January 17, Davis received a telegram from Washington in response to his second appeal for military assistance. The answer came via U. S. Attorney General George Williams. Williams stated bluntly that President Grant: "...is of the opinion that your right to the office of the Governor at this time is at least so doubtful, that he does not feel warranted in furnishing United States troops to aid you in holding further possession of it, and therefore declines to comply with your request." [Wooten, vol. 2, p. 207] With his options now severely limited, Davis finally gave in. With this action, Reconstruction in Texas was at long last ended. Further, Governor Coke began a Democratic reign in Texas that would last without interruption for more than 100 years.
Battle of Plum Creek
Battle of Plum Creek (12 August 1840) The boldest and most concentrated of the Indian invasions on Texas, and the deepest into the heart of Texas soil, occurred in August of 1840 and culminated in the Battle of Plum Creek. Hostilities between the Indians and the Texans had been steadily escalating for several years. They reached a peak in early 1840 in what became known as the Council House Fight in San Antonio. The Indians had come to San Antonio on what started out as a peace mission, but a dispute ended in the death of seven Texans and over thirty-five Indians. As a result, the already diminished trust between the Texans and Indians totally collapsed, and the Indians began making plans for retaliation. The counterstrike began in early August, when a war party of about 600 Comanches and Kiowas descended from the Texas hill country all the way to Victoria and nearby Linnville on the Gulf of Mexico. They carefully avoided the settlements on the Guadalupe valley, and thus made the trip undetected when they reached Victoria on the afternoon of August 6. After raiding and looting on the Texas coast, the Indians began their return, backtracking northward just east of the Guadalupe river. By then, news of the raids on Victoria and Linnville had spread through the settlements. Volunteers from Gonzales under Matthew Caldwell and from Bastrop under Ed Burleson were soon gathered and on the way to the site agreed upon to intercept the Indians. The Comanches were already in sight as the two contingents of Texans joined forces. As the Texans approached, most of the Indians formed a line in front of their horses and pack mules. After some time, however, the Indians began retreating and separating, so that the battle turned into a long running fight. The Comanches lost over eighty warriors in the battle that stretched for almost fifteen miles. Others were captured, including squaws and children, and much of the plunder taken at Victoria and Linnville was recovered. The Texans lost one man killed and seven wounded.
Battle of San Jacinto
Battle of San Jacinto (21 April 1836) Sam Houston and the meager army of Texas retreated eastward following the fall of the Alamo in the spring of 1836. The troops were becoming increasingly impatient, however, by the time they reached Buffalo Bayou, a few miles southeast of present day Houston. On the morning of the April 19, the Texans crossed over and marched down the right bank of Buffalo Bayou to within half a mile of its confluence with the San Jacinto River. Here, the army prepared their defenses on the edge of a grove of trees. Their rear was protected by timber and the bayou, while before them was an open prairie. On the following morning, Mexican General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna came marching across the prairie in battle array. A volley from the Texan's "Twin Sisters" artillery brought him to a sudden halt. Falling back to a clump of trees a quarter of a mile distant, Santa Anna formed in line of battle. Colonel Sidney Sherman, at the head of the Texas cavalry, charged the Mexican army, but accomplished little except to inspire the Texans with fresh enthusiasm for the following day. The 21st of April dawned bright and beautiful. The main forces of the Texas army were there, totaling about 750 men. They faced over 1500 of the enemy, secure and flushed with pride at the offense they had enjoyed for the previous few weeks against the Texans. Early in the morning, Houston sent Deaf Smith, the celebrated Texas spy, with two or three men, to destroy Vince's bridge over which the Mexican army had passed, thus cutting off their only available escape. When Houston's long awaited order to advance was given, the Texans did not hesitate. When within seventy yards the word "fire" was given, the Texan shouts of "Remember the Alamo" and "Remember Goliad" rang along the entire line. Within a short time, 700 Mexicans were slain, with another 730 taken as prisoners. The battle for Texas was won. A panel on the side of the monument at San Jacinto today underscores the importance of the battle after more than a century and a half of reflection: "Measured by its results, San Jacinto was one of the decisive battles of the world. The freedom of Texas from Mexico won here led to annexation and to the Mexican War, resulting in the acquisition by the United States of the States of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, California, Utah, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas and Oklahoma. Almost one-third of the present area of the American nation, nearly a million square miles of territory, changed sovereignty."
Convention of 1832
Because of the growing uneasiness with the policies coming from Mexico City, the Texans decided that the time was ripe in mid-1832 to request reforms in government policy. Accordingly, a convention was called to meet at San Felipe on October 1, 1832. A total of fifty-eight delegates representing sixteen settlements attended the convention. Stephen Austin served as president, with Frank W. Johnson secretary. Representation from San Antonio, the center for the Mexican colonists in Texas, was conspicuously absent. The convention adopted resolutions requesting a range of reforms including tariff reduction, the lifting of restrictions on immigration from the United States, the funding of primary schools, and the formation of a separate state of Texas within the Mexican republic. The resolutions failed, however, when Mexican government officials deemed the convention unauthorized and therefore illegal. In the process, though, a second convention was called to meet the following spring.
Ben Milam
Ben Milam was killed when the Texas Revolution was just getting underway. But his leadership prior to his death helped inspire his fellow Texans to retake San Antonio in 1835 at the Siege of Baxer, and ultimately to win Texas independence. Milam was born October 20, 1788 in Frankfort, Kentucky, where he lived until joining the American forces in the War of 1812. After the war, he and a friend floated a large shipment of flour down the Mississippi to New Orleans. Finding a weak market for flour, they joined others and chartered a schooner to South America in search of a better market. The captain and most of the crew died of yellow fever, but Milam and his friends managed to survive. By 1818, Milam was trading with Comanche Indians on the upper Colorado River in Texas. There, he met David G. Burnet, who after an accident was being nursed back to health by the Indians. The two men became close friends. The following year, Milam returned to New Orleans and joined an expedition to aid Mexican patriots seeking independence from Spain. There, he met and formed a close friendship with James Long, husband of Jane Long. Soon afterward, however, Long was "accidentally" killed in Mexico under suspect circumstances. For planning to avenge Long's death, Milam was imprisoned for a short time in 1822, but later released. For several years, Milam assisted empresario Arthur Wavell in developing Wavell's grant on the Red River, but the venture failed. Milam joined Texan volunteers in the Goliad Campaign of 1835. Soon afterwards, Stephen Austin placed him in charge of a company of scouts to determine the best routes over which to retake San Antonio in the Siege of Bexar. Subsequently, Milam and Frank W. Johnson each lead a group of volunteers in house-to-house combat during the retaking of the town. On December 7, 1835, Milam was killed by a rifle shot while moving from one position to another. Three days later, the Mexican forces surrendered and vacated San Antonio.
Ed Burleson
Born in 1798 in North Carolina, Burleson's family moved on several occasions during his youth. One of these moves was to Missouri in 1814, to Virginia in 1815, then to Tennessee in 1824. Burleson gained a reputation as a military leader at an early age, first in command of a company of militia in Howard County, Missouri, and then as colonel of a frontier regiment in Hardeman County, Tennessee. Burleson came to Texas in 1831 and settled near Bastrop on the Colorado River. When the Texas revolution broke out, Burleson was made second in command to Stephen Austin. He was in command of the forces that participated in the taking of San Antonio in the fall of 1835, and later commanded the first regiment of volunteers at the Battle of San Jacinto. After Texas won independence, Burleson was appointed Brigadier General in charge of the limited forces of the Republic of Texas. He was very active from 1838 through 1841 in the challenging task of protecting the frontier from Mexican and Indian depredations. After serving in the Congress of the Republic, Burleson was elected in 1841 to the position of vice-president of Texas. However, he returned to the field in 1842 to repel the Mexican invasions under Rafael Vasquez and Adrian Woll. During the Mexican-American war, Burleson enlisted as a private soldier and fought at Monterrey. Finally retiring from field service in the defense of Texas, Burleson was elected to the State senate, and while in that position died in Austin on 26 December 1851.
William B. Travis
Born in South Carolina on 9 August 1809, William Barret Travis will always be remembered as the Texas commander at the Battle of the Alamo. He spent his childhood in Saluda Co., SC, which was also the home of James Butler Bonham, another Alamo defender. Travis studied law and became a practicing attorney for a brief time before marrying Rosanna Cato at the age of nineteen. Within a year, when Travis was barely twenty years old, they had a son, Charles Edward Travis. Remaining in the area, Travis began publication of a newspaper, became a Mason, and joined the militia. The marriage soon failed, however. Travis abandoned his wife, son, and an unborn daughter, and headed for Texas. After arriving in Texas in early 1831, Travis obtained land from Stephen F. Austin. He set up to practice law first in the town of Anahuac, and afterwards at San Felipe. When friction developed between Texas and Mexico, Travis was one of the first to join the Texas forces. When Mexican General Martin Perfecto de Cos demanded the surrender of the Texan's cannon that resulted in the Battle of Gonzales, Travis was one of hundreds to come to the its defense. He arrived too late, however, to take part in the action. On orders from Provisional Governor Henry Smith in January of 1836, Travis entered the Alamo with about 30 men. Within a few days, he found himself in command, when then commander James C. Neill took leave to care for his family. Travis commanded the Texas defenders during the Siege and Battle of the Alamo. His Appeal from the Alamo for reinforcements has become an American symbol of unyielding courage and heroism. Although a few reinforcements arrived before the Alamo fell, Travis and over 180 defenders gave their lives for Texas independence on 6 March 1836. Remarkably, Travis was only twenty-six years of age at the time of his death.
Francisco Vasquez de Coronado
Coronado was born at Salamanca, Spain in 1510. At the age of twenty-five, he sailed to the New World, and settled in Mexico City. There, he married, started a family, and was appointed in 1538 as governor of the province of Nueva Galicia. In response to reports of riches at the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola, Coronado led an expedition into what is now the southwestern United States and northern Texas. The expedition totaling nearly one thousand men left Mexico in 1540. After months of searching, however, the expedition found no trace of treasure. Most of the party returned to Mexico the following year, but Coronado and a smaller force continued the search. They finally returned to Mexico City, with their saddlebags still empty, in the spring of 1542.
Battle of Gonzales
Differences between Texas and Mexico progressed from the talking stage to the shooting stage at The Battle of Gonzales, generally considered to be the first battle of the Texas Revolution. Leading up to the conflict, the Mexican authorities sent a force of about 100 men to repossess a cannon that had been provided the residents of Gonzales for defense against Indians. In response to the Mexican force, the Texans, under Colonels John H. Moore and J. W. E. Wallace, loaded the cannon with scrap iron, aimed at the Mexicans, and fired the shot that began the revolution. After a short fight, the Mexicans retreated, with one casualty, against no loss on the side of the Texans. The battle flag used by the Texans at the Battle of Gonzales gained considerable recognition as the "Come and Take It" flag. On a white banner was a picture of the old cannon, painted in black. The flag acquired its name from the words "come and take it" printed below the cannon.
Convention of 1836
Fifty-four delegates of the Convention of 1836 began meeting on March 1 at the village of Washington-on-the-Brazos. Each of the settlements of Texas were represented by delegates elected one month earlier. Richard Ellis was elected president of the convention and Herbert S. Kimble secretary. With very little time to accomplish its mission, delegates of Convention of 1836 wrote and adopted the Texas Declaration of Independence, prepared a Constitution for the newly formed Republic, and organized an an interim government. These actions were accomplished amid almost daily reports of the invasion on Texas soil by Mexico, and the collapse of the Alamo and destruction of its defenders. The ad interim government that was created by the delegates took office at the close of the convention, and served until the following October, when general elections could be held. Officers of the newly formed Republic included: David G. Burnet, President Lorenzo de Zavala, Vice-president Samuel P. Carson, Secretary of State Thomas J. Rusk, Secretary of War Bailey Hardeman, Secretary of Treasury David Thomas, Attorney General With their mission accomplished, the delegates and the newly formed government of the Republic of Texas adjourned in haste during the early morning hours of March 17, following news of the approach of Santa Anna and the Mexican army.
Archives War
Following Mexican depredations into Texas in 1842, President Sam Houston deemed the still-frontier town of Austin to be in danger of falling into enemy hands. He therefore ordered the removal of the seat of government, as well as all of its records, from Austin to Houston. This provoked a blustery response from the citizens of Austin known as the Archives War. On Houston's first attempt to obtain the papers peaceably, several of the Austinites showed their contempt by shaving the mains and tails of the horses of Houston's messengers. Undeterred, Houston sent an armed force of thirty men on a follow-up attempt to retrieve the records. When Houston's men arrived on the morning of December 29, 1842, they drove their wagons directly to the Land Office building where the records were kept. The Austinites quickly assembled a retaliatory force, charged a cannon, and aimed it at Houston's men. Mrs. Angelina Eberly, proprietress of a local boarding house, is credited as the one who touched off the cannon. Aside from some damage to the building, the cannon had little effect and no one was hurt. Houston's men managed to finish loading their wagons and leave town with their cargo. Austin citizens were as determined as Houston. They pursued and surrounded Houston's forces that night some eighteen miles east of town. After considerable threats and verbal exchanges, the archives were returned to Austin the following morning. Thus ended the Archive War, decisive though bloodless.
Tiguas
From West Texas, The _____ came to Texas in the late 1600s with Spanish settlers who were fleeing a revolt by native groups in Isleta, New Mexico. The _______ settled along the Rio Grande near El Paso and called their community Ysleta del Sur, or "Little Island of the South." They lived in adobe houses, and they cooked food in round adobe ovens. In addition to some hunting and fishing, the _____ grew corn, tomatoes, squash, beans, and grapes. They made beautiful pottery for storing and cooking food. They also grew cotton and wove it into cloth.
The Mexican-American War
Ignited as a result of disputes over claims to Texas boundaries. The outcome of the war fixed Texas' southern boundary at the Rio Grande River.
Gutierrez-Magee Expedition
In 1812 about 130-men strong, the _________ crossed the Sabine from Louisiana in a rebel movement against Spanish rule in Texas.
Jean Laffite
In 1817-1820 ________ occupied Galveston Island and used it as a base for his smuggling and privateering operation.
Siege of Bexar
In December of 1835, San Antonio de Bexar was under the control of Mexican General Perfecto de Cos with about 1200 soldiers from Mexico. For almost two months, Texas volunteers had camped near the town in a virtual standoff with Cos. The stalemate ended, however, when one of the Texas leaders, Ben Milam, returned from a brief absence to find that the Texans were about to withdraw to Goliad. Voicing strong opposition to the retreat, Milam appealed to the Texans with his now-famous words, "Who will will go with old Ben Milam into San Antonio?" Some 300 volunteers responded. Starting before daybreak on December 5, the Texans, led by Milam and Frank W. Johnson, began their siege. Against heavy odds in both men and artillery, the Texans skirmished for the next two days. On December 7, Milam was shot and killed. The death of their leader seemed to inspire the Texans as they engaged in house-to-house combat that continued for two more days. At daybreak on December 9, after four days of fighting, Cos signalled a Mexican truce. In exchange for the parole and return of Cos and his men to Mexico, the Texans gained all of the public property, guns and ammunition in San Antonio. During the siege, the Texans lost only four men killed (including Milam) and fifteen wounded. They gained, however, one of the most important strongholds in Texas. Within a few months, the Mexicans would return to retake the town during the bloody Siege and Battle of the Alamo.
Compromise of 1850
In a plan to settle boundary disputes and pay her public debt, Texas relinquished about one-third of her territory in the ____________, in exchange for $10,000,000 from the United States.
Battle of Velasco
In an armed prelude to the Texas Revolution, the Battle of Velasco marked the first bloodshed in the then deteriorating relations between Texas and Mexico. In the conflict, Domingo de Ugartechea, the Mexican commander in charge of a fort at the town of Velasco, attempted to block attempts by the Texans to transport a cannon for possible use against Mexican forces at nearby Anahuac. After several days of fighting, the Texans under John Austin and Henry Smith prevailed when the Mexicans exhausted their ammunition. Before the fighting ended, however, some 8-10 Texans were killed and another 12 wounded. Mexican losses were placed at 5 killed and about 15 wounded. Under the provisions of the truce, Ugartechea and his men were allowed to return to Mexico. Tensions later eased somewhat when Mexican officials dismissed the Mexican commander at Anahuac, who had been the primary cause for the Texan's frustration with Mexican authorities in the area.
Battle of Galveston
In the fall of 1862, Union Commodore William B. Renshaw sailed into Galveston harbor and demanded the surrender of the island city by its occupants. With virtually no defense force, the Confederate commander on the island, Colonel Joseph J. Cook, had little choice but to comply. About the same time in late 1862, Major General John B. Magruder was named Confederate commander of the District of Texas. Upon arriving in Houston, Magruder immediately began making plans to recapture Galveston. To implement his plan, Magruder outfitted the decks of two river steamers, the Bayou City and the Neptune, with bails of cotton. The compressed cotton would be used to protect an on-board attack force to challenge the Federal fleet in Galveston harbor. A land force would also be used in a joint land-sea attack. On New Years Eve, the Confederate Cottonclads, as the curious looking vessels were called, threaded their way from Harrisburg, through Galveston Bay, and toward the western entrance to Galveston harbor. About dawn on New Year's Day, 1863, the Confederate Cottonclads entered the west end of Galveston harbor. Their nearest and first target was the Union's Harriet Lane. After a brief encounter and some maneuvering, the tide of battle foretold an almost certain Union victory. The Confederate ground forces had been outgunned and effectively held in check by the Federal warships. After only a brief contest at sea, one-half of the two-vessel Texas fleet was lying on the bottom of the harbor. Further, the lone surviving Confederate Cottonclad, the Bayou City, was outnumbered six-to-one among the armed vessels in the harbor. After recovering from its first encounter, however, the Bayou City circled around and made a second desperate run on the Lane. This time, the Confederates hit their target with remarkable precision. In short order, the crew of the Bayou City succeeded in storming and overpowering the crew of the Lane. Meanwhile, across the harbor, the Federal Flagship Westfield, with Commodore Renshaw on board, had become hopelessly grounded in shallow water. The crew tried furiously to dislodge her, but she would not budge. At that point, a temporary truce was negotiated as both sides considered their positions. During the truce, Renshaw decided to destroy the still immobilized Westfield and attempt a Federal escape from the harbor. Even this plan went terribly awry. As Renshaw and his crew fused the gunpowder on the flagship and quickly rowed away, nothing happened. They returned for another attempt. But as they debarked the second time, the gunpowder prematurely exploded, rocking the entire harbor. The explosion killed Renshaw and thirteen of his crew. With flags of truce still flying, the remaining Federal vessels stoked their boilers, and quietly began heading for the open sea. In this endeavor they were successful, for the Confederates had little means to pursue. Thus, the island of Galveston was recaptured. Twenty-six Confederates had been killed and 117 wounded. About twice that many Federals died in the conflict. The Union's showcase vessel and nearly 400 men were captured. More importantly for the Texans, however, was that their victory restored control of Galveston to the Confederacy, where it would remain for the balance of the war.
Jim Bowie
Known for his famous "Bowie knife" and a sometimes reckless adventurer, Jim Bowie is now immortalized as one of the true folk heroes in early Texas. Bowie was born in Kentucky in 1796. While still very young, he moved with his family, first to Missouri, then in 1802 to Louisiana, where he spent most of his youth. It was there that he first acquired a reputation for his bold and fearless disposition. In 1827, Bowie participated in a bloody brawl near Natchez, Mississippi, where several men were killed and Bowie was wounded. After recovering the following year, he moved to Texas. Before the revolution in Texas, Bowie took part in many adventures. He spent considerable time cultivating friendships with Indians in his search for elusive silver and gold reported to be hidden in the interior of Texas. By some accounts, he is said to have found the fabled San Saba mines, also known as the Bowie mines, near the geographic center of present day Texas. In the Texas Revolution, Bowie was a leading participant at the Battle of Concepcion and in the Grass Fight near San Antonio. He was in command of a volunteer force in San Antonio when William Travis arrived with regular army troops. The two men shared authority during much of the Siege of the Alamo, which caused some personal friction. But pneumonia disabled Bowie, and he was confined to his cot at the time of his death on March 6, 1836 at the Battle of the Alamo.
James Hogg
James S. Hogg was born March 24, 1851 near Rusk, in east Texas. His birthplace would later give him the distinction of becoming the first native-born governor of Texas. Hogg was orphaned at the age of eleven when his father, a Confederate general, died in May 1862, and his mother died soon afterwards. To help support himself, he worked as a typesetter in a newspaper office at an early age. He later owned his own paper. Meanwhile, he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1875. In 1878, Hogg held his first public office when he was elected county attorney of Wood County. He then ran and was elected district attorney for the seventh judicial district. In 1886, Hogg became Attorney-General of the State of Texas, then was re-elected to that post two years later. He easily won the Democratic nomination for governor in 1890, and went on to become governor of Texas from 1891 through 1895. Even among larger-than-life Texans, Hogg was an imposing figure. At six feet two inches and two hundred and eighty five pounds, the feisty governor was a popular advocate of the common citizen and did much to strengthen public respect for law enforcement in general. He sponsored anti-trust legislation and helped establish the powerful Railroad Commission during his tenure as governor. After retiring as governor, Hogg continued an active interest in good government, but held no other public office. He pursued his successful and growing business interests until his death in Houston on March 6, 1906. He is buried in Austin. Hogg married Sarah Ann Stinson and had four children. Their only daughter, affectionately known as Miss Ima (1882-1975), became well known as a philanthropist throughout her long life in Texas.
James Fanin
James Walker Fannin was born in early 1804 in Georgia. He was adopted by his maternal grandfather, James W. Walker, and raised on a plantation near Marion. In 1819, he entered the U. S. military academy at West Point under the name of James F. Walker, and remained for just over two years. Fannin came to Texas with his wife and two daughters in 1834, and settled at Valesco. Soon after his arrival, he became active in the cause for independence from Mexico. He was a participant in the Battle of Gonzales on October 2, 1835. Later the same month, he and James Bowie led the Texas forces in the battle of Concepcion. In January of 1836, Fannin was appointed by the provisional government as an agent to raise troops and money for the republic. In command of a regiment at Goliad, he received orders from Sam Houston on March 14 to retreat to Victoria. Partly through indecision and partly due to other circumstances, Fannin delayed the retreat for five days. When he finally began the retreat, Mexican forces under General Jose Urrea had advanced to the vicinity of the town. With his regiment of about 400 men, Fannin surrendered at the Battle of Coleto after being surrounded by the Mexican forces, and were taken back to Goliad. On order of Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, he was executed along with virtually all of his men on 27 March 1836.
Battle of Concepcion
Jim Bowie, James Fannin and 90 Texans defeated 450 Mexicans at _______________, near San Antonio.
Alonso de Leon
Mexican explorer ________ reached Fort St. Louis, and found it abandoned, during an expedition planned to reestablish Spanish presence in Texas.
Tonkawa
Native groups in North Central Texas combined the lifestyles of some of their neighbors. The _____ lived in Central Texas near present-day Austin. Like the plains groups, they often hunted buffalo. They also hunted deer and traded the hides. In addition, they fished the rivers and springs for fish, crawfish, and clams. Because there was plenty of food nearby, the _____ did not have to migrate. Like the East Texas groups, they settled in villages and lived in grass houses. The ______ later joined European settlers in fighting the Comanches.
Sam Houston
One of the most colorful and controversial figures in Texas history, Sam Houston was born in Virginia on March 2, 1793. He spent much of his youth, however, in the mountains of Tennessee. There, young Houston became acquainted with the Cherokee Indians, and he spent much time with them, an activity which he much preferred over studies or working on the farm. With the outbreak of the second war with England, Houston enlisted as a private soldier, and was made sergeant of a company. He excelled in the military and quickly won the admiration of his men and his superiors. After receiving three near-mortal wounds at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, he rose to the rank of first lieutenant before resigning in 1818 to study law. After a short time, he was admitted to the bar and practiced in Lebonon, Tennessee before running for public office. He sought and won public office and was elected to the US Congress in 1823 and again in 1825. In 1827, Houston was elected Governor of Tennessee by a large majority. While governor and after a brief marriage that ended unfavorably, Houston quietly resigned from Tennessee politics and returned to live with his longtime friends, the Cherokees. There, he remained until 1832 when he moved to Texas along with a few friends. In Texas, Houston was elected delegate from Nacogdoches to the Convention of 1833 which met at San Felipe. From that time, Houston emerged as a prominent player in the affairs of Texas. In 1835 he was appointed general of the military district east of the Trinity. He became a member of the Consultation of 1835, and of the Convention which met at Washington on the Brazos in 1836 to declare independence from Mexico. It was there that Houston was elected commander-in-chief of the armies of Texas. Houston immediately took control of the Texas forces after the fall of the Alamo and Goliad, and conducted the retreat of the army to the site of the Battle of San Jacinto, where on April 21, 1836, his force defeated Santa Anna and secured Texas long sought independence. In the fall of that year, Houston was elected the first President of the Republic of Texas. After serving his term as President, he served in the Congress of the Republic in 1839-40. Then in 1841, Houston was again voted by a large margin to the head of the Texas government. After statehood in 1845, Houston was elected Senator from Texas to the Congress of the United States. Still later, in 1859, Houston was elected to serve as Governor of the State of Texas. As Governor in 1861, Houston was strongly opposed to the secession of Texas from the Union. Because he was much in the minority on this issue, Houston was removed from office in March of 1861, ending his illustrious carrier in public service. Houston retired to the privacy of his home at Huntsville, Texas, where died in July of 1863. He is buried in Huntsville's Oakwood Cemetery.
Somerviel Expedition
Ordered by Sam Houston on 3 October 1842, the Somervell Expedition was organized as a punitive measure following Mexican raids on San Antonio. After a general call, nearly 700 eager volunteers streamed into San Antonio to participate in the affair. The expedition departed San Antonio on November 25. It captured Laredo on December 8. They then headed south along the Rio Grande and soon afterward took the town of Guerreo. Houston's instructions to Somervell were to continue the invasion only if circumstances assured a reasonable chance for success. Because almost one-third of the participants returned home soon after the capture of Laredo, Somervell determined that the remaining force was not strong enough nor did they have the supplies and equipment to successfully sustain further penetration into Mexico. He therefore ordered his men to disband and return to Texas. A large number of the Texans, however, felt betrayed by the order. They elected to ignore Somervell and continue the raid into Mexico. Thus, over 300 of the men elected to continue the raids in what came to be known as the Mier Expedition.
Texas before 1500
Prior to the arrival of the first European explorers, numerous tribes of the Indians of Texas occupied the region between the Rio Grande to the south and the Red River to the north.
Texas April 6, 1830
Relations between the Texans and Mexico reached a new low when Mexico forbid further emigration into Texas by settlers from the United States.
Stephan F. Austin
Stephen's father, Moses Austin, received a grant of land in Texas for purposes of colonization. The elder Austin died soon after returning to Missouri from a trip to Texas, but bequeathed his grant to Stephen with instructions to carry it to a successful completion. Accordingly, after many delays and frustrations with the Mexican government, Steven Austin introduced a large number of colonists from the United States. An unassuming man with a kindly presence, he was deeply respected by all, and achieved unparalleled influence over the often unruly settlers in Anglo Texas.
Battle of the Alamo
Texans under Col. William B. Travis were overwhelmed by the Mexican army after a two-week siege at the _______________ in San Antonio. The Runaway Scrape began.
Secession Convention
Texas seceded from the Federal Union following a 171 to 6 vote by the Secession Convention. Governor Sam Houston was one of a small minority opposed to secession.
Constitution of 1824
The Constitution of 1824 gave Mexico a republican form of government. It failed, however, to define the rights of the states within the republic, including Texas.
Mier Expedition
The Mier Expedition was the most disastrous of all of the border confrontations between Texas and Mexico during the days of the Republic. It developed out of the Somervell Expediton, which disbanded soon after making brief raids into Laredo and Guerrero along the Rio Grande. About 300 strong, the group elected William S. Fisher as their commander and moved down the Rio Grande opposite the Mexican town of Mier. With the main force of Texans, Fisher crossed the river on December 23, 1842 and occupied the town of Mier without opposition. They vacated later that day, however, after the town alcalde promised to deliver supplies to the that the Texans had demanded to thier camp. Meanwhile, Mexican General Pedro Ampudia arrived at Mier and prevented delivery of the supplies. When the rations were not delivered as promised, the Texans re-entered Mier on Christmas day, this time by force. Heavy fighting resulted which continued until the following afternoon. The Texans, outnumbered by about ten to one, suffered thirty-one killed and wounded versus Mexican losses estimated at 600 killed and 200 wounded. However, the Texan's rations dwindled rapidly and they agreed to a surrender, although the terms of surrender were not well defined. The Texas prisoners were at first sentenced to execution, but the execution order was later reversed. They were then held in the town of Matamoros until ordered to be moved to Mexico City. The Texans managed to escape their Mexican captors at the town of Salado on February 11, 1843. After much suffering, however, all but three of them were recaptured either individually or in small groups before they could make their way back to Texas. The recaptured escapees, now totalling 176, were again sentenced to death by Mexican dictator Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. This order was subsequently reduced, however, so that one of every ten men, to be determined by lottery, were to be executed. In the lottery, which came to be known as the Black Bean Episode, seventeen of the unfortunate prisioners who drew black beans from a jar were blindfolded and shot. Most of the remaining prisoners were marched to Mexico City, where they spent the summer of 1843 making road repairs. In September, they were transferred to Perote Prison, a highly secure stone fortress East of Mexico City. Here, they either died, escaped, or remained until the last of the group was released on September 14, 1844.
The Runway Scrape
The Runaway Scrape is the period in early 1836 generally beginning with the Siege and Fall of the Alamo and ending with the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21. It was a period of terror and panic among the settlements of Texas, as Santa Anna and the Mexican armies swept eastward from San Antonio, virtually unopposed. During the runaway, the colonists gathered a few personal possessions, abandoned their homes, and headed eastward under most difficult conditions. Rain and cold weather during the period slowed the settler's eastward progress along the muddy roads and trails. There was widespread hunger and sickness, and many died. News of Santa Anna's atrocities (some true, but some distorted by rumor) added to the frenzy. The news of the Texas victory at San Jacinto was received amid great rejoicing by the participants of the Runaway Scrape. The settlers immediately began the return to their settlements. For most, however, it meant the beginning of a rebuilding, for many of the homes and settlements were either burned by the Texans to prevent supplies from falling into the hands of the Mexicans, or by the Mexican army as it moved eastward. The recovery seemed speedy, however. Within a short time, the settlements were restored and the material evidence of the invasion disappeared.
Texas Declaration of Independence
The Texas Declaration of Independence was produced, literally, overnight. Its urgency was paramount, because while it was being prepared, the Alamo in San Antonio was under seige by Santa Anna's army of Mexico. Immediately upon the assemblage of the Convention of 1836 on March 1, a committee of five of its delegates were appointed to draft the document. The committee, consisting of George C. Childress, Edward Conrad, James Gaines, Bailey Hardeman, and Collin McKinney, prepared the declaration in record time. It was briefly reviewed, then adopted by the delegates of the convention the following day. As seen from the transcription below, the document parallels somewhat that of the United States, signed almost sixty years earlier. It contains statements on the function and responsibility of government, followed by a list of grievances. Finally, it concludes by declaring Texas a free and independent republic.
Caddoes
The ______ were the largest East Texas native group. They built sturdy grass lodges up to fifty feet high and lived in large villages. The _____ were ruled by a major chief called the ______, assisted by other chiefs who were appointed as helpers. The ____made the important political decisions for the village and led war councils. Women also played important roles in _____ society. The oldest woman in each family controlled the entire family, even if the men were chiefs or warriors. The ______ built huge temple and burial mounds. A head priest kept the temple fire and directed the ceremonies. Most ______ lived along the Angelina and Neches Rivers. Groups of _____ joined together to form federations such as the Hasinai Confederacy.The Native Texans of this region lived in a food-rich environment. They learned to clear the forests and plant crops such as pumpkins, beans, and corn. They also hunted game such as deer, bears, and an occasional buffalo. The forests provided timber, which the people used to build permanent dwellings. Having secured food and shelter, these Native Texans created colorful crafts such as rugs, baskets, and pottery. Their success as farmers and craftspeople helped them develop trade networks as far west as New Mexico. The East Texas farming groups developed complex societies.
Wichitas
The _______ migrated from Kansas and settled near present-day Waco, Dallas, and Corsicana. Like neighboring East Texas native groups, they obtained their food primarily through farming. They grew corn, beans, pumpkins, squash, and melons. They also hunted buffalo. The _______ became skilled artisans, making clay pots and jars and leather bags. They lived in large villages of up to a thousand people. They built sturdy grass lodges that held eight to ten people each. Warriors in the group elected chiefs who enforced rules for daily living. The _____ also held the women of the group in high regard.
Apaches
The _______ moved south into Texas in the 1600s or earlier. They quickly learned to hunt the plentiful game on the plains. The ______ wore high boots of soft leather to protect themselves from thorns and brush. The men wore headbands that absorbed sweat in the hot desert sun. Women held a central place within the group. The ________ were mainly nomadic hunters known for raiding other groups in West Texas and northern Mexico. The Lipan ______ hunted and farmed. For part of the year they lived in farming communities along rivers or streams called rancherías by Spaniards. They grew beans, maize (corn), squash, and pumpkins and traded with neighboring groups. To avoid their enemies, the Comanches, the Lipan _______ later moved into South Texas
Jumanos
The ________ made their homes in far West Texas. The ______ lived in farming villages of one-room houses along the Rio Grande from El Paso to the Big Bend area. Their square, flat-roofed houses were made of adobe, which helped keep the homes cool in the summer and warm in the winter. Inside, the homes were brightly painted. The ________ planted their crops beside rivers and streams to take advantage of the limited water supply. Some _______ hunted and traded farther east.
Lone Star State Fair
The first ___________ in Corpus Christi symbolized a period of relative prosperity in Texas during the 1850's. Organizer Henry L. Kinney persuaded Dr. Ashbel Smith to be the fair's manager
Goliad Campaign of 1835
The town of Goliad held a strategic position at the time of the Texas Revolution. It was located some 50 miles up the San Antonio River on a key route between San Antonio and the port of Copano on the Gulf coast. Thus, any Mexican naval supply line to San Antonio passed by the town. Further, Goliad was the site of a well fortified Spanish presidio elevated above the banks of the river. In a plan to reinforce Mexican forces at Goliad and San Antonio, Mexican General Martin Perfecto de Cos landed at Copano and occupied Goliad on October 2, 1835 with an advanced force. These forces were soon joined by a main force of over 400 men. By October 5, however, Cos took most of his men and departed for San Antonio. A small residual force of some 30 men remained at Goliad to hold the presidio and the supplies it contained. Meanwhile, a force of some 50 Texas volunteers under George Collingsworth determined to take the Goliad presidio. Marching from nearby Victoria, they were joined by Ben Milam just prior to the attack in the late evening of October 9. The Texans entered the presidio by forcing through the doors of the ajoining church, and overtook the Mexican defenders in the matter of a few minutes. Casualties were light on both sides. In taking Goliad, the Texans not only gained the strategic presidio, but also captured much needed supplies. These were used in the following months to helped sustain the Texas forces during the Siege of Baxer. The small attack force of Texans were soon augmented by a larger group of volunteers.
Karankawas
They mostly gathered food, but sometimes hunted deer and rabbits. The _______ lived on the coast between Corpus Christi Bay and Galveston Bay. These Native Texans used dugout canoes they pushed with poles. They used cane traps and bows and arrows to catch fish. They gathered mollusks, clams, and oysters along coastal bays and rivers. They also hunted for small game. Because the ______ lived near marshy areas, they had to cope with swarms of mosquitoes. To ward off the insects, they coated their bodies with alligator or shark grease. The women made clothing from deerskin and moss. They also tattooed and painted their bodies. The ______ were very gentle with their children. and they loved dogs.
Texas 1716-1789
Throughout the 18th century, Spain established Catholic missions in Texas, and along with the missions, the towns of San Antonio, Goliad and Nacogdoches.
Texan Santa Fe Expedition
Throughout the period of the Republic of Texas and ending with the Compromise of 1850, Texas claimed a large area to the north and west of its current boundaries. This area included a large stretch of the Santa Fe trail, a lucrative trade route that linked Missouri (then the eastern boundary of the United States) with the town of Santa Fe in present day New Mexico. In an effort to reap some of the commercial benefits of this trade and to further establish Texas' claim to the Santa Fe area, President Mirabeau B. Lamar appointed commissioners to the region and promised governmental representation and other benefits to its citizens. Then, without the approval of the Congress of the Republic, Lamar proposed an expedition to Santa Fe to effect his plan. Volunteers were solicited and prospective merchants of Santa Fe trade were promised transportation and protection for their goods during the expedition. William G. Cooke, Richard F. Brenham, Jose Antonio Navarro, and George Van Ness joined the expedition as commissioners. A military escort of several companies was organized, commanded by Hugh McLeod. Altogether, an expedition of some 320 men (together with 21 ox-drawn wagons carrying merchandise valued at $200,000) set out on June 19, 1841 from a point just north of Austin. Throughout the summer, the caravan threaded its way slowly to the northwest. Although threatened at times by Indians, the expedition suffered delays and much hardship due mainly to dwindling provisions and failure to locate a suitable route through an extremely rugged terrain. Their most surprising and severe setback upon entering the settlements of New Mexico, however, was the hostile reception they received. Rather that the welcome that they had expected, they were greeted by an armed force sent out by New Mexican Governor Manuel Armijo, who maintained close ties with the Texan's arch enemy--Mexico. Through the efforts of William G. Lewis, a traitor from within the Texan expedition, the Texans were persuaded to surrender to Armijo's forces. Following their surrender, the Texans were taken prisioners, treated harshly, and marched some 2000 miles to a prison in Mexico City. After considerable diplomatic controversy between Mexico and the United States, most of the prisioners were released the following April. The expedition thus ended in failure. It became yet another of a series of encounters between Texas and Mexico that would lead to the annexation of Texas by the United States, and ultimately, the Mexican-American war.
Grass Fight
Toward the end of November 1835, it was reported to the Texans around San Antonio that a shipment of silver coming from Mexico. According the report, the silver was being transported on a train of pack mules on its way to pay the soldiers of Mexican General Cos, who then occupied the town. The Texas scouts kept a close watch for the convoy so that the payload might be intercepted. On the morning of 28 November, Erastus (Deaf) Smith, while on patrol, discovered some mules with packs approaching. Supposing this to be the expected train, he reported his discovery to the Texan camp. A group under Jim Bowie was first to intercept the mule train and a skirmish began. As reinforcements under Colonel Ed Burleson arrived, the fight was well underway. The Texans pursued as the enemy dispersed, thus ending the celebrated "grass fight". The Mexicans abandoned their mules as they fled. However, the Texans soon found that the packs were filled with grass, rather than the expected silver. As the Texans later learned from their captives, the Mexicans had gone out the night before to gather grass to feed their horses. The Texans lost one man and two wounded during the fight. The Mexican loss was much larger.
Texas became a state
U. S. President James Polk followed through on a campaign platform promising to annex Texas, and signed legislation making Texas the 28th state of the United States.
primary source
a document or physical object which was written or created during the time under study. These sources were present during an experience or time period and offer an inside view of a particular event.
Kiowas
according to their oral history, moved into Texas in the late 1700s from the mountains of South Dakota and Montana. On the High Plains they often joined the Comanches to drive the Apaches from their territories. The ______ painted pictures of important events on their tepees and made beautiful beaded crafts. They also developed a calendar. _______ warriors became master riders and were among the most feared native groups on the plains.
secondary source
documents written after an event has occurred, providing secondhand accounts of that event, person, or topic. Unlike primary sources, which provide first-hand accounts, secondary sources offer different perspectives, analysis, and conclusions of those accounts.