Sociology 337 International Migration
Distribution of black immigrants in the US
over 4 million -mostly Jamiaca, Haiti, Nigeria, Ethiopia, T&T, DR, Ghana
Defining race, ethnicity, and nationality
race - from Desmond reading- "a symbolic category based on phenotype or ancestry and constructed according social & historical contexts, that is misrecognized as a natural category" nationality- tied to Race & ethnicity but is distinct, is equated with citizenship, in a specific politically delineated territory controlled by a government Deros&Banaji 05'- how that American identity is racialized sample: Yale undergrads- participants are explicitly egalitarian, but there are biases -implicit biases that suggest that whiteness is related to American identity
ethnicity
refers to a shared lifestyle informed by cultural, historical, religious and or national affiliations
Linguistic Life Expectancies: Immigrant Language retention in Southern California (Rumbaut, Massey, Bean)
since census took off question of parents place of birth in 1970 hard to use that MEXICAN IMMIGRANTS arriving today can expect only 5 of every 100 of their great grandchildren to speak fluent Spanish Descendants can/ have ability to speak spanish but prefer english in most social settings ex.) by 3rd gen 96% prefer to speak english at home US is a graveyard for languages b/c of its historical ability to absorb immigrants by the millions and extinguish their mother tongues within a few generations (portes and Rumbaut 06) empirical fact
natural category
something created by humans is mistaken as something dictated by nature
Immigration
those coming into a country
migrant
traveler who moves from one region or country to another across an international border
Net migration
# immigrants arrivals - emigrant existing within an area in a particular time (+) net migration vs. negative(-)
Migration
(moving or moved) movement of people from one place to another
Push-Pull theories (Migration Theory)
- (Portes & Rumbaut 2014) (push) -factors that drive people to leave their country of residence b/c they lack jobs, have low wages, job opportunities Pull- factors that attract are job opportunities, higher wages, and safety - Post factum to explain existing flows not really new starts - Planned recruitment by the labor-scarce start flows
1965 Hart-Cellar Act
- *At this time Qual and Quant restrictions in both hemispheres (eastern only 170,000 visas) and (1st time W annual 120,000) - A shift from national origin quota system to 7-category preference system - N limit for US citizens petitioning for immediate relatives - Abolishednational origins quota -> global & evenly distributed quotas - World-wide annual limit 675,00 - Increased Illegal immigration from L A, sea-wall effect, family reunification/limiting of green card holder rights - Established 2 tier immigration system - Numerically unlimited for immediate relatives of US citizens but limited visas for everyone else (including employment)
1790 Naturalization Act
- 1st Act to determine U.S citizenship (racialized) - Only free whites were eligible to be naturalized - Requires; 2 yr residency/ good character - Extended into 1798 Alien Friends Act - 1st to make deportation of immigrants lawful & pres right to imprison/ deport immigrants who were a " threat" to the country - Aliens Enemies act - legal to imprison or deport nat'ls of particular country during war
- The significance of language for the study of international migration
- A big aspect of cultural distinctiveness - It brings group members together & others out - Language as a zero-sum game in the US; learning english was seen as a requirement to assimilate - Among euro immigrants & descendants the shift happened quickly - Understand the influence language has on migration
Assimilation
- A joining of values, norms tradition, lifestyles, identity and native (core/dominant) group - Similar structural positions treatment - Implies that the in group will adopt behaviors of native group & have comparable outcomes - Integration overlaps with assimilation
Regions and countries with greatest amounts of international migrants
- ASIA and Europe hosted (destination) 60 % of all int'l migrants worldwide - Countries hosting the largest # of international migrants (1990-2017) - USA (26.5 mill), Saudi Arabia, Germany, Russia
Cumulative Causation
- An expansive theory that predicts that certain factors help to ease and maintain immigration from one area to elsewhere - Mechanisms include: network, more migrant connections->lower migration risk/costs - Relative depravation - Migrants buy up lands, pushes non-migrants to migrate to look for work - Migration becomes normalized in a community - "immigrant jobs" label gets placed more likely to continue the cycle of the same jobs
Outcomes of Assimilation
- Anglo conformity - Taking one dominant groups way of being (WASPS=dominant group) - Melting-pot - Combo of ways of minority and majority - Cultural pluralism - Groups maintain distinctiveness but there is some cultural assimilation- specifically peripheral group - Leveled playing field (no prejudice discrimination) "a stew" - Ethnic resilience - Ethnicity matter for minority group even if; ties to sending country no longer exists - Group has been in receiving country for a long time - May be a result of being shunned by greater society - Leads to solidarity among co ethnics (the rest follows)
The Iowa case study
- As a case study for actuations in attitudes towards language - 1870 the pamplet The home for immigrants - prints in multiple languages, welcomed immgrants & intro to Iowa to new arrivals, 17.1 % of the population was foreign born - Strong German presence (schools, newspapers, organizations) - 1918 Babel - 1998 Efforts to make Iowa more immigrant-friendly - 2002 Iowa english language Reaffirmation Act (which several other states have adopted) English as the language law - But top 10 languages spoken at home English isnt even there (Spanish, Chinese, Tagalog, Vietnamese, French
1913 California Alien Land Law
- Banned "aliens ineligible for citizenship" from owning or leasing land - Some side stepped this by placing land under the names of US born childen or corporate ownership - Help constitutional by SCOTUS formal policy w/ incarceration
1917 Asiatic Barred Zone Act
- Barred the "Asiatic zone" except for Japan & Philippines - Language requirement - Ineligibility to citizenship & property; court cases - Ozawa -sidestepped problem of racial classification - Thind- science does not matter-common definition is key , sucks
Natural change
- Birth - Deaths - Within a given area in a particular time (-) increase vs. (-) decrease
World-System theory
- Capital from core countries is invested in peripheral countries which are less developed, thus encouraging economic development - Forces people in peripheral countries to migrate when they are struggling to adjust to new economic structure - Go reverse in direction of capital flow - Explains why high wage is not always a sufficient magnet for attracting migrants - Ex) Country A fills Country B w/ spa resorts and such it becomes a hotspot for tourism but cost of living becomes expensive.
Mexico-US relations in 1910s-30s
- Complex; Mexicans citizens by virtue of 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo - Mexican revolution 1910-1917 not recognized, not many choose to stay - Key source of migrant labor but changes by 1920s with Anti-immigrant backlash after WW1 - Postwar nativism (cultural homgeneity) against "hyphenated Americans" - Articulated racial hierarchies - financial test 1882 and literacy test 1917 - Changing labor needs; ag revolution leads to large scale farms, shift in land tenure, creation of racialized, transnat'l ag proletariat - Jim crow segregation, poll tax, seasonal migrant camps (legal & undocumented migrants)
Gordons 7 step
- Cultural (change of cultural patterns to those of host society), - structural (large scale entrance into cliques, clubs, and institutions of host society on primary group level), - Marital/ amalgamation - large scale intermarriage , the ultimate step for assimilation - identity (development of sense of peoplehood based exclusively on host society) - Attitude receptional - absence of prejudice - Behavior receptional - absence of dicrimination - Civic -absence of value and power conflict
1907 Gentleman's Agreement Act
- Cut off Japanese immigration to U.S thru this negotiated agreement where Japan limited the immigration of the citizens
1924 National Origins Quota Act/Jonson-Reed Act
- Debates on which census would be used to construct national origins quota - No reliable data since statistics a new field - Used 1890 census-> 2 % quota on foreign born - 85% N & W europeans only 15 % S & E - EFFECT; - Severe cap 165,000 visas annually - constructed 'white race' and category of 'illegal alien' - Set up admin bodies and rules to control borders that had been set in motion by Chinese Exclusion Act ->immigrant racialization, Border patrol - The Great depression 1929-39 reduces immigration, effort to deport for sake of lowering unemployment
Immigrant Paradox and Possible explanations
- Educational outcomes - children of immigrants can at time out perform children of natives - Possible determinants for difference of outcomes; Parental SES status, Bilingualism ->bigger social network: insulate (- ) influences, strong family ties (guilt) - Harris Jamison & Trujillo (2008) - Immigrant advantage framework- argues that even when children of immigrants are SES disadvantaged, factors such as these help upward mobility; 3rd parties (mentors), strict upbringing, cultural capital, strong co ethnic community - Study compares outcomes of Asian A group (Chinese, Filipino, Japanese) to Asian group B (vietnamese, Cambodian, Cubans, Mexicans, PR*) to white students - Mention non whites groups are part of 1st and 2nd gen - This paradox is visible in Asian groups not Latinos, specially Mexican perform poorly - Explanations; parents time in the US, parental language at home, parental SES
New economics of Migration
- Explains why some people in a particular situation migrate and other don't w/ the framework of world-system theory - Labor migration is about family and risk diversification - People in households gain access to capital & credit so as a member migrates it is for the household can provide necessary capital for needed investments and a reserve for economic contingencies - Relative deprivation is a motivator - "keep up with others" standards of consumption spurs other families to adopt same thing - Takes into account the importance of remittances migration - People in country B are doing ok
Segmented Assimilation (the newer version)
- Factors affecting it; - Human Capital (parental human capital -> better SES outcomes - Family structure -two parent households do better -> better SES outcomes - Modes of incorporation (specific to a given nat'l origin group) -Coethnic communities - Strong w resources (ex. Tutoring)->better outcomes -Government policy (+) reception or gov assistance -> better outcomes (-) being undocumented -> worse outcomes (speaks to policy, lack of access constrains them) -Reception from society discrimination
1952 McCarran-Walter Act
- Replaced 1917 Immigration Act - Race was no longer an excluding factor for immigration and naturalization ex) someone with Euro citizenship who is of Asian descent counts as Asian • Maintained 1924 quota calculation but now based on "similarity of cultural background" and national security concerns New quota for asians 106 visas per Asian country • Skews towards immigration from Britain, Ireland & Germany (skilled Imms) • Asia Pacific Triangle • 155,000 immigrants per year
1942 Bracero Program
- Guest worker program rules; US gov as employer but permit bound to ag employer (cyclical migration) - Mexican gov is the recruiter - Migrant labor agreement said to provide praviling wages, living conditions, 10% to savings fund so long as not strikes occur, they are not replacement workers (75% was true) , - Violations occurred due to employers, federal agencies, Mexican consuls blocked program so it ended b/c mechanization, post ww2 civil rights agenda in congress, by Mexican American middle class, unions, ultimately depressed farm wages & racialized them as foreigners, increased illegal immigration and apprehension and deportation of around 200,00 in 1954 Op wetback
The importance of the school context in educational outcomes
- Hao & Pong- attempts to answer the "how does school relate to the edu success (specifically attainment) of disadvantaged children of immigrants - School features; a structure such as curriculum, tracking (into different tracks) - Demos & social relations - Evidence: school collective responsibility (focus on student learning) - School having high standards for achievement - Encouraging kids to go to college, & teachers' interest (in students)
Social Capital theory
- Having ties to other migrants can be significant - Norms, expect them to help you with x, y, & z ex) where to live, eat, work - Strength of the bond (like a sibling) & level of social capital of the migrant should boost likelihood of another person to migrate - Different forms; knowledge & support from migrant ties, prevalence of institution specifically for migratory needs ie. coyotes
1995 IIRIRA (eerira)
- Illegal Immigration Reform & Immigrant Responsibility Act - Multi initiatives to have stronger border control including stricter regulation of visa applications - Creation of fences in certain parts of the Southwestern border - Tight asylum requirements
1986 IRCA/Simpson Mazzoli Act
- Immigration Reform & Control Act - Gave permanent residency to undocumented immigrants who met certain requirements - 2.7 million gained permanent residency - Employers who willingly hired undocu would face penalties - H-2A visas (temp) similar to the Bracero Program visas - Update in 1987-90 to protect immigrant family of IRCA beneficiaries - Increased border patrol - Motives behind IRCA- growing undocu population, guest worker visas, reduce any future grow of the undocu population
Patterns in Inter generational transmission of language
- Linguistic assimilation -article on language distance - Pattern across generations according to Telles and Ortiz (2008)- longitudinally (35 year study on Mexican American) - There are self-reported bilingual well into the 4th gen - Spanish proficiency goes down by generation longitudinally and cross-sectional - 3rd gen of that cohort reported higher measure of Spanish-proficiency than the children of 3rd gen (Spanish 25- 40%) - 3rd gen of the original descendants responded -20% had parents who spoke Spanish
The benefits of bilingualism/knowing the dominant language
- Lingusistic assimilation -determinants of English fluency among adult immigrants Akresh et al (2014) study argues - Immigration is a process rather than one discrete event - The new immigrant survey - Dataset - Language assimilation & exposure to American culture begin before they come here. - Outcomes; speaks english well or not -at home, w friends, at work - Speaking english (very) well predicts a greater likelihood of using english across different contexts - Strongest predictor for consuming English media - Benefits of being a fluent Bilingual (portes and Rumabaut 2014) - Edu. Achievement - Higher edu/occupational aspirations - Better self-esteem - Lower depression - Greater earnings
Macro/Micro-economic theories AKA Neoclassical economic theory
- Macro - Supply & demand; balance b/t capital-hungry yet labor-rich countries sending immigrants to countries that are capital-rich yet labor hungry - flow stops when wage rates are similar in both countries - Micro - Costs & benefits analysis = Individual - Level migration - Earnings >cost Y>d
International migrant stock (reading)
- Mid year estimate of the # of people living in a country or area other than the one which they were born or # of people of foreign citizenship - 258 million international migrants in 2017 - Growth in INT'L MIGRATION STOCK - Int'l migrant- Are equated either with the foreign born or with foreign citizens - 152.5 million (1990) to 257.7 million ( 2017 ) -69 % increase
1882 Chinese Exclusion Act
- More restrictive policies cutoff Chinese - US immigration flow for 10 years - Legalized deportation of undocumented Chinese immigrants - Starts Qualitative restrictions (1875-1920) no restrictions for immigrants from Latin America aka Western hemisphere yet
Neoassimilation
- Neoclassical main crux of theory: the mainstream is flexible and may change to include at least some ethnoracial minorities - This applies to especially to people who come from high human capital flows - Factors that may impede assimilation of post 1965 wave - Continuous immigration (replenishment) - Ethnoracial diversity - Hour glass economy - Encouraged multiculturalism - Transnational -still maintain ties to previous country more than other waves - Evidence for theory Is mixed - 2nd generation outcomes of New S A - High parental SES-> middle class & full acculturation - Lower parental SES + strong co ethnic community -> middle class and selective acculturation - Low parental SES + weak co ethnic communities -> low SES & rejection of parental culture - Exceptions to segmented assim. - dissonant acculturation ie. Mentors, edu programs, protective, high-aspiring parents
- The importance of social capital for educational outcomes among immigrants/children of immigrants
- Obligations & expectations - Relationship becomes w/ obligation & expectations from one another - Info Channels - Knowledge/ knowing people who are knowledgeable -> access to resources - Social capital from parent to child -> better transfer of human capital - Social norms - Helps to regulate kids' behavior - Ex.) if parents social circle extends into kids network, it is a better way to watch over your kids
Segmented labor market theory AKA Labor-Market segmentation theory
- Predicts types of jobs migrants tend to get in the receiving country - Primary sector (better paying, well placing jobs) - Secondary sector ( not as stable, low paying) - Those who are seasonal worker are more willing to take secondary jobs than natives - Stereotypes based on ethnicity can further categorize immigrants to particular jobs
Major determinants fro occupational success among immigrants
- Success; - Education - More experience - Knowing english - Occupational outcomes; whether someone is employed - Occupational prestige score (social standing) - Type of job/business owner - Wage/salary/income - Wealth - # of hrs worked within a span of time Differences by nationality in part is determined by the type of visa - documented immigrants from Mexico, the Philippines and the DR mainly get visas thru family reunification - those from south korea maingly get it thru employment
1898 United States vs Wong Kim Ark
- The issue of birthright and who is deemed eligible comes up in the case - Denied entry b/c of heritage - Birthright was extended to people of all races in the US also European immigration (Italians & eastern euro) innovation of steam power - 4 million Italian immigrants arrived at this period
1921 Emergency Quota
- Worldwide qualitative restrictions plus Quantitative restrictions on Eastern Hemisphere - 1st emergence of nation-based quotas in US immigration policy - Most of Asia still ineligible - 350,000 visas - Used 1910 census -> 3% quota foreign born - 55% northern and western Europeans - 45% S & E
Occupational/ethnic niches
- a cluster of a particular group within an industry (occupation) - a way to provide employment opportunities to new immigrants & or immigrants with lil human capital
Straight-line Assimilation
- classic assimilation theory sees immigrant/ethnic and majority groups following a "straight-line" convergence, becoming more similar over time in norms, values, behaviors, and characteristics. This theory expects those immigrants residing the longest in the host society, as well as the members of later generations, to show greater similarities with the majority group than immigrants who have spent less time in the host society
Mid 1880s
- first shock of immigration after the birth of the nation; Many Irish came due to the great potato famine 1841-1850 - 49 5 Irish in US population, euros displaced due to industrial revolution - Know Nothing party- emerges, seeks for mandatory bible reading in schools, eliminate the catholic church - 1868 - 14th Amendment Est. of birthright citizenship - End of Pre- restrictive era
why do immigrants get involved in ownership ? Rajiman Tienda 2000
-1990s Chicago sample rsponses to independence -greater income -blocked opportunities in US labor market
The significance of the Census
-actually part of the constitution (has to be done) 453 seats up for representatives(political representation) -snapshot of the US population by age sex, race & ethnicity -distribution of funds - useful for developers, business, local government
Ethnic enclaves
-areas of concentrated immigrant entrepreneur factors necessary to emerge: - Immigrants need experience -$$money to start it - available labor ( who is going to help you) ex) pulgas in Houston, Bodegas in NY The importance of business among immigrants - ownership-> to raise wages -also more common among immigrants than native-born
The interaction between discrimination and identity
-one's identity can also be shaped by prejudice & discrimination Waters' Black identities- West Indian Immigrant Dreams & American Realities (1999) -NYC 1st generation West Indian immigrant parents & their 1.5-2 generation kids -West Indian immigrants have better outcomes than native US blacks b/c they are not expecting interpersonal racism from Whites findings : -US vs them for West Indian Immigrants - the structure & stereotypes that help West Indian immigrants succeed ex.) hardworking,no complaint, more friendly -Americanization-> perceptions of racism those who resist (Americanization) are more likely to succeed economically
Temporary lawful residence
-temporary workers -international students+families -exchange visitors +families -Diplomats/reps of other countries + families
Being married how it effects women's employment
A tale of two cities (Flippen & Parrado) since the overall level of employment is so much higher in the U.S. than in Mexico, married women in the U.S. are still more likely to work than their Mexican counterparts (65 versus 46%). But because the boost in employment is even greater among single women (87 versus 65%), the gap between married and single women in greater in the U.S. than in Mexico
Highlighted changes within the Census
1790: Census for Free whites , slaves, Free nonwhites 19th - 20th Century: Expansion of categories - more categories to capture multiracial classification -1930 Mexican category controversy (threaten the ability to naturalize) Race measured by observation (interviews) until 1960 (widespread adoption of self-identification-1970) 1970 Hispanic-origin question -OG categories -Mexican, PR< Cubans, Central America, South America, other Spanish 1990: Asian & Pacific Islander (8 categories) 2000 * BIG shift 1st tine you can check off more than one race ex) white & hispanic? 21st century- American white - origins in any of the original people of Europe, the Middle East or North Africa Black or African American -origins in any black racial groups of Africa American Indian or Alaska Native - South America or Central America & maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment
Symbolic ethnicity (and more broadly the fluidity of ethnicity)
1979 ethnicity identity does not have a true impact on day to day life focuses on the 3rd & 4th generations of European immigrants Arguments: -more noticeable due to economic mobility of ethnicity -is a new form of expressing ethnic affiliation ex) Irish people on St. Patty's day
The significance of multiracial/multi ethnics
1980-2015 multi-ethnic babies (population growing) measured by parents
- The significance of multiracials/multiethnics
1980-2015 multi-ethnic babies (population growing) measured by parents 2000 Multiracial population makes up 2.4 % or 7 million people by 2010 it was 2.9% Multiracials- physical embodiement of blurred racial lines Why?- insight into the future/boundaries of US ethnoracial relations and these groups are they melting?
Type of visa : employment sponsorship
1st preference (shortest wait time) - priority workers+ persons of extraordinary ability 2nd preference: -for those with advanced degree + employment would benefit the US+ sciences/art/business abilities -not enough qualifies US workers to fill the role 3rd preference (longest wait time): - bachelor's degree for jobs requires bachelor's +skilled worker With 2 years + of experience+ other positions that require >2+ years
Mary Waters - Ethnic Options
: Choosing Identities in America (1990) -a qualitative study (1950 census) -3rd and 4th generation roman catholic-European descent -main goal: US whites relationship to their ethnic identity Findings: Ethnic identity among US whites is flexible the way parents identity their children is not the same way their children would label themselves Reasons/ Mechanisms that determine ethnic identity in the study ; -knowing about one's ancestry -surname (used as approx. to gauge people's backgrounds -being intermarried -phenotype "look" -the popularity of ethnic group -political history/circumstances
Study on multiracials/multiethnics
Black-White vs White-Latino & White Asians Blacks may be the < less integrated group
Occupational niche related to difference in earnings among black in the US
Census -black immigrants participate in niches more than the black native -born -working in an occupational niche is related to a slight boost in earnings (for everyone) - among men there are a few differences b/t immigrants & native-born -among women/ several national origin groups receive a raise Differences in gender - types of niches jobs that men v. women take that lead to differences in mobility ex) Nursing
The occupational experiences of migrant women
Employment among Mexican Women Migrants- study is a based on a transnational sample the argument in the piece : determinants of being employed among women varies by context Major patterns - -US migrant women have a higher rate of employment than women in Mexico (single women a lot more) -more educated women in Mexico have greater odds of being employed but NOT in the US (opposite) - after accounting for differences in labor merits, being married may be a bigger employment deterrent in the US than in Mexico
Emigration
Exiting one's previous country
types of immigrants
First generation- - foreign born - fb immigrants 2nd gen - children of immigrants ¯ Traditionally refers to people born in the receiving country ¯ Can include pp who have only one immigrant parent (2.5) ¯ Can include people who immigrated a t a young age (1.5) 3rd generation- grandchildren of immigrants
Different types of visas pt 2
Humanitarian Protection Quotas - set by year (2019: 30,000) Permanent Green Card Holders, lottery, etc. -leads to family sponsorship -petitioning for immediate relatives (children of certain age, spouses, parents, etc) -quotas for extended relatives -permanent residents can also sponsor (not just citizens) relatives BUT w/ restrictions
Ethnic replenishment
Jimenez's - Mexican American in Santa Clara, CA & Garden City, KS -Immigrant replenishment-> Mexican Americans can still hold on to ethnicity and are seen as perpetual foreigners Some of the findings- Mexican Immigration/institutions->maintenance of ties Mexican culture -Mexican v Non-Mexican boundary -generational boundary among Mexican-descent those that were already here vs those just now getting here replenishment of ethnicity -Mexican american attitudes toward Mexican Immigrants are mostly (+) about interactions b/t Mexican American & Mexican immigrants
Social and Historical Contexts
Race& ethnicity will differ in countries place-specific- bound to certain geographic and social contexts time-specific- changing b/t different historical eras
Different types of visas
Refugee v Asylee -difference by location of application US citizenship -green card holder for 5+ years -18 yrs old -residency requirements -read, write, and speak in English -takes a civics test -have a good moral character Diversity Visa Program -1990 -<55,000 nationals over the past 5 years - 55,000 visas (5,000 set aside from Central America + Nicaragua) -23.1 million applications (2018)
The role of skin color and occupational inequality among immigrants
Rosenblum- seeks to answer that question using the NIS dataset, which covers immigrants from various origins major findings -darker respondents do face a wage penalty -Subsaharan African immigrants have a racial wage gap which explains the skin color based wage gap for them -By regions, the results seem to be mainly driven by Latin American immigrants, specifically those who identify as non-black
1914-1918
WWII
Flippen & Flippen & Parrado Study (2015)
emphasize the importance of gender-based on a unique sample of Mexican-central Durham/Chapel Hill (North Carolina) explicitly connects migration to other life-course events, documenting how the impact of context varies not only by marital status but also by where women's unions were formed. Outcomes of Flippen Study - Hours worked per week - employed v unemployment - type of job - weeks out of the labor force ***U.S. residence eliminates or even reverses the employment returns to education found in Mexico and that the constraints imposed on women's work by marriage are actually stronger in the U.S. context major factors affecting; english skills >greater likelihood being married-lower odds of working + fewer hours of work being a mom- having a resident child may lead to a worse employment outcome (fewer worked hours & lower odds of being employed) - having a child overseas is associated w/greater >employment outcomes (being employed & working more hours )
symbolic category
has been redefined over and over again ex) Native American is symbolic category is all indigenous to the land before any colonization, the identity was constructed not a given
Phenotype and ancestry
how we are perceived, and classified
