sociology ch 8,9,10
18. Explain the difference in earnings between different levels of education. Why has the gap between earnings with a high school and college degree narrowed over time?
High School or Equivalent $30,000 Associate's Degree $36,000 Bachelor's Degree $46,000 Master's Degree or Higher $55,000 College graduates earn more than high school graduates, but the gap has been narrowing • Economic returns on degrees vary substantially by major (Davies and Hammack, 2005)
13. What percentage of college students are over the age of 25 (non-traditional students)? What are some characteristics associated with these students and how do colleges seek to accommodate them?
In 2008, 37.1% of students were over the age of 25. Many students in this group: Return to school to change careers or upgrade job skills Attend 2-year colleges on a part-time basis due to various responsibilities Are often motivated and dependable (Cox, 1996) Schools accommodate non-traditional students by offering: Night, weekend, and online courses Transition programs and support services
9. How does teaching style impact classroom interaction?
Interaction in the Classroom Classroom interaction is largely dependent on style of teaching Authoritarian: strict control by the teacher Democratic: students have some decision-making ability Laissez-faire: substantial freedom There is far more unspoken interaction in the classroom than spoken exchanges (e.g. body language
5. Explain how school culture and school learning climate can vary from one place to another.
School Culture Each school operates as its own little society with different norms, values, beliefs, and traditions Rituals and ceremonies are used to create loyalty/in-group orientation Examples : Pep rallies, sports, award ceremonies Different schools have different missions Charter schools with a distinct focus (e.g. arts, science and technology) College focus for schools designed to increases SES in impoverished areas; use a longer school day and year (Whitman, 2008
11. How is the relocation of industry related to school funding?
School costs are growing faster than increases in funding, and school levies often fail Local school funding can be drastically impacted by the relocation of various industries, as well as the closing of military bases Imagine the impact on CMS if the major banks moved elsewhere As discussed in previous chapters: Student expenditures vary by district and state School funding is composed of local, state, and federal dollars Simply spending more money in schools does not solve problems outside the school environment (e.g. poverty)
3. how does the hidden curriculum help teachers maintain order? Why might report cards in early grades assess compliance with behaviors aligned with the hidden curriculum?
THE OPEN SYSTEMS APPROACH AND THE INFORMAL SYSTEM- REPRODUCTION THEORY AND THE INFORMAL SYSTEM Early grades assess compliance with the hidden curriculum. Report cards may detail work habits and behavior: Organization Respect for others Talking at appropriate times Following rules Listening attentively Displaying effort Teachers rely on the hidden curriculum to maintain order
13. How do lower and higher track students challenge teachers' authority differently? What is the social contract often reached between teachers and students?
Teacher Strategies and the Informal System Teachers frequently deal with challenges to their authority Lower track students: physical and verbal disruptions Higher track students: testing instructors on subject expertise The resulting social contract is students agreeing to not be too disruptive and teachers not being overly demanding
10. Explain the barriers to student learning in Box 10.2
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8. xplain how problems and disorder in the classroom are related to social opportunities and networks of friends in theclassroom.
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Briefly explain the interdependence between organizations and the environment.
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chapter 9
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5. Explain the relationship between parental involvement and learning outcomes.
Children who have parents that are involved in school tend to have higher academic achievement (Baker and Stevenson, 1986; Cotton and Wikelund, 2001; Stevenson and Baker, 1987) What parents do with their kids during non-school hours impacts achievement (Michigan Department of Education, 2007) A focus on learning in the home is more influential to learning outcomes than SES or parental education Parents whose own parents helped them pay for college and believe this is their responsibility are more likely to help fund their own children's higher education (Steelman and Powell, 1991) This study also showed that funding also depends on the number of children and whether or not paying for college will drain family resources
(CONFLICT THEORY) Competition for Access to Higher Education
Competition for Access to Higher Education Public colleges and universities have become more selective since 1980, driving up expectations for high school requirements and test scores Top colleges admit less than 10% of their applicants, making less prestigious universities more competitive (Athaveley, 2007) Students used to attend schools in their home state or region, but are now more likely to apply to schools nationally (Davies and Hammack, 2005)
2. Use the conflict theory to explain how the hidden curriculum reproduces social class. How does this relate to Anyon's (1980) research on variations in elementary school practices by social class?
Conflict Theory Social control elements of the hidden curriculum reproduce social class (Bowles and Gintis, 1976) This prepares different social classes for different jobs Anyon (1980s) describes different expectations in elementary schools by social class. The same material can be taught in very different ways Working class: follow procedures with minimal explanationsorflexibility (mechanical and routine jobs) Middle class: get the correct answer with some decision making ability (working in bureaucracies) Affluent professional: work independently with an emphasis on creativity, application, and expressing ideas (instrumental and expressive roles surrounding negotiation) Executive elite: lean to analyze, reason, conceptualize, and solve problems (analyzing and manipulating systems
4. Explain how the concepts associated with the conflict and functionalist theories can be applied to higher education.
Conflict Theory The system is designed to serve people who have the most advantages (e.g. academic preparation, ability to pay, cultural capital) Credentials are a filtering system designed to close off opportunities for people who lack credentials, but not necessarily skills (Collins, 1978) Functionalist Theory Improves individual opportunities (e.g. SES, prestige, social and cultural capital) Increases the chances of equal opportunity by teaching necessary skills (e.g. critical thinking) Helps fill necessary roles in society (e.g. white-collar workers
11. How do conflict, functionalist, and interactionist theories explain power dynamics in the classroom?
Conflicting research on small schools Small schools lead to higher achievement, interest in school activities, and social equality (Griffith, 1995; Lee 1995) Small schools produce environments preferable to students and teachers, but do not necessarily lead to better teaching or learning (Xiaofend and Mayer, 2005) Participation in activities decreases as the school size increases Some clubs can accommodate an unlimited amount of students while competitive activities have a limited number of spots Power is the ability to influence people to do something they would not do otherwise Teachers use positive and negative sanctions Ignore their power Conflict theorists perceive a power struggle between students and staff: Students: controlled and socialized to accept their status Staff: dominant group who creates the rules and imposes their values onto students Socialization through the education system supplies compliant workers (not challenging authority) for the capitalist economy (Bowles and Gintis, 1976) Functional theorists focus on the education system serving the following purposes: Teaching norms and values necessary for societal roles; this provides stability to the system Examples: cooperation, hard work, diversity Offering different levels of achievement that motivate students and justify unequal rewards in society Example: earnings increase with educational attainment Sorting students onto different paths so a variety of roles in society can be filled Example: tracking Interactionist theorists focus on each student having a different perception of the classroom atmosphere Expectations and labels are associated with social class Labels can create a self-fulfilling prophecy Students make rational choices about effort required and the likelihood of potential rewards; perceptions vary by social class (Hatcher, 1998)
13. What are findings of some of the court cases related to school funding? Why are these findings significant?
Court Cases Related to School Funding 1971: The California Supreme Court ruled that using property taxes to fund schools discriminates against the poor because the quality of education is tied to the earnings of family and neighbors (Serrano v. Priest) 1973: U.S. Supreme Court ruled that "education is not a fundamental interest or right" (Ballantine and Hammack, 2012, p.245); property taxes could be used to fund schools even though states were told to explore other taxing and spending plans (San Antonio v. Rodriguez) Plaintiffs argued that education is a right and that all schools should have the same funding A few other court cases (Abbott Case in NJ and Campaign for Fiscal Equity in NY) have secured additional funding by arguing that schools need adequate funds to reach state achievement standards
1. Define the hidden curriculum and provide some examples of how it operates in the school environment.
Created by Philip Jackson (1968); the term "hidden curriculum" refers to implicit, rather than explicit demands needed to continue though the educational system (Snyder, 1971) Examples of questions covered by the hidden curriculum How should I address the teacher? (e.g. Dr., Mr., Mrs. Ms.) Are we really going to use the textbook? What do I need to do to earn a(n) ________ in thecourse? Am I expected to participate in class discussions?
5. What is the "credential crisis" and why is it significant?
Credential Crisis Many people are unemployed after graduation or attend graduate school to increase their employability (Bivens et al., 2010) The increasing number of college graduates looking for jobs has led companies to raise employment criteria Many people are underemployed, working at positions below their skill level. This is correlated with lower job satisfaction (Vaisey, 2006) Issues of employability, earnings, and debt lead some students and experts to question whether higher education is worth the investment
1. Describe the relationship between the GI Bill of Rights and the "massification of higher education".
Due to cost and time constraints, only elites enrolled in higher education prior to WWII (Van Valley, 2001) By paying for soldiers to attend college after WWII, 40% of all students in 1947 were funded through the GI Bill of Rights (US Department of Veterans Affairs, 2006) Between 1945 and 1965 the number of Bachelor's degrees awarded increased eightfold (Aronowitz 2001:2) As the GI Bill of Rights made college attendance more common, many underrepresented groups increased their presence in higher education (e.g. women, racial minorities
14. What are some trends regarding federal funding for schools?
Federal Funding of Education The U.S. spends less money per student than many other industrialized nations (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development—OECD, 2003 NCES, The Condition, 2010) Federal education funding is tied to the economic health of the nation Funding decreased in the early 1980s and early 2000s When budgets get tight, extracurricular activities and non-core electives are often cut (e.g. athletics, band, art, school newspapers) The Reagan and George W. Bush administrations shifted more control of education programs and funding to the states PRO: Flexibility CON: Some important programs can be cut or underfunded
1.Briefly explain the interdependence between organizations and the environment
Graduation rates (organizational outputs) impact rates of poverty, incarceration, and college attendance Parental rates of poverty, incarceration, and college completion (environmental inputs) impact student graduation rates Dysfunction in one area impacts other areas
8.
Liberal Arts: Focuses on creating a well-rounded person by exploring a variety of subjects and teaching transferrable skills (e.g. critical thinking) Skills transfer to a wide variety of fields and occupations (more flexible)
12. Why is it difficult for many people with graduate degrees to obtain full-time faculty positions? Explain how this issue relates to the rise in adjunct faculty. Why do schools use adjunct faculty and how are these positions challenging for people working in these roles?
Many adjunct (part-time) faculty work at multiple institutions until they find full-time positions. This makes it difficult to conduct research and get published, a hiring requirement at many schools. Sometimes called the "academic underclass" The percentage of adjunct faculty increased by 85% from 1993-2007 Institutions like hiring adjunct faculty because they are cheaper than full-time faculty (paid a set amount per class that varies by employer). However, classes can be cut prior to a semester leaving the faculty member with a reduced, unpredictable income
3. What is the "curriculum of the home" and why is it important?
Many families experience role conflict balancing work and family obligations In 2005, 63% of kids under age 5 were in a childcare arrangement (Johnson, 2005) The annual cost of full time center-based child care in NC in 2015 was roughly $9,200 (Child Care Aware of America) "Curriculum of the home"- development of attitudes and habits that support learning and personal development; it is influenced by: family size- parental involvement in school decisions reading materials and reading at home - family resources vocabulary development - time spent watching TV
14. Why is it difficult to measure the extent to which college changes student attitudes or behaviors? What are some trends in attitudes that have changed over previous decades?
Measuring the university experience's impact on attitudes, values, and behaviors is difficult Maturation after high school is expected Colleges differ from one another (e.g. 4-year vs. 2-year, residential vs. commuter, smaller vs. larger, very selective vs. flexible admissions, urban vs. rural) Some changes that have been measured over decades are: Supporting feminism Racial acceptance Concern for the environment Less focus on securing a high degree of financial security
2. How has autonomy changed over time for institutions of higher education, as well as their social contract with the public?
Oversight: Institutional autonomy decreased in the 1970s and early 1980s as government money required more oversight and data (e.g. graduation stats, financial aid, diversity info) (Geiger 2004:22) Higher education changed further as a new funding structure reduced government subsidies directly to institutions and increased grants and loans directly to students Social Contract: University research and services traditionally have been molded by local and national needs, while public and private funding has sustained a system of public higher education (Duderstadt, 1999)This contract changed as higher education shifted from a public to a private good, with high prices justified by the private status (Leslie and Brinkman 1988)
6. Explain Epstein's six ways to get parents involved in their child's education.
Parenting, volunteering, communication, learning at home, decision making, Community collaboration
7. What are the pros and cons of highly funded athletic programs? 8. Why is there a debate over the merits of a liberal arts vs. occupationally oriented education?
Pros: - Successful athletic programs bring in money and students -Institutional prestige -Solidarity and school spirit Cons: - Students can feel exploited by the institution (e.g. cut after injury, making money off their performance - Many programs lose money - Players experience role conflict (e.g. player vs. student role
3. What variables have led to the decrease in public trust of higher education?
Public trust in higher education declined in the mid 1980s and early 1990s due to scandals (i.e. scientific fraud and misuse of federal funds), and rapidly increasing tuition (Garland and Grace 1993:19) Tuition and fees increased 132% at public universities between 1987 and 1996 (Casse and Mano, 1998) and 296% at public national universities between 1995 and 2015 (Mitchell, 2015) Recent average costs are located on the next slide Grade Inflation: The numbers of students with "A" averages (7 percent in 1969) and "C" averages (25 percent in 1993) have reversed since the 1960s (Levine and Cureton 1998:124) Sports scandals cause backlash for some student athletes, coaches, and administrators (e.g. easy or fake courses, handling of sexual assault, gifts)
6. How is the "publish or perish" mentality in academia relevant to the discussion of teaching? Why can the quality of teaching be difficult to measure?
Publish or Perish Faculty at most 4-year institutions are required to publish, with teaching sometimes being relegated as a secondary responsibility (Fairweather, 1993). In addition to teaching and service, peer-reviewed publications are required in many places in order to achieve tenure. More selective publications are more prestigious Questions to Consider: How do you think teaching should be evaluated? What problems would you have rating teaching quality by solely relying on student evaluations?
8. Explain the basic concepts associated with religion, as well as it's functions and dysfunctions.
Religion: Any institutionalized system of shared beliefs and rituals that identify a relationship between the sacred and the profane. Sacred: The holy, divine, or supernatural. Profane: The ordinary, mundane, or everyday.Examples of religion: Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam Beliefs: A proposition or idea held on the basis of faith. Rules for how to live life Answers regarding the afterlife Rituals: A practice based on religious beliefs. Having services on certain days or certain times of day Specific ways of worshiping within a religion Functions Shape behavior by providing morals, values, and norms Providing meaning for our lives Brings people together with similar beliefs, creating group cohesion Promotes social justice and political change Dysfunctions Some religions promote sexism (e.g. different rights for males and females) or prejudice towards homosexuals and bisexuals Creates stigmatization of other groups (e.g. other religions or non-religious people) through ethnocentrism
6. How do routines help maintain discipline in the classroom? How does this relate to passive student roles?
Routines are tools used to maintain discipline in the classroom. Students learn to:rise a hand to ask a question ask permission or obtain a pass to use the bathroom Stop talking once the teacher starts speaking Students are often in passive rather than active roles Example: Sitting and listening rather than "hands on" activities (e.g. creating, building, applying, analyzing)
2. Why do immediate and secondary environments impact organizations either more or less over time
Schools are impacted by immediate (direct impact) and secondary (indirect impact) environments whose influence vary over time and by organization, frequently changing what is considered an immediate or secondary environment
10. xplain how seating arrangements, class size, and school size are related to academic achievement.
Seating Arrangements Most classrooms are arranged so teachers are the focal point of the classroom; this viewpoint leads to increased control Students work better on individual tasks when they are in rows• Students in the front or center tend to participate more and have higher achievement Seating arrangements should be matched to tasks Reducing class size improves achievement and instruction (Achilles, Harman, and Egelson, 1995) Smaller class sizes and a smaller teacher:student ratios are correlated with a positive atmosphere and higher achievement Children teaching each other in small groups leads to higher achievement Not all teachers effectively use small class size to improve the learning environment (Galton, 1998); training is needed to maximize outcomes
16. How does Bourdieu's concept of "capital" relate to student consumerism? How can this concept relate to McDonaldization?
Seeking Capital: Bourdieu (1986) suggests that students directly and indirectly seek and acquire various types of capital through the college/university experience. (e.g. social, cultural, economic) McDonalidization: The acquisition of capital can be filtered through Ritzer's McDonaldization theory (1996) to explore how student consumerism is often a product of rationalized practices in academic institutions (efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control) of higher education.(tis is an update on Weber's work on bureaucracy The environment on college/university campuses has the potential to focus on the exchange value of a degree on the labor market, rather than the use value of knowledge learned in the classroom (Labaree 1997).
15. Explain how civils rights and disability laws impact education.
State and federal laws impact what happens in K-12 and higher education 1954: Brown v. Board of Education 1964: Civil Rights Act 1975: Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) 1990: Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Laws provide protections and accommodations
12. What are the four ways state dollars are distributed to local school districts?
State dollars are distributed to local districts through four methods: 1. Flat grants: providing the same funding to all districts with some exceptions for poorer areas 2. Foundation plans: sets a minimum annual expenditure per student 3. In power-equalizing plans: paying a percentage of local expenditures with a greater percentage for poorer, and a lower percentage for higher income areas 4. Weighted-student plans: funding is tied to a rating system based on student needs (e.g. disabilities, bilingual education, vocational programs)
15. What is "student consumerism" and how does it relate to the open systems approach?
Student consumerism is viewing education as a product that is purchased, similar to other transactions (e.g. car, house, TV). Open Systems Approach and Consumerism: On campus consumerism is the result of the fluid boundaries between higher education, business, non-profit organizations, and state agencies, where each type of organization has the ability to influence the others (Slaughter and Rhoades 2004)
ELITE VS. PUBLIC COLLEGES (CONFLICT THEORY
Students from lower SES groups are more likely to go to less selective institutions regardless of their ability, achievement, or expectations Higher education is becoming "disproportionately whiter and richer" (Gerald and Haycock,, 2006; Haycock, Lynch and Engle, 2010) American higher education is becoming more segregated by income (Mortenson, 2005a)
17. Describe some of the evidence used to document student consumerism. How and why might student attitudes and behaviors vary by the institution they attend (e.g. Baccalaureate, Master's, Research)?
Students want to be entertained rather than challenged (Edmundson 1997; Trout 1997) - Students today are less likely to see plagiarism as wrong (Levine and Cureton 1998:126) - A 2002 survey found that 75 percent of students agreed with the statement, "I would take a course in which I would learn little or nothing but would receive and A" (Delucchi and Korgen: 104) - Though full-time students will spend 15-20 hours a week watching TV and 20 hours engaging in other leisure activities, they will only spend 8-10 hours a week doing out-of-class schoolwork (Marchese 1998)
12what variables impact teacher classroom strategies and why doesn't teacher training prepare instructors for all of the day-to-day classroom challenges?
Teacher strategies are impacted by the: Philosophy of the teachers and the schools- student vs. teacher driven pedagogy Organization of the school and classroom- desks in rows vs. tables Available resources- technology, teaching materials, support services Number of students- small vs. large class Level of interest of the students- engaged or apathetic Teacher training cannot completely prepare teachers for all of the day-to-day situations in the classroom; they need to develop their own strategies
14. How much class time is lost to student disruptions or getting off task? What strategies help teachers become more efficient with their class time and maintain control of the classroom?
Teachers lose approximately 50% of their time due to disruptions and students getting off task (Charles, 1999) Time can be saved through well structured and appropriately paced lessons, fast transitions, daily routines, and having students complete tasks (Brookover et al., 1996, pp. 185-198) To maintain control, teachers need to be aware of students who: Exhibit attention-seeking behavior (e.g. off topic questions or comments) Disguise inappropriate activities (e.g. cell phones)
7. What does the U.S. Constitution say about the separation of church and state? What are some examples that suggest the U.S. is not completely secular?
The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution creates a separation between church and state/government: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof" (Ballantine and Hammack, 2012, p.237) Since all social institutions are interconnected, there is pressure from religious and non-religious groups regarding the role of religion in public schools
7. What is the relationship between age and positive encouragement from teachers?
The amount of positive encouragement a child receives from a teacher decreases as they get older, with a 50% reduction from elementary school to high school (Benham, Giesen, and Oakes, 1980) There is an association in classroom settings between social opportunities and a strong network of friends to the likelihood of students undermining and edirecting the learning environment )
4. How has the number of homeschooled children changed over time and what are some reasons parents choose to homeschool their children?
The number of homeschooled children is increasing with a 74% increase since 1999 (Lloyd, 2009), making up roughly 3% of the school age population. These students tend to perform well on state and national tests and succeed in college (Stevens, 2003) Parents largely homeschool their children due to: Concerns about the school environment (i.e. safety, drugs, peer pressure) (88%) Desire for home religious and moral instruction (83%) Dissatisfaction with instruction in the school system (65%) (Lloyd, 2009) Many public schools allow homeschooled children to participate in extracurricular activities, aiding socialization with their age group
10. Explain the 3 types of religious court cases and provide examples of findings for each category.
Three Types of Religious Court Cases 1. Does a school or its policies interfere with individual beliefs? 1962: Students cannot be required to recite prayers in school because they should not be required to embrace any particular religion (Engle v. Vitale, 370 US 421) 2. Do school officials or policies prevent individuals from participating in religious activities during school hours or on school property?1 981: Public university students have the right to form religious clubs on campus (Widmar v. Vincent) 3. How much and what kind of public assistance should religiously affiliated private schools receive? 1990: Secondary schools can form religious clubs under certain circumstances (Westside Community Schools v. Mergens) The Equal Access Act says if a school allows any non-curriculum clubs to meet, religious groups can also meet Examples of Religious Court Cases (cont...) 1992: Religious officials cannot deliver prayer at graduation ceremonies (Weisman v. Lee) 2000: Student-led prayer is banned at football games (Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe) 2008: 32 states passed laws permitting or requiring silent prayer or reflection; permitted because it does not push a particular religion
9. How does the student racial composition in higher education compare to racial percentages in the U.S. population? What conclusions can you infer from this data?
U.S. Racial Demographics- 2015 Census Info - American Indian and Native Alaskan: 1.2% - Asian: 5.6% -White, not Hispanic or Latina(o): 61.6% - Hispanic or Latina(o): 17.6% - African American: 13.3% The Graying of College Graduates In 2008, 37.1% of students were over the age of 25. Many students in this group: Return to school to change careers or upgrade job skills Attend 2-year colleges on a part-time basis due to various responsibilities Are often motivated and dependable (Cox, 1996) Schools accommodate non-traditional students by offering: Night, weekend, and online courses Transition programs and support services
9. What is the relevance of the unchurched population in today's society? Why has this group grown over time?
Unchurched: A term describing those who consider themselves spiritual but not religious and who often adopt aspects of various religious trends. 20% of Americans claim no religious affiliation More likely to be younger and live out West Atheists (2%) and agnostics (2%) are 4% of the population People defined as "spiritual but not religious" express and practice their beliefs privately rather than publically in groups Elements of sexism, racial prejudice, homophobia, and conformity in some organized religions cause individuals to look outside these organizations
4. Give examples of how morals and values are taught through moral lessons of the day, rituals and ceremonies, and indirectly through the riculum. How do verbal and non-verbal cues reinforce these messages?
While not typically a goal of the curriculum, schools teach morals and values: Rituals and ceremonies- Pledge of Allegiance (patriotism), celebrating MLK Day 9rsity), graduation (academics) Moral lessons of the day-Teaching right from wrong when addressing bullying, cheating, lack of respect, etc. Indirect lessons from curriculum content- History, literature, and science courses all have moral themes (e.g. ethics and consequences of actions) Verbal and nonverbal cues (e.g. body language) reinforce messages
11. What can we learn from looking at the racial data of students who earn doctorates, as well as the racial data of full-time faculty?
With an increase in the number of people earning graduate degrees, the job market for full-time teaching positions has become very competitive. Many students teach and/or conduct research while in graduate school to prepare them for the faculty role.
