SOCIOLOGY EXAM 4 CH. 11,12,13

As a result, the United States and some European countries have sought to reduce benefits to noncitizens and to prevent new immigrants from entering the country.

For example, for many years the U.S. government has patrolled its border with Mexico and constructed walls of concrete and barbed wire in an attempt to keep illegal immigrants out of the country.

Betty Friedan's best-selling book The Feminine Mystique first appeared in 1963, but its research referred to the 1950s.

Friedan struck a chord in the hearts of thou- sands of women when she spoke of the "problem with no name": the oppressive nature of a domestic life bound up with child care, domestic drudgery, and a husband who only occasionally put in an appearance and with whom little emotional communica- tion was possible.

intelligence

Level of intellectual ability, particularly as measured by IQ (intelligence quotient) tests.

politics

The means by which power is employed to influence the nature and content of governmental activities.

The most significant piece of federal legislation influencing educa- tion in the past two decades is the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, signed into law by President George W. Bush in 2002. NCLB implemented a host of policies meant to improve academic outcomes for all children and close achievement gaps.

The most expansive and comprehensive piece of legislation passed since 1965, NCLB addresses virtually every aspect of education, including testing, school choice, teacher quality, the education of English-language learners, military recruitment in schools, and school discipline. At the top of its agenda is instituting standardized testing, where all students in a state take the same test under the same conditions, as a means of measuring students' academic performance. -"strong push for school choice; that is, in the spirit of competition, parents are to be given choices as to where they send their children to school. Low-performing schools, at risk of losing students, may jeopardize their funding and eventually be closed. -An- other significant implication of NCLB is that for the first time since 1968, states are not required to offer non-English-speaking students bilingual education. Instead, the act emphasizes learning English over using students' native language to support learning objectives and favors English-only program models. -NCLB also provides support for a "zero tolerance" approach to school discipline that was first mandated in the 1990 Gun-Free School Act. -The NCLB has been widely criticized, as teachers must "teach to the test." Critics have argued that the emphasis on standardized testing as the means of assessment encourages teachers to teach a narrow set of skills that will increase students' test performance, rather than helping them to acquire an in-depth understanding of important concepts and skills (Hursh 2007). -In fact, a 2006 study by the U.S. Department of Education found that schools identified as most in need of improvement were disproportionately urban, high-poverty schools, and that school poverty and district size were more powerful predictors of school success than any policies actually implemented by the schools (U.S. Department of Education 2006).

collective bargaining

The rights of employees and workers to negotiate with their employers for basic rights and benefits.

"alienation

The sense that our own abilities as human beings are taken over by other entities. Karl Marx used the term to refer to the loss of workers' control over the nature and products of their labor."

alienation

The sense that our own abilities as human beings are taken over by other entities. The term was originally used by Karl Marx to refer to the projection of human powers onto gods. Subsequently he used the term to refer to the loss of workers' control over the nature and products of their labor.

division of labor

The specialization of work tasks, by means of which different occupations are combined within a production system. All societies have at least some rudimentary form of division of labor, especially between the tasks allocated to men and those performed by women.

economy

The system of production and exchange that provides for the material needs of individuals living in a given society. Economic institutions are of key importance in all social orders.

"economic interdependence • The fact that in the division of labor, individuals depend on others to produce many or most of the goods they need to sustain their lives."

"Adam Smith, one of the founders of modern economics, identified advantages that the division of labor provides in terms of increasing productivity. His most famous work, The Wealth of Nations, opens with a description of the division of labor in a pin factory. A person working alone could perhaps make twenty pins per day. By breaking down that worker's task into a number of simple op- erations, however, ten workers carrying out specialized jobs in collaboration with one another could collectively produce 48,000 pins per day.

For example, reliable estimates of the number of Muslims in the United States run as high as 2.6 million in 2010 (Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life 2011a), although official government statistics report only roughly half that number (U.S. Bureau of the Census 2011a). The low estimates may be because in the post-9/11 political climate, many Muslims are reluctant to disclose their religious affiliation—only 30 percent of Americans held a favorable view of Islam in 2010 (Pew Research Center for the People and the Press 2010). "

- 2/3 of US Muslims are foreign born -A majority of Muslim Americans are first-generation immigrants to the United States (63 percent), with almost half of that number having moved to the United States since 1990. Eighty-one percent of Muslim Americans are citizens of the United States despite the high levels of immigrants, including 70 percent of those born outside the United States...

sect

- A religious movement that breaks away from orthodoxy. - Sects aim to discover or follow the "true way" and either try to change the surrounding society or withdraw from it into communities of their own, a process known as revival. Many sects have few or no officials, and all members are regarded as equal participants. For the most part, peo- ple are not born into sects, but actively join them in order to further commitments in which they believe.

IQ (intelligence quotient)

- A score attained on tests of symbolic or reasoning abilities. -Most IQ tests consist of a mixture of conceptual and computational problems. The tests are constructed so that the average score is 100 points: Anyone scoring below is thus la- beled "below-average intelligence," and anyone scoring above is "above-average intelligence." In spite of the fundamental difficulty in measuring intelligence, IQ tests are widely used in research studies, as well as in schools and businesses. -The relationship between race and intelligence is best explained by social rather than biological causes, according to a team of Berkeley sociologists in their 1996 book Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth (Fischer et al. 1996). The authors conducted this research as a way to rigorously evaluate the controversial claims made by Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray in their book The Bell Curve (1994), which argued that the black-white gap in IQ was due in part to genetic differ- ences in intelligence. Such observations strongly suggest that the IQ variations between African Americans and whites in the United States result from social, cultural, and economic—rather than genetic—factors.

"knowledge economy

- A society no longer based primarily on the production of material goods but based instead on the production of knowledge. Its emergence has been linked to the development of a broad base of consumers who are technologically literate and have made new advances in computing, entertainment, and telecommunica- tions part of their lives." -"The World Bank (2012a) recently developed the Knowledge Economy Index (KEI), which rates 146 countries based on their overall preparedness to compete in the knowledge economy. "

Family structures and patterns are powerfully shaped by both structural and cultural factors.

- Structural factors—including shifts in educational attainment, economic prospects of young adults, and whether one has the legal right to marry—have a powerful influence on the ways families are formed. -Cultural factors, ranging from attitudes toward marriage, sexuality, and cohabitation to beliefs about the appropriate context for raising children, shape family lives.

According to a re- cent study from the University of California at Berkeley, 20 percent of fast-food work- ers live beneath the poverty line; by contrast, just 5 percent of all American workers overall live in poverty. And while they work hard each day feeding their customers, fully 24 percent of fast-food workers receive food stamps so that they and their fami- lies can afford to eat three meals a day (Allegretto et al. 2013).

- The workers and the labor activists who support their cause would like to see their wages increased to $15 per hour—considerably higher than their current median wage of $8.69 per hour. -Yet labor activists and scholars observe that it's not just low pay that hurts fast-food workers. Rather, it's a collection of issues, including the inability to secure full-time work and health benefits...

Jews tend to be the most heavily Democratic of any major religious groups, fundamentalist and evangeli- cal Christians the most Republican. The more moderate Protestant denominations are somewhere in between (Kosmin, Mayer, and Keysar 2001).

-...believe women should have legal access to abortion and that persons in same-sex relationships should have the legal right to marry. Fundamentalist and evangelical Christians are least likely to support these stances, while liberal Protestants, moder- ate Protestants, and Catholics sit toward the middle of the political continuum (Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life 2013).

Four broad conditions set the stage for the sociological study of religion:

-1. Sociologists are not concerned with whether religious beliefs are true or false. -2. Sociologists are especially concerned with the social organization of religion. -3. Sociologists often view religions as a major source of social solidar- ity because religions often provide their believers with a common set of norms and values. -4. Sociologists tend to explain the appeal of religion in terms of social forces rather than purely personal, spiritual, or psychological factors.

theism

-A belief in one or more supernatural deities. -What is absent from the sociological definition of religion is as important as what is included: Nowhere is there mention of God. We often think of theism—a belief in one or more supernatural deities (the term originates from the Greek word for God)—as basic to religion, but this is not necessarily the case. Some religions, such as Buddhism, believe in the existence of spiritual forces rather than a particular God.

stepfamily

-A family in which at least one partner has children from a previous marriage. -there are many more families in which children regularly visit stepparents. Stepfamilies bring into being kinship ties that resemble those of some traditional societies but that are new in Western countries. Children may now have two "mothers" and two "fathers"—one biological parent and one stepparent—contributing to the complexity of their family lives.

polygamy

-A form of marriage in which a person may have two or more spouses simultaneously. -George Murdock- several societies from 1960-1980 polygamy permitted in over 80 percent -Murdock found that just 15 percent of societies were monogamous, 37 percent had occasional polygyny, 48 percent had more frequent polygyny, and less than 1 percent had polyandry...

cult

-A fragmentary religious grouping to which individuals are loosely affiliated but which lacks any permanent structure. -Like sects, cults often form around the influence of an inspirational leader. -In the United States, examples of homegrown, or indigenous, cults include New Age religions based on such things as spiritualism, astrology, and religious practices adapted from Asian or Native American cultures. One of the largest imported cults is the Reverend Sun Myung Moon's Unification Church ("Moonies"), which origi- nated in South Korea; when the Reverend died in 2012, his wife took over the church.

home schooling

-A growing trend (but a longtime practice) of parents or guardians educating their children at home, for religious, philosophical, or safety reasons. -Between 2000 and 2010, the number of students who were home schooled increased steadily; an estimated 1.5 to 2 million (or 2.9 percent of all) children are currently home schooled (U.S. Department of Education 2011). -The most frequently cited reasons were a concern about the school environment (85 percent), a desire to provide religious or moral instruction (72 percent), and dissatisfaction with the academic instruction at other schools (68 percent). -The researchers found that home-schooled young adults enjoyed higher ACT scores, grade point averages, and graduation rates compared with other col- lege students (Cogan 2010). However, many sociologists would like to see these find- ings confirmed in other samples before concluding that home schooling provides the same benefits as traditional schools.

The most exhaustive set of studies carried out to date, by Sara McLanahan and Gary Sandefur, rejects the claim that children raised by only one parent do just as well as children raised by both parents.

-A large part of the reason is economic—the sudden drop in income associated with divorce. But about half of the disadvantage comes from inadequate parental attention and lack of social ties. -Separation or divorce weakens the connection between child and father, as well as the link between the child and the father's network of friends and acquaintances. -it is a myth that there are usually strong support networks or extended family ties available to single mothers -Others have been quick to point out that al- though children who grow up in a single-parent home are on average disadvantaged, it is better for children's mental health if parents in extremely high-conflict marriages divorce than if they stay together (Amato et al. 1995; Musick and Meier 2010). This suggests that divorce may benefit chil- dren growing up in high-conflict marriages but may harm children whose parents have relatively low levels of marital conflict before divorcing.

church

-A large, established religious body, normally having a formal, bureaucratic structure and a hierarchy of religious officials. The term is also used to refer to the place in which religious ceremonies are carried out - Churches often represent a traditional face of re- ligion, since they are integrated within the existing institutional order. Most of their adherents are born into and grow up within the church.

welfare state

-A political system that provides a wide range of welfare benefits for its citizens. -A welfare state exists where government organizations provide material benefits for those who are unable to support themselves adequately through paid employment—the unem- ployed, the sick, the disabled, and the elderly. All Western countries today provide extensive welfare benefits.

secularization

-A process of decline in the influence of religion. Although modern societies have become increasingly secularized, tracing the extent of secularization is a complex matter. Secularization can refer to levels of involvement with religious organizations (such as rates of church attendance), the social and material influence wielded by religious organizations, and the degree to which people hold religious beliefs. -Peter Berger (1967) has described religion in premod- ern societies as a "sacred canopy" that covers all aspects of life and is therefore seldom questioned. -In modern society, however, the sacred canopy is more like a quilt, a patchwork of different religious and secular belief systems. -When multiple belief systems coexist, it becomes increasingly difficult to sustain the idea that there is any single true faith. According to this view, secularization is the likely result.

an extraordinary increase in the proportion of people living alone in the United States has also taken place over recent years—a phenomenon that partly reflects the high levels of marital separation and divorce.

-A record 28 percent of households now consist of only one person, and the percentage of Americans who live alone has doubled over the last fifty years (Klinenberg 2012). There has been a particularly sharp rise in the proportion of individuals living alone in the forty-five- to-sixty-four age bracket. - Just one-fifth (20%) of U.S. households today are the "traditional" family, down from a quarter a decade ago and 43 percent in 1950 (Tavernise 2011). - One reason is the rising rate of divorce: A substantial proportion of the population lives either in single-parent house- holds or in stepfamilies.

denomination

-A religious sect that has lost its revivalist dynamism and become an institutionalized body, commanding the adherence of significant numbers of people. -Denominations are recognized as legitimate by churches and exist alongside them, often cooperating harmoniously with them.

communism

-A set of political ideas associated with Marx, as developed particularly by Lenin and institutionalized in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and some developing countries. -Through most of the century, until the fall of Soviet communism in the early 1990s, more than a third of the world popu- lation lived in societies whose governments claimed to derive their inspiration from Marx's ideas. In practice, however, communism often exists as a system of one-party rule. Voters typically were given a choice not between different parties but between different candidates of the same party—the Communist Party; sometimes only one candidate ran. The party controlled the economy as well as the political system.

religious economy

-A theoretical framework within the sociology of religion that argues that religions can be fruitfully understood as organizations in competition with one another for followers. -Sociologists who favor the religious economy approach argue that religions can be thought of as organizations in competition with one an- other for followers (Stark and Bainbridge 1987; Finke and Stark 1988, 1992; Roof and McKinney 1990; Hammond 1992; Warner 1993; Moore 1994). - (Classical theorists) Marx Durkheim, and Weber assumed that religion weakens when challenged by differ- ent religious or secular viewpoints, whereas the religious economists argue that competition increases the overall level of religious involvement in modern society. -Religious economists believe this is true for two reasons: First, competition makes each religious group try harder to win followers. Second, the presence of numerous religions means that there is likely to be something for just about everyone. In a cul- turally diverse society such as the United States, a single religion will probably ap- peal to only a limited range of followers, whereas the presence of Indian gurus and fundamentalist preachers, in addition to mainline churches, is likely to encourage a high level of religious participation. -Even when people are allowed to choose among different religions, most are likely to practice their childhood religion without ever questioning whether there are more appealing alternatives.

democratic elitism

-A theory of the limits of democracy, which holds that in large-scale societies democratic participation is necessarily limited to the regular election of political leaders. -Weber placed a great deal of emphasis on the importance of leadership in democracy—which is why his view is referred to as "democratic elitism." He argued that rule by elites is inevitable; the best we can hope for is that those elites effec- tively represent our interests and that they do so in an innovative and insightful fashion. Weber valued multiparty democracy more for the quality of leadership it generates than for the mass participation in politics it makes possible.

liberal democracies

-A type of representative democracy in which elected representatives hold power. -Countries in which voters can choose between two or more political parties and in which the majority of the adult population has the right to vote are usually called liberal democracies. The United States, the Western European countries, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand all fall into this category. Some developing countries, such as India, also have liberal democratic systems.

old-style terrorism

-A type of terrorism that is local and linked to particular states and has limited objectives, which means that the violence involved is fairly limited. -The point of old-style terrorism is to establish states in areas where nations do not have control of the territory's state apparatus. This is true, for example, of Irish nationalists, such as the Irish Republican Army (IRA), and Basque nationalists, such as ETA, in Spain. The main issues are territorial integrity and identity in the formation of a state. Old-style terror- ism is found where there are nations without states and where terrorists are prepared to use violence to achieve their ends. Old-style terrorism is fundamentally local because its ambitions are local. It is intended to establish a state in a specific national area.

GAY-PARENT FAMILIES

-According to estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau, there are currently more than 600,000 same-sex families in the United States, roughly 168,000 of whom report themselves as married. -Recent decisions in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and several European nations demonstrate the current pulse of this movement. -In 2001 the Netherlands became the first nation to legalize same-sex marriage. Since that time, Belgium, Spain, Canada, South Africa, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Iceland, Argentina, Denmark, France, Uruguay, New Zealand, Brazil, and the United Kingdom have also legalized such unions. In 2007, Coahuila became the second state in Mexico to legalize civil unions. In 2008, Uruguay became the first nation in Latin America to do so. Countries that do not have same-sex marriage but have laws grant- ing civil unions and other rights include Ecuador, Finland, Germany, Greenland, and Hungary. -****Vermont was the first state to legalize civil unions: In July 2000, the Vermont legisla- ture voted to allow same-sex partners to register their "civil unions" with town clerks. -Though this was a big victory for gay and lesbian marriage advocates, the measure falls short of calling the partnerships "marriage" and instead opts for "civil unions. Marriage is seen as a more desirable arrangement by gay and lesbian couples because marriages are respected in all fifty states for all purposes, but civil unions are not necessarily recognized as legally binding when a couple leave the state in which they formed the union. -May 2014 when Oregon and Pennsylvania legalized gay marriage, joining Massachusetts, Connecticut, Iowa, Vermont, New Hampshire, New York, Maine, Maryland, Washington, Dela- ware, Rhode Island, Minnesota, New Jersey, Hawaii, New Mexico, Illinois, and the District of Columbia -In 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court also overturned Proposition 8, which banned same-sex marriage in California. ...Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)—which denied same-sex couples federal health, tax, Social Security, and other benefits—was unconstitutional. That section prevented the recognition of same-sex marriages as legal unions under federal law. Whether more states will follow the lead of the states that currently recognize same- sex marriage remains to be seen. -According to the Williams Institute, an es- timated 37 percent of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered (LGBT)-identified persons have been a parent, and an estimated 6 million children in the United States have lived with a gay parent at some point in their lives (Gates 2013). -Although lesbian couples may have a child by donor insemination and gay men may rely on a surrogate to carry a biological child, LGBT-identified persons are far more likely than hetero- sexuals to have a child through adoption. Same-sex couples raising children are four times more likely than their heterosexual counterparts to be raising an adopted child, and more than six times as likely to be raising foster children (Gates 2013). -Relaxation of previously intolerant attitudes toward homosexuality has been ac- companied by a growing tendency for courts to allocate custody of children to parents living in gay relationships. Although gay adoption had historically been banned in several states, as recently as 2010, Florida was the only remaining state to block such adoption. In September 2010, this ban was struck down, allowing a gay man named Frank Martin Gill to adopt two boys—half-brothers he had been raising as foster children since 2004. -For example, in 2013 the American Academy of Pediatrics is- sued a seminal report, summarizing more than sixty academic studies, where the authors concluded "that children growing up in households headed by gay men or lesbians are not disadvantaged in any significant respect relative to children of heterosexual parents"

liberation theology

-An activist Catholic religious movement that combines Catholic beliefs with a passion for social justice for the poor. -An activist form of Catholicism, termed liberation theology, combines Catholic beliefs with a passion for social justice for the poor, particularly in Central and South America and in Africa. -A similar role is played by Islamic socialists in Pakistan and Buddhist socialists in Sri Lanka (Berryman 1987; Sigmund 1990; Juergensmeyer 1994). Many religious leaders have paid with their lives for their activism, which government and military leaders often regard as subversive. -In some Central and Eastern European coun- tries once dominated by the former Soviet Union, long-suppressed religious organizations provided an important basis for the overturning of socialist regimes during the early 1990s. -In Poland, the Catholic Church was closely allied with the Solidarity movement, which toppled the socialist ligious beliefs and Westernization? government in 1989."

young children are more likely than ever before to live with parents who are cohabiting but who are not legally married to each other.

-As we noted earlier, a recent Pew survey finds that about half of all nonmarital births are to cohabiting couples (Taylor et al. 2007) -Sociologists Larry Bumpass and Hsien-Hen Lu (2000) find that about two-fifths of all children spend some time living with their mother and a cohabiting partner and that approximately one-third of the time children spend with unmarried mothers is actually spent in cohabitation.

Feminism has had a great impact on sociology by challenging the vision of the family as a harmonious and egalitarian realm. In the 1960s, one of the first dissenting voices was that of the American feminist sociology of families use to focus on structures,historical development (nuclear & extended) importance of kinship ties, but know ...

-Betty Friedan, who wrote of "the problem with no name"—the isolation and boredom that gripped many suburban American housewives, who felt relegated to an endless cycle of child care and housework. -feminism succeeded in directing attention inside families to examine the experiences of women in the domestic sphere.

Liberal Protestants tend to be well educated and have jobs and incomes that would classify them as middle or upper class. They are concentrated in the northeastern states, and, to a small extent, in the West as well. Moderate Protestants fall at a somewhat lower level than liberal Protestants in terms of education and income.

-Black Protestants are, on average, the least educated and poorest of any of the religious groups. Conservative Protestants have a similar profile, although they fall at a marginally higher level on all these measures -Jews historically have had the most successful socioeconomic profile. Jews tend to be college graduates in middle- or upper-income categories. Whereas the large majority of Jews once lived in the northeastern states, today only half do, as many have relocated throughout the United States. -Although less is known about Hindus, who account for a relatively small proportion (0.4 percent) of all Americans today, national survey data show that Hindus are now the highest-earning religious group in the United States, sur- passing Jews for the first time. Nearly three-quarters (65 percent) of Hindus in the United States earned at least $75,000 in 2010, while Jews come in second with 58 percent in the $75,000 or higher earnings category

AFRICAN AMERICAN FAMILIES

-Blacks have higher rates of childbearing outside of marriage, they are less likely to ever marry, and they are also less likely to marry after having a nonmarital birth. -These patterns are shaped by economic factors, including the shortage of "marriageable men" (Wilson 1996) that we discussed earlier in this chapter. -A growing body of research shows that even children born to single mothers may still have a "social father" or a man who cares for them, such as an uncle, a cousin, or a new romantic partner of their mother. -As a result, racial differences in family structure are of particular interest to sociologists because single parenthood is associated with high rates of poverty in the United States - In 2012, 52.3 percent of all white people fifteen years and older were married and had a spouse present in the home, but the same could be said of only 29.6 percent of blacks... -black families were more likely than white families to be headed by a female. -1960, 21 percent of African American families were headed by females; among white families, the proportion was 8 percent. -2011, the proportion of black families with children under eighteen headed by single mothers had risen to 55 percent... white families was 22 percent -women are most likely to marry—even after the birth of a child—when they live in a geographic area that provides suitable employment oppor- tunities for men -When white anthropologist Carol Stack (1975) was a young doctoral student, she entered a black ghetto community in Illinois to study the support sys- tems that poor black families form... she found that families adapted to poverty by form- ing large, complex support networks. -Yet more recent data suggest that multigenerational families may pose strains and demands on their members, especially among the economically dis- advantaged

EDUCATION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION

-But as the industrial economy rapidly expanded, there was a great demand for specialized schooling that could produce an educated, capable workforce. -As educational systems became universal, more and more people were exposed to abstract learning (of subjects like math, science, history, and literature), rather than to the practical transmission of specific skills. (With the spread of industrialization, the demand for educated workers increased. The newly expanded education systems emphasized basic skills like reading, writing, and mathematics instead of specific skills for work.) -modern society, people have to be furnished with basic skills—such as reading, writing, and calculating—and a general knowledge of their physical, social, and economic environment, but it is also impor- tant that they know how to learn, so that they are able to master new, sometimes very technical, forms of information. For example, developing complex reasoning skills, the ability to debate the merits of competing theories, and an understanding of philosophical and reli- gious debates are three skills essential to a cultured and well-educated society. -Specialized forms of technical, vocational, and professional training often supplement pupils' liberal arts education and facilitate the transition from school to work. Internships, for example, allow young people to develop specific knowl- edge applicable to their future careers.

family capitalism

-Capitalistic enterprise owned and administered by entrepreneurial families. -The famous corporate dynasties, such as the Rockefellers and Fords, belong in this category. These individuals and families did not just own a single large corporation, but held a diversity of economic interests and stood at the apex of economic empires.

There are several explanations for this trend in the last several decades toward later marriage.

-First, increases in cohabitation among younger people contribute to the decreases (or delays) in marriage among this group. -Second, increases in postsecond- ary school enrollment, especially among women, are partially responsible for delays in marriage. -Third, women's increased participation in the labor force often leads to delays in marriage as women work to establish their careers before marrying and starting a family (Oppenheimer 1988).

According to the American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) of more than 54,000 house- holds in 2008, the largest number of households were Baptist, accounting for 31 percent of all Protestants—over three times the size of the second-largest group, Methodists (9.8 percent). There were far fewer Lutherans (7.5 percent), Presbyterians (4 percent), and Episcopalians (2 percent) (ARIS 2008). More than half of all Protestants today describe themselves as "born again" (The Economist 2003). Born-again Christians are those who report that they have experienced a dramatic conversion to faith in Jesus.

-Conservative Protestants, which include denominations such as Baptists and Pentecostals, emphasize a literal interpretation of the Bible, morality in daily life, and conversion through evangelizing. They can be contrasted with the more historically established mainline and liberal Protestants such as Episcopalians and Methodists, who tend to adopt a more flexible, humanistic approach to religious practice. -Since the 1960s, the fastest-growing religious group has been self-identified evangelicals.

CHILD ABUSE

-Definitions of child abuse vary widely, but experts agree that it encompasses serious physical harm (such as physical beatings or severe physical punishment, sexual abuse with injury, or willful malnutrition) with intent to injure. -national study of married or cohabiting adults found that in 1993 about 3 percent of respondent adults abused their children -cohabiting adults are no more or less likely to abuse their children than married couples -In 2009, parents—acting alone or with another person—were responsible for 75.8 percent of child abuse or neglect fatalities -Studies based on parents' self-report may underreport the frequency of abuse, as parents may be reluctant to report such problematic behaviors. As a result, most stud- ies of abuse are based on national surveys of child welfare professionals. -These surveys may fail to include abused children who are not seen by professionals and thus are not reported to state agencies. Researchers estimate that as many as 50 to 60 percent of child deaths from abuse or neglect are not recorded -

tracking

-Dividing students into groups according to ability. -The practice of tracking—dividing students into groups that receive different in- struction on the basis of assumed similarities in ability or attainment—is common in American schools. -In a classic study of school tracking, Jeannie Oakes (1985) studied twenty-five junior and senior high schools, both large and small and in both urban and rural ar- eas, and concentrated on differences within schools rather than among them. She found that although several schools claimed they did not track students, virtually all of them had mechanisms for sorting students into groups on the basis of purport- ed ability and achievement to make teaching easier. -did not choose to use the term tracking itself. -A student in a "high-achieving" group was considered a high-achieving person—smart and quick. Pupils in a "low-achieving" group came to be seen as slow, below average—or, in more colloquial terms, as "dummies." -A subsequent study by Oakes found that these students received a poorer education in terms of the quality of courses, teachers, and textbooks made available to them (Oakes 1990). Moreover, tracking had a negative impact primarily on students who were poor, and particularly on African American or Latino students. -However, they also found that tracking has positive benefits for "advanced" students (Gamoran et al. 1995).

Marx, Émile Durkheim spent a good part of his intellectual career studying religion, concentrating particularly on totemism, an ancient form of reli- gion practiced by aboriginal Australians and Native Americans. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, first published in 1912, is perhaps the most influential single study in the sociology of religion (1965).

-Durkheim defined religion in terms of a distinction between the sacred and the profane. Sacred objects and symbols, he held, are treated as apart from the routine aspects of day-to-day existence—the realm of the profane. A totem (an animal or plant believed to have particular symbolic significance), Durkheim argued, is a sacred object, regarded with veneration and surrounded by ritual activities. These ceremo- nies and rituals, in Durkheim's view, are essential to unifying the members of groups. -According to Durkheim, religion has the function of uniting a society by ensuring that people meet regularly to affirm common beliefs and values.

informal economy

-Economic transactions carried on outside the sphere of formal paid employment. -Your child's baby sitter might be paid in cash "off the books," or without any receipt being given or details of the job recorded; the same may be true of the person who cleans your house or does your gardening, if you use such services.

Why did divorce rates increase so steeply in the 1960s and 1970s?

-First, changes in the law have made di- vorce easier. -Second, except for a small proportion of wealthy people, marriage today no longer has much connection with the desire to perpetuate property and status from generation to generation. -Third, as women become more economically independent, marriage is less of a necessary economic partnership. -Fourth, the stigma of divorce has declined, thus removing a psychological obstacle to marital dissolu- tion. -Fifth, adults now place a great value on personal satisfaction in marriage; few are willing to remain in a relationship that provides few emotional rewards (Cherlin 1990). - Sixth, adults now recognize that staying in an unhappy marriage "for the sake of the kids" is not always the best strategy; children tend to do better when they are spared frequent parental conflicts (Musick and Meier 2010).

LATINO FAMILIES

-Hispanics, like Asian Americans, are much more likely to reside in multigenerational families than are whites. -More than one in five Latinos resides in such a household. -This pattern reflects both structural influences, including relatively low income levels, as well as cultural influences, such as an emphasis on filial piety. -Another similarity between Hispanics and Asian Americans is that both broad ethnic groups are very heterogeneous when it comes to family patterns with particular difference documented among Mexican, Cuban, and Puerto Rican American families. -high birthrate -Mexican American families are typically better off financially than Puerto Rican families but less well off than Cuban families. -Latino women had lower rates of labor force participation in 2010 than did white women, fully 41 percent still worked for pay -Many Mexican American families say that the breadwinner-homemaker model would be their preference but that they are constrained by finances - Puerto Ricans (still considered Hispanics) can and do move about freely between Puerto Rico and the mainland without the difficulties often encountered by immigrants. -Because Puerto Ricans do not face as many barriers, even the least able can manage the migration process. The economic upshot of un- restricted migration for Puerto Ricans is that they are the most economically disad- vantaged of all the major Hispanic groups living in the United States. -Puerto Rican American families are also characterized by a higher rate of children born to unmarried mothers than any other Hispanic group—65.1 percent in 2012 (This percentage is lower than among African Americans (72.1 percent) and higher than among whites (29.3 percent) (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2013a) -consensual unions—cohabiting relationships in which couples consider themselves mar- ried but are not legally married—are often the context for births to unmarried mothers. -Many Puerto Ricans respond to tough economic times by forming consensual unions as the next best option to what is often a much more expensive legal marriage - Cuban American families are the most prosperous of all the Hispanic groups, but are still less prosperous than whites. -Cuban Americans have settled in the Miami area and have formed immigrant enclaves in which they rely on other Cubans for their business and social needs (for example, banking, schools, and shopping). -relative wealth of Cuban Americans is driven largely by family business ownership. -Cuban Americans have lower levels of fertility than non- Hispanic whites and equally low levels of nonmarital fertility.

SINGLE-PARENT HOUSEHOLDS

-In 1950, only 4 percent of all children in the United States were born to unmarried parents; by 2011, nearly 41 percent of all children were born outside of marriage (Hamilton, Martin, and Ventura 2012). -An increasingly large number of nonmarital births are to men and women in their twenties who are delaying marriage but not de- laying childbearing (Cherlin 2010). -Although the mother may be legally "un- married," both she and her child may very well have a dedicated and involved male figure in their lives and in their home -one- quarter of white births and three-quarters of black births occur outside of a marital union. -Roughly half of black women experi- ence a birth outside of any kind of co-residential union, compared with just one- quarter of U.S.-born Hispanics and 9 percent of whites

ASIAN AMERICAN FAMILIES

-In 2010, 25 percent of Asians in the United States resided in multigenerational households, compared with just 12 percent of whites (Pew Social & Demographic Trends 2010). In many Asian cultures, family concerns are often a priority over individual concerns. Family members' inter- dependence also helps Asian Americans prosper financially. Asian American family and friend networks often pool money to help their members start a business or buy a house. - Asian Americans are a heterogeneous group, however, and vary widely in terms of other family patterns. -Chinese American and Japanese American women have much lower fertility rates than do any other racial/ethnic group, due in part to their higher levels of educational attainment. - Chinese, Japanese, and Filipino families have lower levels of nonmarital fertility than all other racial/ethnic groups, including non-Hispanic whites. -Low levels of nonmarital fertility combined with low levels of divorce for most Asian American groups demonstrate the cultural emphasis on marriage as the appropriate forum for family formation and maintenance.

Malala Yousafzai

-In October 2012, when Malala was just fifteen years old, she was shot in the head and neck as she rode the bus home from her school in Mingora in the Swat district of Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. The gunmen were members of the Taliban, an Islamic fundamentalist group that has long oppressed women. The Taliban had set an edict that girls in Mingora could not attend school after the age of fifteen. -Several years earlier, Malala had maintained a blog and had spoken out publicly against the Taliban's mistreatment of girls and women. In one of her early public speeches, the bold teenager asked, "How dare the Taliban take away my basic right to education?" By challenging the religious beliefs of the Taliban and advocating for the education of girls and women, Malala had made herself a target (Peer 2012; Yousafzai and Lamb 2013). -She made a full recovery, wrote a book documenting her ordeal (Yousafzai and Lamb 2013), and became an internationally recognized heroine—an advocate for women's education worldwide. -...nomination for the 2013 Nobel Peace Prize. Malala also graced the cover of Time magazine in 2013 and was named one of the "100 most influ- ential people in the world" by the publication. -Just 2.4 percent of Pakistan's gross domestic product is dedicated to education. According to United Nations data, 5.1 million children in Pakistan are not attending school, and two- thirds of them are female. -38 percent of young women ages fifteen to twenty-four (versus just 21 percent of their male peers) are illiterate, meaning that they cannot read or write (UNICEF 2013). -Some religions, for example, teach that all persons are created equal, whereas others are based on a foundation of oppression, where some groups are viewed as morally superior to and more worthy than others. Soci- ologists of religion try to assess under what conditions religion unites communities and under what conditions it divides them.

constitutional monarchs

-Kings or queens who are largely figureheads. Real power rests in the hands of other political leaders. -The queen of England, the king of Sweden, and even the emperor of Japan are all constitutional monarchs: Their real power is severely restricted by the constitution, which vests authority in the elected representatives of the people. The vast majority of modern states are republican—there is no king or queen. Almost every modern state, including constitutional monarchies, professes adherence to democracy.

NATIVE AMERICAN FAMILIES

-Kinship ties are also very important in Native American families. -Further- more, Native Americans have higher rates of intermarriage than any other racial/ ethnic group. In 2009, less than half of all married Native Americans were married to other Native Americans (Park 2011). - The Native American fertility experience is similar to that of African Americans. Native American women have a high fertility rate and a high percentage of nonmarital fertility; 64.0 percent of all Native American women giving birth between January 2010 and December 2011 were not married. -also report a high divorce rate for Native Americans. -These patterns of high rates of divorce and nonmarital childbearing are powerfully shaped by structural factors, including limited access to higher education, high unemployment rates, and high levels of poverty.

civil rights

-Legal rights held by all citizens in a given national community. -Examples are the freedom of individuals to live where they choose, freedom of speech and religion, the right to own property, the right to legally marry, and the right to equal justice before the law. These rights were not fully established in most European countries until the early nineteenth century. Although the U.S. Constitution granted such rights to Americans well before most European states had them, African Americans were excluded they were not able to exercise them. -Women also were denied many civil rights; for example, at the turn of the nineteenth century in the United States, women had few rights independent of their husbands. They could not own property, write wills, collect an inheritance, or even earn a salary.

Max Weber (Religion)

-Max Weber embarked on a massive study of religions worldwide. No scholar before or since has un- dertaken a task of this scope. -In his research on the social and economic influence of religions around the world, Max Weber categorized Eastern religions as "other-worldly" and Christianity as a "salvation religion." Weber believed that Hinduism stressed escaping material existence to locate a higher plane of being, which cultivated an attitude of passivity. In contrast, he argued that Christianity and its emphasis on salvation and constant struggle could stimulate revolt against the existing order. -Weber's writings on religion differ from those of Durkheim because they con- centrate on the connection between religion and social change, something to which Durkheim gave little direct attention. -contrast with those of Marx because Weber argued that religion was not necessarily a conservative force; on the contrary, religiously inspired movements have often produced dramatic social transformations. -Weber regarded Christianity as a salvation religion. According to such religions, human beings can be "saved" if they are converted to the beliefs of the re- ligion and follow its moral tenets. The notions of "sin" and of being rescued from sinfulness by God's grace are important. They generate a tension and an emotional dynamism essentially absent from the Eastern religions. Salvation religions have a "revolutionary" aspect. Whereas the religions of the East cultivate an attitude of passivity or acceptance within the believer, Christianity demands a constant struggle against sin and so can stimulate revolt against the existing order. Religious leaders—such as Luther or Calvin—have arisen who reinterpret existing doctrines in such a way as to challenge the extant power structure.

Are racial differences in family formation primarily due to economic or cultural factors?

-Promises I Can Keep: Why Poor Women Put Motherhood Before Marriage, sociologists Kathryn Edin and Maria Kefalas (2005) offer insightful glimpses into the ways that social class affects the family lives of low-income women. -the authors conducted interviews with 165 low-income single mothers in black and white neighborhoods to uncover why low-income women continue to have children out of wedlock when they can hardly afford to do so. valued and revered marriage, but they believed that if they married their current partners, they might end up divorced or in an unhappy marriage. -Edin and Kefalas offer three additional explanations for why poor women often have children out of wedlock. 1.First, young women in poor communities feel confident about their ability to raise children, because most were themselves raised in social environ- ments where young people are typically involved in raising the other kids in a family or in one's neighborhood. 2. Second, the poor place an extremely high value on children, perhaps even higher than that of middle-class families, at least in part because they have fewer things to make their lives meaningful. 3. Finally, many women in the study reported that having a child actually saved their lives, bringing order to an otherwise chaotic life.

The National Center for Education Statistics breaks literacy into three components: prose literacy, document literacy, and quantitative literacy.

-Prose literacy means that a person can look at a short piece of text to get a small piece of uncomplicated information. -Document literacy refers to a person's ability to locate and use information in forms, schedules, charts, graphs, and other informational tables. -Quantitative literacy is the ability to do simple addition. -estimated 14 percent of the adult population lack prose literacy, 12 percent are at the "below basic" level for document literacy, and 22 percent have quantitative literacy skills that are "basic" or better. Only 13 percent of the pop- ulation is proficient in these three areas (Kutner et al. 2007).

power elite

-Small networks of individuals who, according to C. Wright Mills, hold concentrated power in modern societies. -The power elite, in Mills's portrayal, is composed mainly of white Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs). Many are from wealthy families, have been to the same prestigious universities, belong to the same clubs, and sit on government committees with one another.

The turnout for congressional elections is lower still—around 40 percent (NES 2003). The presidential election of 2008 bucked this declining trend with voter turnout levels of nearly 64 percent, the highest since the election of 1968. The rate dipped slightly to 62 percent by 2012, however (U.S. Bureau of the Census 2013e).

-The 2008 election, in particular, was an anomaly. Only a little more than a third of all voters in the eighteen-to-twenty-four age group bothered to vote for president in 2000, compared with nearly three-quarters of voters in their sixties. However, in the 2008 presidential election, the number of young voters swelled due to a highly organized voter mobilization campaign. Nearly 52 percent of voters under thirty voted in the 2008 election, although this figure dipped slightly by the 2012 election (United States Election Project 2014). -Voter turnout in the United States is among the world's lowest. -According to their study, voter turnout in the United States averaged only 58 percent overall, earning it 112th place (of 192 countries). By way of comparison, voter turnout in Europe over the same period averaged 61 percent; Asia, 64 percent; South America, 65 percent; Central America and the Caribbean, 61.5 percent; and Africa, 64.5 percent (IDEA 2009).

Catholicism They were faced with disobeying the Church, and many Catholics did just that. According to one study conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 98 percent of all Catholic women who have had sexual relations report having used contraceptives at one time or another (Jones and Dreweke 2011). Similarly, the General Social Survey found that three out of five Catholics say that contraceptives should be available to teens even without parental approval (Catholics for Choice 2004).

-The Catholic Church has shown steady increases in membership in recent de- cades, due largely to the immigration of Catholics from Mexico and Central and South America.

Judaism in the United States has historically been divided into three major move- ments: Orthodox, which believes in the divine origins of the Jewish Bible ( called by Christians the Old Testament), and follows highly traditional religious practices; Conservative, which is a blend of traditional and more contemporary beliefs and practices; and Reform, which rejects most traditional practices and is progres- sive in its ritual practices (services, for example, are more likely to be conducted in English than in Hebrew).

-The Census Bureau estimates that in 2010, 2.1 percent of the U.S. population, or 6.5 million persons, were Jews (U.S. Bureau of the Census 2012q). By contrast, survey data from the Pew Organization reports that in 2012, just 1.8 percent of the U.S. population, or 4.2 million persons, were Jews (Pew Research Center 2013). However, these disparities may reflect precisely how Jews are identified and counted. Some Americans identify as Jewish if they have a Jewish mother—even if they have never practiced their religion. Yet other people may self-identify as Jewish only if they participate actively in the religion, whereas others still may identify as "culturally Jewish," meaning they celebrate their heritage and culture but do not actively practice religion.

One reason so many Americans are religiously affiliated is that religious organizations are an im- portant source of social ties and friendship networks. Churches, synagogues, and mosques are communities of people who share the same beliefs and values, and who support one another during times of need. Religious communities thus often play a family-like role, offering help in times of emergency as well as more routine assistance such as child care.

-The United States is the most religiously diverse country in the world, with more than 1,500 distinct religions (Melton 1989). Yet the vast majority of people belong to a relatively small number of religious denomina- tions (see Figure 12.2). Seventy-eight percent of Americans identify as Christian, with 23.9 percent identifying as Catholic and 51.3 percent as Protes- tant; 1.7 percent of Americans identify as Jewish, 0.6 percent as Muslim, and 0.4 percent as Hindu. Sixteen percent say they have no religious affiliation at all (Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life 2011).

power

-The ability of individuals or the members of a group to achieve aims or further the interests they hold. Power is a pervasive element in all human relationships. -Power is the ability of individuals or groups to make their own interests or concerns count, even when others resist.

local nationalisms

-The beliefs that communities that share a cultural identity should have political autonomy, even within smaller units of a nation-state. -Thus, in Canada, for instance, national- ist feelings among the French-speaking population in Quebec present a challenge to the feeling of "Canadianness." Yet while the relation between the nation-state and nationalism is a complicated one, the two have come into being as part of the same process.

SPOUSAL ABUSE

-The classic 1988 study by Richard Gelles and Murray Straus found that 16 percent of married persons reported at least one incidence of spousal violence in the prior year, and 28 percent reported that they had at some time in their lives experienced spousal violence. -When the authors disaggregated this number, they found that approximately 3 percent of all husbands admitted to perpetrating at least one act of severe violence on their spouse in the last year, and this is likely to be an underestimate of actual occurrence -Straus and his colleagues also reported a finding that has been widely discussed and debated: that equal proportions of women and men reported that they perpetrat- ed spousal abuse. This lies in stark contrast to much of the literature based on crime statistics, hospital records, and shelter administrative records—sources that all indi- cate that spousal violence is almost exclusively man-on-woman violence. -Michael Johnson (1995) was able to untangle these inconsistencies. Johnson recognized that the data that were generating such conflicting findings were collected from two very different samples. In the shelter samples, respondents are generally women who were severely beaten by their husbands or partners. The severity of their situation drew them to a shelter. On the other hand, those responding to a national survey are generally living in their homes and have the time, energy, or wherewithal to complete a survey. "patriarchal terrorism." This type of violence is perpetuated by feelings of power and control. The type of violence reported in national surveys is referred to as "common couple violence." This type of violence is generally reactive to a specific incident and is not rooted in power or control.

religious nationalism

-The linking of strongly held religious convictions with beliefs about a people's social and political destiny. -In countries around the world, religious nationalist movements reject the notion that religion, government, and politics should be separate and call instead for a revival of traditional religious beliefs that are directly embodied in the nation and its leadership (Beyer 1994). These nationalist movements represent a strong reaction against the impact of technological and economic modernization on local religious beliefs. In particular, religious nationalists oppose what they see as the destructive aspects of "Western" influence on local culture and religion, ranging from American television to the missionary efforts of foreign evangelicals. -Religious nationalist movements accept many aspects of modern life, includ- ing modern technology, politics, and economics. For example, Islamic fundamen- talists use video and television to reach millions of Muslims worldwide. However, they also emphasize a strict interpretation of religious values and completely reject the notion of secularization (Juergensmeyer 1994, 2001). -For example, in the early twenty-first century, the aim of the Islamic republic in Iran was to organize gov- ernment and society so that Islamic teachings would dominate all spheres of life. The Guardian Council of religious leaders de- termines whether laws, policies, and can- didates for Parliament conform to Islamic beliefs, even though Iran has a U.S.-style constitution providing for elected officials and the separation of powers. -Mohammad Khatami and his allies recaptured con- trol of Parliament in the 2000 elections, but that victory proved to be short-lived: The Guardian Council disqualified 2,400 liberal candidates (nearly a third of all candidates) during the 2004 elec- tions, and Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, a conservative candidate close to Iran's religious leaders, won the presidency.

franchise

-The right to vote. -Women had to wait longer; in most Western countries, the vote for women was achieved partly as a result of the efforts of women's movements and partly as a consequence of the mo- bilization of women into the formal economy during World War I. As recently as September 2011, Saudi Arabia's king Abdullah officially granted women the right to vote and run in 2015 local elections.

In 2013, 20.5 million children under the age of eighteen lived with one parent, 17.5 million with their mother and 3 million with their father

-The vast majority of single-parent households are headed by women because unmarried women often do not maintain contact with the birth father of the child and may even prefer to raise a child on their own. -case of divorce, the mother usually obtains primary custody of the children. -12.3 million single-parent families in the United States in 2012. Of these 12.3 million, 84 percent were headed by women and 16 percent by men. Overall, 14.4 percent of families are single-parent families, while an additional 2.2 percent are cohabiting parents who are not legally married to one another -"Single mothers by choice" is an apt description of some parents, normally those who possess sufficient resources to manage satisfactorily as a single-parent house- hold. For the majority of unmarried or never-married mothers, however, the reality is different: There is a high correlation between the rate of births outside marriage and indicators of poverty and social deprivation.

pluralist theories of modern democracy

-Theories that emphasize the role of diverse and potentially competing interest groups, none of which dominate the political process. -...business organizations, trade unions, ethnic groups, environmen- tal organizations, religious groups, and so forth. A democratic political order is one in which there is a balance among competing interests, all having some impact on policy but none dominating the actual mechanisms of government.

Divorce

-They rose, for example, following World War II, then dropped off before climbing to much higher levels. The divorce rate increased steeply from the 1960s to the late 1970s, reaching a peak in 1980 -About one-half of children born in 1980 became members of a one-parent family at some stage in their lives. Since two-thirds of women and three-fourths of men who are divorced eventually remarry, most of these children nonetheless grew up in a two-parent family. -In 2013, just 3.7 percent of children under eighteen in the United States were not living with either parent -According to a 1996 study, the living standards of divorced women and their children on average fell by 27 percent in the first year following the divorce settlement. The average standard of living of divorced men, by contrast, rose by 10 percent. -Most court judgments left the former husband with a high pro- portion of his income intact; therefore, he had more to spend on his own needs than while he was married (Peterson 1996). -The main reason for the gender gap is that women typically earn less than men and take time out of the labor market to raise children. Many cannot return to work, or cannot easily secure high-paying jobs upon divorcing.

The rise of literacy in Europe was closely tied to sweeping social transformations, particularly the Protestant Reformation, which brought individual study of the Bible, and the rise of modern science.

-Today, 20.2 percent of the population ages fifteen years and older in developing countries are illiterate (UNESCO 2013).

hidden curriculum

-Traits of behavior or attitudes that are learned at school but not included within the formal curriculum—for example, gender differences. -The concept of the hidden curriculum addresses the fact that much of what is learned in school has nothing directly to do with the formal content of lessons. The hidden curriculum teaches children that their role in life is "to know their place and to sit still with it" (Illich 1983).

cohabitation

-Two people living together in a sexual relationship of some permanence without being married to each other. -11 percent in the early 1970s to 44 percent in the early 1980s and probably about 50 percent today -By age thirty about 50 percent of women will have cohab- ited outside marriage -From 1987 to 2002, the percent- age of women between the ages of thirty-five and thirty-nine who had ever cohabited doubled, from 30 percent to 61 percent -Cohabitation has become widespread among college and university students, al- though they were not the initiators of this trend, as many people believe. -cohabitation phenomenon started with lower-educated groups in the 1950s because they did not have the economic resources to marry. -While for some cohabitation may be a substitute for marriage, for many it is viewed as a stage in the process of relationship building that precedes marriage. -A couple that are already having a sexual relationship spend more and more time together, eventually giving up one of their individual homes. -For instance, the probability that the first cohabitation will become a marriage within five years is 73 percent for white women, but only 53 percent for Hispanic women and 46 percent for black women. Comparable rates for men are 73 percent for white men, 52 percent for black men, and 50 percent for Hispanic men (National Center for Health Statistics 2010). -likelihood of a first marriage resulting from cohabitation is positively associated with higher education, the absence of children during cohabitation, and higher family income. -Only about 35 percent of cohabitors married their partners within three years of starting to live together.

Over the past three decades, the journalist Jonathan Kozol has studied schools in about thirty neighborhoods around the United States.

-What startled him most was the segregation within these schools and the inequalities among them. Kozol brought these terrible conditions to the attention of the American people in his best-selling book Savage Inequalities (Kozol 1991). -Three-quarters of its residents were living on welfare at the time. City resi- dents were forced to use their backyards as garbage dumps, which attracted a plague of flies and rats during the hot summer months. East St. Louis also had some of the sickest children in the United States, with extremely high rates of infant death, asthma, and poor nutrition and extremely low rates of immunization. Only 55 percent of the children had been fully immunized for polio, diphtheria, measles, and whooping cough. -I don't go to physics class because my lab has no equip- ment," said one student. Only 55 percent of the students in this high school ultimately graduated, about one-third of whom went on to college. -wealthy suburban school in Westchester County outside New York City. Two-thirds of the senior class were enrolled in an advanced place- ment (AP) class. -make little difference in the long run because the poor students lacked motivation and would fail because of the many other problems in their lives. -As one student observed, "If you equalize the money, someone's got to be shortchanged. I don't doubt that [poor] children are getting a bad deal. But do we want everyone to get a mediocre education?" - Yet Kozol did find that a hand- ful of the students succeeded even though the odds were stacked against them. Most of these resilient children had been fortunate to have especially devoted parents, the support from their religious community, or a serendipitous scholarship opportuni- ty. As Kozol notes in his 2012 book Fire in the Ashes: Twenty-Five Years among the Poorest Children in America, "These children had unusual advantages: Someone in- tervened in every case." For example, one young girl named Pineapple... graduate school... social worker - For example, there remain vast disparities in educational spending in largely black and Latino central cities versus largely white well-to-do suburbs. He reported that in 2002- 2003, New York City spent $11,627 on each public school child, while in Nassau County, the towns of Manhasset and Great Neck spent $22,311 and $19,705... -While suburban white schools would offer advanced math, literature, and an array of arts electives, the nearby primarily black school would offer classes like hairdressing, typing, and auto shop. -Kozol's poignant journalistic account of educational inequality has become part of our nation's conventional wisdom on the subject of educational inequality.

Another influential theory on the question of how schools reproduce social in- equality was introduced by Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis. Modern education, they propose, is a response to the economic needs of industrial capitalism.

-and they instill discipline and respect for authority in the future labor force. -Authority relations in school, which are hierarchical and place strong emphasis on obedience, directly parallel those dominating the workplace.

This was first docu- mented by William J. Goode in his book World Revolution in Family Patterns (1963) ... sociologist have identified seven important changes that have characterized global family change over the past half-century: ...

1. Clans, or small family groups based on shared heredity, and other types of kin groups are declining in their influence. 2. There is a general trend toward the free choice of a spouse. 3. The rights of women are becoming more widely recognized, in respect to both the initiation of marriage and decision making within families. 4. Kin marriages are becoming less common. 5. Higher levels of sexual freedom are developing in societies that were very restrictive. 6. Birth rates are declining, meaning that women are giving birth to fewer babies. 7. There is a general trend toward the extension of children's rights.

1- many women no longer need a male breadwinner in their home.

3- Finally, some researchers believe that modernization, changing gender roles, and a shift in attitudes that promote individualism make marriage less important than it once was.

Feminist writings have emphasized a broad spectrum of topics, but three main themes are of particular importance.

-central concerns is the domestic division of labor—the way in which tasks are allocated among members of a house- hold. (Findings have shown that women continue to bear the main responsibility for domes- tic tasks and enjoy less leisure time than men, despite the fact that more women are working in paid employment outside the home than ever before (Bianchi et al. 2007; Hochschild and Machung 1989). However, in same-sex couples, partners tend to share housework more equally than do heterosexual couples, showing the complex ways that gender shapes household arrangements) -Second, feminists have drawn attention to the unequal power relationships that exist within many families. (Wife battering, marital rape, incest, and the sexual abuse of children have all received more public attention as a result of feminists' claims that the violent and abusive sides of family life have long been ignored in both aca- demic contexts and legal and policy circles.) (1970, marital rape was legal in the United States. "Due in large part to efforts of feminist activists and scholars, marital rape became illegal in all fifty states in 1993) -The study of caring activities is a third area in which feminists have made im- portant contributions. (Not only do women tend to shoulder concrete tasks such as cleaning and child care, but they also invest large amounts of emotional labor in maintaining personal relationships...they are also a form of work that demands an ability to listen, perceive, negotiate, and act creatively. Ironically, jobs that involve caring, such as child-care worker, nanny, or elderly companion, are among the lowest paid of all oc- cupations, and such jobs are typically held by women of color and immigrants in the United States)

As part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the commissioner of education was required to prepare a report on educational inequalities resulting from differences of ethnic background, religion, and national origin. James Coleman, a sociologist, was director of the research program. The out- come was a study, published in 1966, based on one of the most extensive research projects ever carried out in sociology.

-collected on more than half a million pupils who were given a range of achievement tests assessing verbal and nonverbal abilities, reading levels, and mathematical skills. -Sixty thousand teachers also completed forms providing data for about 4,000 schools. -The report found that a large majority of children went to schools that effectively segregated black from white. Almost 80 percent of schools attended by white students contained only 10 percent or fewer African American students. -Coleman had supposed his re- sults would also show schools that were mainly African American to have worse fa- cilities, larger classes, and inferior buildings than schools that were predominantly white. -In Coleman's words, "Inequalities imposed on children by their home, neighborhood, and peer environment are carried along to become the inequalities with which they confront adult life at the end of school" (Coleman et al. 1966). -There was, however, some evidence that students from deprived backgrounds who formed close friendships with those from more favorable circumstances were likely to be more successful educationally. -The findings of Coleman's study have been replicated many times over the past decades, most notably by Christopher Jencks and colleagues (Jencks et al. 1972; Schofield 1995).

People's lives are influenced by their involvement in a national political system; moreover, governments make active attempts to alter traditional ways of behaving. Because of the problem of rapidly expanding population growth, states fre- quently introduce programs advocating smaller families

-for example, by promoting the use of contraception. One of the world's most effective population control programs is the one-child policy in China, implemented in 1978. -births dropped from 5 per woman in the 1970s, to 3 in 1980, to an estimated 1.55 in 2013

As early as the 1960s, anthropologist Margaret Mead (1966) predicted that living together would allow people to make better decisions about marriage. Yet some studies suggest that those who live with their partners before marrying them are slightly more likely to divorce than are individuals who do not cohabit with their partners before marriage (Goodwin et al. 2010). How could this be so?

-the selection explanation and the experience of living together explanation. -The selection explanation proposes that people who live together would be more likely to divorce even if they hadn't ever lived together before marriage. That is, the very people who would choose to cohabit differ from those who don't, and the traits that distinguish the two groups are associated with their chances of divorcing. For example, people who cohabit are less religious than those people who refuse to cohabit (Kamp Dush et al. 2003). People who are less religious would be less likely to stay married in any event, whereas people who are more religious would be more likely to stay married. -Although the selection explanation suggests that there is nothing inherent about cohabitation that promotes divorce, there is a competing explanation that suggests that living together is the kind of experience that erodes belief in the permanence of marriage. As people go through their twenties living with various partners, they develop a sense that relationships can be started and ended easily and that they have many options for intimate relations outside of marriage -Which explanation is right? The best evidence seems to indicate that both are cor- rect. While people are selected into cohabitation and divorce based in part on their attitudes, the experience of cohabitation may also slightly alter one's beliefs about marriage.

...In many countries, especially Western industrial societies, five additional trends have occurred within the past three decades:

1. An increase in the number of births that occur outside of marriage. 2. A liberalization of laws and norms regarding divorce. 3. An increase in nonmarital cohabitation among romantic partners. 4. An increasing age at first marriage. 5. A growing number of and acceptance for same- sex couples and their families.

The United States has long been characterized by high marriage rates. Just under 96 percent of adults sixty-five years or older are or have been married (U.S. Bureau of the Census 2013c). The age at which people first marry has risen steeply over the past half-century, however.

1960- first marriage ages men- 22.8 woman-20.3 2011 men- 28.7 woman- 26.5

accounting for nearly 40 percent of total military spending—more than that of the next eleven countries combined (Figure 13.2) (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 2012). The global "war on terror," discussed below, has instead triggered yet another cycle of military spending. Eisenhower's dire warning seems no less apt today than when he uttered it some fifty years ago.

640 million U.S. !!!

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nuclear family

A family group consisting of an adult or adult cou- ple and their dependent children.

extended family

A family group consisting of more than two generations of relatives.

matrilocal family

A family system in which the husband is expected to live near the wife's parents.

patrilocal family

A family system in which the wife is expected to live near the husband's parents.

polygyny

A form of marriage in which a man may have two or more wives simultaneously.

polyandry

A form of marriage in which a woman may have two or more husbands simultaneously.

monogamy

A form of marriage in which each married partner is allowed only one spouse at any given time.

direct democracy

A form of participatory democracy that allows citizens to vote directly on laws and policies. -For example, Americans can visit voting booths in their hometowns to vote directly on legislation that affects their lives.

authority

A government's legitimate use of power.

family

A group of individuals related to one another by blood ties, marriage, or adoption, who form an economic unit, the adult members of which are often responsible for the upbringing of children. All known societies involve some form of family system, although the nature of family relationships varies widely.

interest group

A group organized to pursue specific interests in the political arena, operating primarily by lobbying the members of legislative bodies.

suffrage

A legal right to vote guaranteed by the Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution; guaranteed to women by the Nineteenth Amendment.

citizen

A member of a political community, having both rights and duties associated with that membership.

nation-state

A particular type of state, characteristic of the modern world, in which a government has sovereign power within a defined territorial area, and the population are citizens who know themselves to be part of a single nation.

state

A political apparatus (government institutions plus civil service officials) ruling over a given territorial order whose authority is backed by law and the ability to use force.

democracy

A political system that allows the citizens to participate in political decision making or to elect representatives to government bodies.

standardized testing

A procedure whereby all students in a state take the same test under the same conditions.

new-style terrorism

A recent form of terrorism characterized by global ambitions, loose global organizational ties, and a more ruthless attitude toward the violence the terrorists are willing to use. -One of the distinguishing features of al Qaeda's view of the world, for example, is that it has global geopolitical aims; it seeks to restructure world society. Whereas old- style terrorism is local and linked to particular states, new-style terrorism is global in its ambitions. It seeks to alter the balance of world power (Gray 2003).

kinship

A relation that links individuals through blood ties, marriage, or adoption.

religion

A set of beliefs adhered to by the members of a community, incorporating symbols regarded with a sense of awe or wonder together with ritual prac- tices. Religions do not universally involve a belief in supernatural entities. -1. Religion is a form of culture. -2. Religion involves beliefs that take the form of ritualized practices. -3. Perhaps most important, religion provides a sense of purpose—a feeling that life is meaningful.

nationalism

A set of beliefs and symbols expressing identification with a national community.

marriage

A socially and legally approved sexual relationship between two individuals.

participatory democracy

A system of democracy in which all members of a group or community participate collectively in making major decisions.

Dual-career marriages and single-parent families are now the norm. The majority of married women working outside the home also care for a child or children.

Although many working women are concentrated in jobs with poor or nonexistent promotion prospects, the standard of living of many American couples is dependent on the income contributed by the wife, as well as on the unpaid work she undertakes in the home.

Edith Windsor was a young woman living and working in New York. With her master's degree in math from New York University, she was the rare woman working at IBM as a computer programmer. Edith was also a woman in love. She had met Thea Spyer, a clinical psychologist, at Portofino, a restaurant in New York's Greenwich Village that was a popular hangout for gay women. After several years of dating, Thea proposed to Edith in 1967, offer- ing her a brooch, rather than an engagement ring, to symbolize their commitment. Even though Thea and Edith couldn't legally marry at that time, they went on to live together as a loving couple for more than four decades. In 2007, Thea's health declined, and doctors told the couple that Thea had only a short time to live. The couple wanted to formalize their union before Thea died, so they promptly flew to Toronto, Canada—one of relatively few places where a same-sex couple could marry—and tied the knot. Just two years later, Thea died (Gabbatt 2013). Edith, then eighty years old and widowed with health problems of her own, soon learned that the IRS was ordering her to pay $363,053 in federal estate taxes on her inheritance from Thea. Edith—knowing full well that heterosexual couples who were legally married did not have to pay a comparable tax—was angry at the injustice.

Although the state of New York, where Edith lived, recognized her marriage to Thea, the federal government refused to treat them the same way as other married couples because of a federal law called the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which defines marriage as "a legal union between one man and one woman." This injustice impelled Edith to challenge the constitutionality of DOMA and seek a refund of the estate tax she had been forced to pay. In 2010, Edith sued the national government. In June 2013, after more than two years of appeals and legal red tape, the U.S. Supreme Court declared DOMA to be unconstitutional in the landmark United States v. Windsor. The ruling means that married same-sex couples must receive the same federal benefits, rights, and privileges afforded to all other Americans.

"institutional capitalism

Capitalistic enterprise organized on the basis of institutional shareholding."

"managerial capitalism

Capitalistic enterprises administered by managerial executives rather than by owners."

Marx was correct to claim that religion often has ideological implications, serving to justi- fy the interests of ruling groups at the expense of others. There are innumerable instances of this in history. For example, the European missionaries who sought to convert "heathen" peoples to Christian beliefs were no doubt sincere in their efforts. Yet their teachings contributed to the destruction of traditional cultures and the imposition of white domination.

Christian denominations tol- erated, or endorsed, slavery in the United States and other parts of the world into the nineteenth century. Doctrines were developed proclaiming slavery to be based on divine law, disobedient slaves being guilty of an offense against God as well as their masters (Stampp 1956).

"What backers of school privatization claim can solve these problems is a strong dose of private- sector ideology: competition, experimentation, and incentive. For-profit companies can run school sys- tems more efficiently and produce better outcomes by applying private-sector logic. Good teachers would be attracted to teaching—and retained—by performance-based pay schemes, while underper- forming teachers could be removed more easily."

Competition within and among schools would lead to higher levels of innovation; privatized schools would have more liberty to institutionalize the re- sults of successful experiments.

increasingly polarized...For example, Republicans are much more likely to favor an assertive national security strategy, whereas Democrats are increasingly critical of business and more likely to favor stronger government support for the poor (Pew Research Cen- ter for the People and the Press 2009).

Democrats tend to be more supportive of raising the minimum wage to help low-wage workers maintain an adequate standard of living, while their Republican counterparts worry that raising the minimum wage will be hurtful to business owners, espe- cially small independent business owners who may be struggling to make ends meet.

sacred

Describing something that inspires awe or reverence among those who believe in a given set of religious ideas.

functional literacy

Having reading and writing skills that are beyond a basic level and are sufficient to manage one's everyday activities and employment tasks.

The sociologist Mark Juergensmeyer (2001) has come to a startling conclusion: Even though virtually all major religious traditions call for compassion and understanding, violence and religion nonetheless go hand in hand.

He argues that a violent conflict is most likely to seek religious justification as a "sacred war" under three conditions: • the conflict is regarded as decisive for defending one's basic identity and dignity— for example, when one's culture is seen as threatened; and • losing the conflict is unthinkable, although • winning the conflict is unlikely in any realistic sense. ( According to Juergensmeyer, al Qaeda exemplifies such "cosmic warfare." Members of al Qaeda are seeking to defend Islam against the threat of Westernization.)

Many European countries are experiencing similar, and in some cases much greater, proportions of unions beginning with cohabitation rather than marriage. The northern European countries of Denmark, Sweden, and Finland, along with France, show particularly high rates of cohabitation.

However, unions in the southern European countries of Spain, Greece, and Italy—along with Ireland and Portugal— still largely begin with marriage.

In recent years, the proportion of American voters who identify with either the Democratic or Republican party has fallen. The proportion identifying as Democratic dropped from 36 to 32 percent of voters between 2008 and 2012. Similarly, the proportion of vot- ers self-identifying as Republication dropped from 30 percent in 2002 to 25 percent in 2008, falling to just 24 percent in 2012.

In contrast, one analysis of polling data showed that the number of voters declaring themselves to be "independent" of either party grew from 21 percent in 1957 to 38 percent in 2012 (Pew Research Center for the People and the Press 2012b).

women with the most resources—especially education—are increasingly following trajectories that provide their children with greater resources, primarily by delaying fertility and being more involved in the labor market.

In contrast, women who have the few- est resources—low levels of educational attainment or few economic resources— are increasingly following a trajectory of early fertility and infrequent employment.

Much research demonstrates that young adults from financially disadvantaged homes are less likely to attend college, and thus are more likely to marry younger—often right after high school. As a result, they tend to hold lower-paying jobs than their counterparts who graduate college.

Marrying young, before one is emotionally and financially ready, is con- sidered one of the most powerful predictors of divorce (Elliott and Simmons 2011). In this way, early mar- riage and subsequent divorce play a role in perpetuat- ing social class disadvantage across generations.

Odd though it might seem, the best way to maximize the chances of marriage, for both sexes, is to have been married previously.

People who have been married and divorced are more likely to marry again than single people in similar age groups are to mar- ry for the first time. At all age levels, divorced men are more likely to remarry than divorced women. Two in every three divorced women remarry, but three in every four divorced men eventually marry again. Many divorced individuals also choose to cohabit instead of remarry.

"welfare capitalism

Practice in which large corporations protect their employees from the vicissitudes of the market."

"automation

Production processes monitored and controlled by machines with only minimal supervision from people."

referendum, for example, whereby the majority express their views on a particular issue, is one form of participatory democracy.

Referenda are employed frequently on a state level in the United States to decide controversial issues, such as the legalization of gay marriage.

The most recent statistics based on the National Child Abuse and Neglect Re- porting System, a data resource of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Servic- es, estimate that in 2011 there were about 676,569 reported child victims of abuse or neglect. Of these, 78.5 percent suffered neglect, 17.6 percent suffered physical abuse, 9.0 percent suffered from psychological maltreatment, and 9.6 percent were sexually abused (DHHS 2012a); 81.2 percent of child abuse or neglect cases are perpetrated by the child's parents, another 4.4 percent by other relatives of the victim.

Researchers concur that child abuse occurs more frequently in low-income families and single-parent families, due in part to high levels of parental stress. Moreover, because economically disadvantaged persons are more likely to live in apartments and densely populated neighborhoods, incidences of abuse also are more likely to be noticed and reported by neighbors or social workers.

political rights

Rights of political participation, such as the right to vote in local and national elections, held by citizens of a national community.

social rights (welfare)

Rights of social and welfare provision held by all citizens in a national community, including, for example, the right to claim unemployment benefits and sickness payments provided by the state. -Social rights include such entitlements as sickness benefits, benefits in case of unemployment, and the guarantee of minimum levels of wages. Although in some countries welfare benefits were introduced before legal and political rights were fully established (for example, in nineteenth- century Germany), in most societies social rights have been the last to develop. This is because the establishment of civil and particularly political rights has usually been the basis of the fight for social rights. Social rights have been won largely as a result of the political strength poorer groups have been able to develop after obtaining the vote.

2- ...deterioration of men's economic position since the late 1980s has made them less attractive mates and less ready to marry.

Sociologist William Julius Wilson proposed the "marriageable men" hypothesis to explain the especially low marriage rates among blacks: Because black men have suffered the worst economic conditions in the last few decades, they might be viewed by black women as particularly poor marriage candidates (Wilson 1996).

profane

That which belongs to the mundane, everyday world.

literacy

The ability to read and write.

More than half of the world's population follow one of two faiths: Christianity (31.55 percent) or Islam (23.2 percent), religions that have long been unconstrained by national borders (Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life 2012).

The current globalization of religion is reflected in political activism among religious groups in poor countries and in the rise of religious nationalist movements in opposition to the modern secular state.

government

The enacting of policies and decisions on the part of officials within a political apparatus. In most modern societies governments are run by officials who do not inherit their positions of power but are elected or appointed on the basis of qualifications.

family of procreation

The family an individual initiates through marriage or by having children.

family of orientation

The family into which an individual is born or adopted

Another way of measuring the relation between age and first marriage is to look at the proportion of peo- ple who remain unmarried before a certain age (Figure 11.1).

Thus, in 1960, just 28 percent of women ages twenty-four or younger had never married. In 2010, that proportion was more than 86 percent (U.S. Bureau of the Census 2013c).

For example, while the majority of Americans today support gay marriage, these attitudes vary widely by one's generation, religious views, and even geographic region. Two-thirds of those born after 1981 support the legalization of gay marriage, whereas just 35 percent of those born between 1928 and 1945 do so. While just 23 percent of evan- gelical Christians support gay marriage, three-quarters of persons who are unaffiliated with religious organizations support same- sex marriage (Pew Research Center for the People and the Press 2013a).

Understanding families in contemporary society requires a sociological imagination that takes into account both personal preferences as well as the powerful impact of social structures and cultural beliefs.

Serbia 52 week full pay maternity leave (most) pic Philippines 6 weeks second to last

United states 0 week full pay maternity leave (least) pic

secular thinking

Worldly thinking, particularly as seen in the rise of science, technology, and rational thought in general.

Another survey of more than 50,000 adults in 2008 and nearly 114,000 adults in 1990 found that religious identification had declined sharply during the eighteen-year period. In 1990, 90 percent of all adults identified with some reli- gious group; in 2008, the figure was less than 80 percent. The principal decline was among self-identified Christians (from 86 percent to 76 percent). This decline was not because a growing proportion of adults identified with other religions; rather, it was because the number of adults reporting no religious identification grew from 8 percent to 15 percent of the population. Membership in religious insti- tutions showed a parallel decline (Kosmin and Keysar 2009).

^

First, democracy tends to be associated with competitive capitalism in the economic system, and capitalism has shown itself to be superior to communism as a wealth-generating system. Second, the more social activity becomes globalized and people's daily lives become influ- enced by events happening far away, the more they start to push for information about how they are ruled—and therefore for greater democracy (Huntington 1991). Third, with the influence of mass communications, particularly television and the Internet, governments can't maintain control over what their citizens see.

^

Members of stepfamilies are finding their own ways of adjusting to the relatively uncharted circumstances in which they find themselves. Perhaps the most ap- propriate conclusion to be drawn is that while marriages are broken up by divorce, families on the whole are not. Especially where children are involved, ties persist.

^

One prominent example of the political role of the Internet is provided by MoveOn.org, a liberal organization that was originally created in 1998 by the twenty- two-year-old activist Eli Pariser and software entrepreneurs Wes Boyd and Joan Blades to electronically mobilize opposition to the impeachment of President Bill Clinton. The organization now boasts 7 million members.

^

Over time, the practice of credentialism results in demands for higher credentials, which require higher levels of educational attain- ment. Jobs that thirty years ago would have required a high school diploma, such as sales representative, now require a college degree. Since educational attainment is closely related to class position, credentialism reinforces the class structure with- in a society (Collins 1971, 1979).

^

Religion and education teach young people the skills and beliefs that are an essential part of one's culture. However, the two institutions differ in a critical way: Education is intended to be universalistic and to expose all children to similar messages, whereas religious institutions vary widely in the val- ues, beliefs, and practices that they impart.

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Since children whose parents are unhappy with each other but stay together may also be affected, assessing the consequences of divorce for children is doubly problematic.

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The term school has its origins in a Greek word meaning "leisure," or "recreation."

^

Under the current system, schools "are destined to legitimize inequality, limit personal development to forms compatible with submission to ar- bitrary authority, and aid in the process whereby youth are resigned to their fate" (Bowles and Gintis 1976). If there were greater democracy in the workplace and more equality in society at large, Bowles and Gintis argue, a system of education could be developed that would provide for greater individual fulfillment.

^

Wade Clark Roof's study (1993) of 1,400 baby boomers found that a third had remained loyal to their childhood faith, while another third had continued to profess their childhood beliefs al- though they no longer belonged to a religious orga- nization. Only a third were actively searching for a new religion, making the sorts of choices presumed by the religious economy approach (Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life 2008).

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Still, most people (over 90 percent) ultimately marry, including a large majority of those people who originally left home to live independently (Goldscheider and Goldscheider 1999).

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During the period of colonialism, colonial governments regarded education with some trepidation. Until the twentieth century, most believed indigenous populations were too primitive to be worth educating. Later, education was seen as a way of mak- ing local elites acclimate to European ways of life. To some extent, this backfired: The majority of those who led anticolonial and nationalist movements were educated elites who had attended schools in Europe. They were able to compare firsthand the democratic institutions of the European countries with the absence of democracy in their lands of origin.

^ (pg. 362)

An estimated 60 percent of primary and 80 percent of secondary schools do tracking today. Social promotion is the practice of promoting students to the next grade level, despite their poor grades, to keep them with social peers.

^ A number of cities, including Baltimore, Chicago, New York, and Philadelphia, have stopped social promotions.

"monopoly • A situation in which a single firm dominates in a given industry.

oligopoly • The domination of a small number of firms in a given industry." -"In 1999 AT&T acquired the media corporation Media- One for $5 billion to create the world's largest cable company. Also in 1999 CBS pur- chased Viacom for $35 billion. In 2000 Time Warner and the Internet service provider America Online announced the largest merger in history—worth over $166 billion (Ross and Hansen 2001). By 2004, the value of cross-border mergers and acquisitions had reached $380.6 trillion. About 83 percent of these mergers and acquisitions occurred between companies in the developed world (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD] 2005). In 2013 alone, the global value of mergers and acqui- sitions was $2.4 trillion (Thomson-Reuters 2012). "

Of primary concern are the larger transformations that are taking place in family forms ...

the formation and dissolution of families and households and the evolv- ing expectations within individuals' personal relationships. The rise of divorce and single parenting, the emergence of "reconstituted families" and gay families, and the popularity of cohabitation are all subjects of concern among con- servative political and religious groups.

In other words, the purportedly harmful effects of divorce could reflect the harmful experiences for children of living with fighting parents. One of the most prominent family sociologists in the United States, Andrew Cherlin, has argued that these are the general effects of divorce on children:

• Almost all children experience an initial period of intense emotional upset after their parents separate. • Most resume normal development without serious problems within about two years after the separation. • A minority of children experience some long-term problems as a result of the breakup that may persist into adulthood (Cherlin 1999).