Sociology Exam Chapters 5,6 and 7

According to the (structural) functionalist theoretical perspective, crime serves three important functions. Identify and explain the three functions.

1. Deviance clarifies rules.- By punishing deviant behavior, society reaffirms its commitment to the rules and clarifies their meaning. 2. Deviance unites a group- When deviant behavior is seen as a threat to group solidarity and people unite in opposition to that behavior, their loyalties to society are reinforced. 3. Deviance promotes social change. - Deviants may violate norms in order to get them changed. For example, acts of civil disobedience- including lunch counter sit ins and bus boycotts- were used to protest and eventually correct injustices such as segregated buses and lunch counters in the South.

Punishment has four major goals. Identify and describe each goal.

1. Retribution- is punishment that a person receives for infringing on the rights of others. Retribution imposes a penalty on the offender and is based on the premise that the punishment should fit the crime. 2. General Deterrence- seeks to reduce criminal activity by instilling a fear of punishment in the general public. 3. Incapacitation- is based on the assumption that offenders who are detained in prison or are executed will be unable to commit additional crimes. 4. Rehabilitation- seeks to return offenders to the community as law-abiding citizens by providing therapy or vocational or educational training.

Fully understand and define deviance and explain aspects of deviance.

A behavior, belief, trait or condition that violates a norm and causes a negative reaction. It is not an action, belief or trait inherent within an individual. "It is not the act itself, but the reaction to the act that makes something deviant." Regards social control.

Define and distinguish between each of the following concepts: ascribed status, achieved status and master status.

Ascribed Status: Always involuntary. People have no control over their ascribed status. Example: gender at birth Achieved Status: The social position that a person receives voluntarily, it is a reflection of personal merit and effort. Examples: an honor student, teacher, rapist etc. Master Status: A powerful status that is always relevant and seems to override all other statuses that we possess. It may convey information about one's social background, education and income. It carries expectations that may blind people to other facets of our personalities. It can be ascribed or achieved.

Distinguish between the following leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire leaders. Provide key characteristics of each leadership style.

Authoritarian: leader makes decisions with compliance from members Democratic: member involvemnt Laissez-Faire: Let group function of its own

Define bureaucracy. Identify and outline the five central elements of an ideal bureaucratic organization, according to sociologist Max Weber.

Bureaucracy- an organizational model that is rationally designed to perform tasks efficiently. Five Central Elements: 1. Specialization- individuals have highly specialized duties and each worker has specific tasks to accomplish 2. Hierarchy of Offices- bureaucracies are arranged vertically, there are levels of responsibility and accountability 3, Rules and Regulations- rational rules, regulations and written procedure guide the bureaucracy 4. Technical Competence-each bureaucratic official has the competence to carry out his/her duties 5. Impersonality- rules and regulations supersede persons and the office is what's important- not the individual

Understand and explain the (social) conflict perspective on deviance and crime (as related to power and capitalism)

Conflict theorists who focus on power relations in society suggest that the lifestyles considered deviant by political and economic elites are often defined as illegal. According to this approach, norms and laws are established for the benefit of those in power and do not reflect any absolute standard of right and wrong. A second branch of conflict theory- Marxist/critical theory-views deviance and crime as a function of the capitalist economic system. According to Marx, capitalism produces haves and have-nots , who engage in different forms of deviance and crime.

Understand and articulate Arlie Hochschild's concept of emotional labor. Provide two examples.

Emotional labor is the process of managing feelings and expressions to fulfill the emotional requirements of a job. More specifically, workers are expected to regulate their emotions during interactions with customers, co-workers and superiors. Examples: Flight attendants, who are expected to smile and be friendly even in stressful situations Waitresses must be happy and polite, regardless of the people they are serving.

The size of a group is one of its most important features. According to sociologist Georg Simmel, how does group size shape interaction patterns (ranging from the dyad to groups of 6 or 7 people)? Provide key characteristics.

He argued that as the group becomes greater, the individual becomes separated and grows more alone, isolated and segmented. Simmel's view was somewhat ambiguous with respect to group size. On one hand, he believed that the bigger the group the better for the individual. Dyad: very intimate and unstable given its size. Example: marriage Triad: more stable than a dyad, more types of interaction are possible. Example: couple and counselor

Fully explain Cloward and Ohlin's views on illegitimate opportunity structures in relation to deviance. Provide two examples of illegitimate opportunity structures.

Illegitimate Opportunity Structures- circumstances that provide an opportunity for people to acquire through illegitimate activities what they cannot achieve through legitimate channels. Examples: gangs providing status and wealth, gangs being a business

Define and distinguish between an ingroup and an outgroup.

In-group: display loyalty and respect to group members. Exist in relation to out group and generally hold overly positive views of themselves. Out-group: opposition to in-group, may be defined by in-group as lower status. May be socially, politically, and economically subordinated by in-group. Example:; hazing.

Fully understand and explain the social construction of reality perspective.

Involves the process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction. Presents self in terms that suit the setting and personal purposes. Involves social interaction that is a complex negotiation used to build reality. By Peter L. Berger

Define public space.

Is a place that is generally open and accessible to people. Roads (including the pavement), public squares, parks and beaches are typically considered to be.

Define and provide examples of status symbols.

It is a material sign that informs others of a person's specific status. Example: designer clothes, foreign cars, money , material things

Understand and describe organizational structures in Japan, Russia, and India.

Japanese management is characterized as being people oriented, taking a long-term view, and having a culture that focuses on how work gets done rather than on the result alone. Unlike Japanese organizational structure and management style, organizations in Russia and India are more likely to be hierarchical, centralized, and highly directive. Looking specifically at India, may organizations are family-owned businesses that are tightly controlled across generations.

Understand and explain labeling theory while distinguishing between primary and secondary deviance.

Labeling Theory-the proposition that the probability of deviant behavior increases when a person's ties to society are weakened or broken. Primary Deviance- the initial act of rule breaking Secondary Deviance- the process that occurs when a person when a person who has been labelled a deviant accepts that new identity and continues the deviant behavior.

Define and understand key characteristics of the following types of formal organizations: normative, coercive, and utilitarian organizations.

Normative: people join to pursue a goal, voluntary organizations and ties to personal morality Utilitarian: material rewards for members and people join to make a living Coercive: involuntary membership and forced to join, involves punishment or treatment; total institutions. Examples: prisons or being drafted into the military

According to Howard Becker, who are moral entrepreneurs?

Often the ones who create the rules about what constitutes deviant or conventional behavior. Becker believes that they use their own perspectives on what is wrong or right to establish the rules by which they expect others to live.

Define primary group and secondary group. Provide key characteristics of each type of group.

Primary Group- A small social group whose members share personal and enduring relationships . There is personal orientation: the members know one another well. It is long term and enduring. Secondary Group- A large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity. There is goal orientation: membership is based on some interest or activity. Short term and weak emotional ties, formal, little knowledge of one another.

Fully understand, define and distinguish between the following concepts: role, role conflict, role strain, role distancing, and role exit. Provide an example (or scenario) for each.

Role- A set of behavioral expectations associated with a given status. Example: mother cares for child Role Conflict- A situation in which incompatible role demands are placed on a person by two or more statuses held at the same time. Example: mother, to care for sick child or cook dinner Role Strain- A condition that occurs when incompatible demands are built into a single status that a person occupies. Example: status- mother, conflict is to nurture child or discipline them Role Distancing- Occurs when people consciously foster the impression of a lack of commitment or attachment to a particular role and merely go through the motions of role performance. Example: When an employee must fire fellow employees and says "I am just doing my job." Role Exit- A situation in which people disengage from social roles that have been central to their identity. Example: the process of becoming an ex, like ex-wife

Define and distinguish between a social group, aggregate, and category. Provide one example of each. Explain how some members of a secondary group can form a primary group

Social Group-is a collection of people who interact with each other and share similar characteristics and a sense of unity. Aggregate- a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time but share little else in common Category- A number of people who may never have met one another but share a similar characteristic, such as education level, age, race, or gender

Define and distinguish between status and status set.

Status is one's social position/ the position that one occupies in society. The position may or may not carry prestige. A person can hold many statuses at one time. A status set is all the statuses a person holds at once.

Fully explain Robert Merton's strain theory including conformity and the four types of deviant adaptations: innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. There will be numerous questions on this theory on the exam.

Strain Theory - the proposition that people feel strain when they are exposed to cultural goals that they are unable to obtain because they do not have access to culturally approved means of achieving those goals. Conformity occurs when people accept culturally approved goals and pursue them through approved means. Innovation- accepts culturally approved goals; adopts disapproved means of achieving them Ritualism-abandons society's goals but continues to conform to approved means Retreatism- abandons both approved goals and the approved means to achieve them Rebellion- challenges both the approved goals and the approved means to achieve them

Fully understand and explain sociologist George Ritzer's concept of McDonaldization.

Term coined to describe the process of rationalization, which takes a task and breaks it down into smaller tasks. Ritzer identifies four dimensions of formal rationality found in fast-food restaurants : 1. efficiency 2. predictability 3. emphasis on quantity over quality 4. control through nonhuman technologies

Fully understand and articulate the significance of Solomon Asch and Stanley Milgram's research on conformity.

The conclusion of Asch's research : willingness to compromise our own judgments to avoid the discomfort of being seen as different. The conclusion of Milgrim's research: Investigated how readily people would conform to the roles of guard and prisoner in a role-playing exercise that simulated prison life. Identified how willing people were to obey authority.

Define social control and distinguish between internal social control and external social control.

The methods that members of a society use to ensure conformity to norms. rules, laws and social structures. Use of sanctions- enforce compliance to social norms. Internal: takes place through the socialization process: Individuals internalize societal norms and values in their everyday lives . External:By contrast, external control involves the use of negative sanctions that proscribe certain behaviors and set forth the punishments for rule breakers and nonconformists.

Critical approach

The powerful use law and the criminal justice system to protect their own class interests

What is meant by social interaction?

The process by which people act and react in relation to others.

What did Max Weber mean by rationality?

The process by which traditional methods of social organization, characterized by informality and spontaneity are gradually replaced by efficiently administered formal rules and procedures

Understand and explain rational choice theory.

The proposition that deviant behavior occurs when a person weighs the cons and benefits of non-conventional or criminal behavior and determines that the benefits will outweigh the risks involved in such actions.

Understand and explain Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory.

The proposition that people have a greater tendency to deviate from societal norms when they frequently associate with persons who are more favorable toward deviance than conformity.

Define Criminology

The scientific study of the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior.

Fully understand and explain sociologist Erving Goffman's dramaturgical approach including concepts such as dramaturgical analysis, impression management, front stage and back stage.

The study of social interaction in terms of a theoretical perspective. People engaging in their everyday behavior are like actors performing on a stage. We all act in "the theater of everyday life" and "all the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players"- Shakespeare Impression management- we actively manage our performances to create specific impressions in the minds of others. The impression one gives is intentional, while the impression one gives off is unintentional. Front Stage- where you play your assigned roles. We spend most of our time here Back Stage- where you go to relax and just be yourself

Define leadership and distinguish between instrumental and expressive leadership. Provide key characteristics of each leadership type.

Types of Leadership: Expressive- people oriented. This type of leadership focuses on collective well being. There is emphasis on keeping the group united, minimizing conflict/tension, group harmony ; the leader is "peacemaker". There is little concern for achieving goals, no reward/ punishment and the leader may not be regarded as the leader. Instrumental:goal-oriented- this type of group leadership emphasizes the completion of tasks/meeting of all goals. Emphasis on performance and getting things done. The leader has a strong role and has a formal, secondary relationship with members. Reward and punishment are characteristic.

Define the following types of crime: occupational (white collar) crime, organized crime, violent crime, and internet crime.

Violent Crime- consists of actions-murder, rape,robbery, and aggravated assault- involving force or the threat of force against others. Occupational Crime-illegal activities committed by people in the course of their employment or financial affairs. Organized Crime- a business operation that supplies illegal goods and services for profit Internet Crime- illegal acts committed by criminals on the internet, including FBI-related scams, identity theft, advance fee fraud, non-auction/nondelivery of merchandise, and over-payment fraud

Identify the primary features of a network

Webs of weak social ties, people we know of or who know of us. Largest one of all is the World Wide Web of the Internet.

Feminist Approach

focus on women's experience and importance of gender in a social structure

Opportunity Theory

the theory that people differ not only in their motivations to engage in deviant acts but also in their opportunities to do so