Sociology of Race and Ethnicity
Know major facts that occurred during each century.
- 1705: Virginia passes a law denying rights to any 'negro, mulatto, or American Indian' which later necessitated blood quantum rules to define each race. - 1758: - Linnaeus publishes sytema Naturae, which includes five groups of man. -1775: Blumenbach uses phenotype to define four races based on color and locatron. - 1776: The Declaration of lndependence declares that "all men are created equal." - 1790: U.S. Census uses three racial categories: free whites, other free persons, and slaves. - 1830: The U.S. government approves the lndian Removal Act to force Native Americans from their land and to live in designated areas - 1843: Morton uses craniometry to suggest the superiority of white intelligence over that of other races. - 1863: Emancipation Proclamation (Thifteenth Amendment) frees slaves in United States. The Black Codes are enacted soon after, which restrict black movement, employment, political involvement, and freedom. - 1876: Jim Crow laws rooted in beliefs about white supremacy and black inferiority support separate but equal segregation in public spaces - 1882: The U.S. government passes the Chinese Exclusion Act to restrict Chinese immigration to the United States. - Early 1900's: Eugenics becomes popular until it is associated with Nazi Germany. - 1907: The United States and Japan forge a Gentlemen's Agreement in which Japan agrees to only give passports to Japanese professionals emigrating to the United States, and the city of San Francisco agrees to desegregate white students from Japanese students and Japanese descendants. - 1900-1904: full social segregation by neighborhood begins as blacks migrate to Northern and Midwestern cities. - 1932: Tuskegee experiment endorsed by the U.S. government begins. lt allows black men to die of syphilis without treatment and lasts for 40 years. - 1943: The Chinese Exclusion Act is repealed by the Magnuson Act. - 1960: The census mails out questionnaires so people can self-identify their race and ethnicity for the first time. ln previous decades, census takers determined a person's racial and ethnic identity. - 1982: One drop rule is challenged in Louisiana and changed the next year. - 2008: Barack Obama is the first multiracial president elected in the United States. - 2010: The U.S. Census Bureau offers 15 racial choices, and people can identify with more than one race
Why is race socially constructed? For what purpose?
- All sociologists agree that race is a concept that is socially constructed rather than a group of meaningful biological categories. It is based on societal choices about what physical characteristics to pay attention to and about how to classify people on the basis of those characteristics. -Race can be used to make unfounded racial distinctions that support or lead to discrimination. Race being treated as real has very real social consequences and if we ignore or deny race we risk ignoring or denying the consequences of racism.
Explain the basic ideas of conflict theory (found in opensax)
- CONFLICT THEORY looks at society as a competition for limited resources. This perspective is a macro-level approach most identified with the writings of German philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx (1818-1883), who saw society as being made up of individuals in different social classes who must compete for social, material, and political resources such as food and housing, employment, education, and leisure time. Social institutions like government, education, and religion reflect this competition in their inherent inequalities and help maintain the unequal social structure. Some individuals and organizations are able to obtain and keep more resources than others, and these "winners" use their power and influence to maintain social institutions. Several theorist suggested variations on this basic theme. - CRITISISM: Just as structural functionalism was criticized for focusing too much on the stability of societies, conflict theory has been criticized because it tends to focus on conflict to the exclusion of recognizing stability. Many social structures are extremely stable or have gradually progressed over time rather than changing abruptly as conflict theory would suggest.
Explain the basic ideas of functional analysis.
- Functionalism, also called structural-functional theory, sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society. Functionalism grew out of the writings of English philosopher and biologist, Hebert Spencer (1820-1903), who saw similarities between society and the human body; he argued that just as the various organs of the body work together to keep the body functioning, the various parts of society work together to keep society functioning (Spencer 1898). The parts of society that Spencer referred to were the social institutions, or patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs, such as government, education, family, healthcare, religion, and the economy. - He believed that to study society, a sociologist must look beyond individuals to social facts such as laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashion, and rituals, which all serve to govern social life. - CRITISISM: One criticism of the structural-functional theory is that it can't adequately explain social change. Also problematic is the somewhat circular nature of this theory; repetitive behavior patterns are assumed to have a function, yet we profess to know that they have a function only because they are repeated. Furthermore, dysfunctions may continue, even though they don't serve a function, which seemingly contradicts the basic premise of the theory. Many sociologists now believe that functionalism is no longer useful as a macro-level theory, but that it does serve a useful purpose in some mid-level analyses.
How has the definition of race changed over the years?
- Johann Friedrich Blumenbach built on Linnaeus' work and used journals from explorers who traveled to the South Seas to expand the number of basic races from Linnaeus' four (excluding Monstrosus) to five ln the late 1700s and was the first person to use the term "race" in describing groups of people in 1775. -When slavery in the Americas and the ideas of racial superiority were emerging, Europeans began believing that they were superior to the indigenous people as well as other races. Enlightenment thinkers sought to explain this pattern of exploitation as the "natural" order of things. For their behavior to make sense, they had to believe they were superior to those they conquered and enslaved. This is when ideological racism emerged. -Racialization, the process of extending racial meaning to a relationship, or group that has not been previously associated with race occurred during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This perpetuated systemic racism.
What are some research limitations to sociological research?
- Like any researchers, sociologists must consider their ethical obligation to avoid harming subjects or groups while conducting their research. - Some of the guidelines state that researchers must try to be skillful and fair-minded in their work, especially as it relates to their human subjects. Researchers must obtain participants' informed consent and inform subjects of the responsibilities and risks of research before they agree to partake. During a study, sociologists must ensure the safety of participants and immediately stop work if a subject becomes potentially endangered on any level. -privacy reasons
Trace the origins of sociology, from tradition to Max Weber
- Prominent sociologist Max Weber established a sociology department in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich in 1919. Weber - Weber believed that it was difficult, if not impossible, to use standard scientific methods to accurately predict the behavior of groups as people hoped to do. They argued that the influence of culture on human behavior had to be taken into account. This even applied to the researchers themselves, who, they believed, should be aware of how their own cultural biases could influence their research. To deal with this problem, Weber and Dilthey introduced the concept of verstehen, a German word that means to understand in a deep way. In seeking verstehen, outside observers of a social world—an entire culture or a small setting—attempt to understand it from an insider's point of view. - Weber described sociology as striving to "interpret the meaning of social action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which action proceeds and the effects it produces." He and other like-minded sociologists proposed a philosophy of antipositivism whereby social researchers would strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values. This approach led to some research methods whose aim was not to generalize or predict (traditional in science), but to systematically gain an in-depth understanding of social worlds.
What is racism and ideological racism? What is prejudice?
- RACISM: is the belief that groups of people are superior or inferior to other groups because of genetic, biological, or cultural differences. Racism ca. also be defined on a systematic level as a way to help organize society. -IDEOLOGICAL RACISM is the belief that groups of people are superior or inferior to other groups because of genetic, biological, or cultural differences -PREJUDICE is the attitudinal form of racism. Refers to people's thinking-their attitudes and beliefs that tend to favor one group over another or to cause unequal treatment on the basis of race. (Racial Prejudice)
Explain the basic ideas of symbolic interactionism. (found in opensax)
- Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society. Communication—the exchange of meaning through language and symbols—is believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds. Theorists Herman and Reynolds (1994) note that this perspective sees people as being active in shaping the social world rather than simply being acted upon. - outlined these basic premises: humans interact with things based on meanings ascribed to those things; the ascribed meaning of things comes from our interactions with others and society; the meanings of things are interpreted by a person when dealing with things in specific circumstances - Constructivism is an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be. We develop social constructs based on interactions with others, and those constructs that last over time are those that have meanings which are widely agreed-upon or generally accepted by most within the society. This approach is often used to understand what's defined as deviant within a society. - CRITISISM: Research done from this perspective is often scrutinized because of the difficulty of remaining objective. Others criticize the extremely narrow focus on symbolic interaction. Proponents, of course, consider this one of its greatest strengths.
Explain why it is vital for sociologists to protect the people they study
- The ASA maintains a code of ethics—formal guidelines for conducting sociological research—consisting of principles and ethical standards to be used in the discipline. It also describes procedures for filing, investigating, and resolving complaints of unethical conduct. - Ethical procedures sociologists should do: -Cannot falsify results -Not to steal someone else's work -Keeping respondents anonymous ■Questioning the ethics behind sociological research -Misleading the subjects, like unobtrusive measures -Going too far into the respondents' private lives
What variations have the census been perceived in the past and present? (pg. 8)
- When the U.S. Constitution took effect in ,1789, one of its mandates was that the federal government would perform an "actual Enumeration," or count, of its people every 10 years. When the first census was taken in 1790, it counted people as either "free white persons," "other free persons," or "slaves." - The first census identified three groups of people, whereas the 2010 census offered 15 choices with places to write in a racial group not listed on the form. - Census takers first began using standard forms around 1850 with three choices under the label "color": white, black, and mulatto. However, a person's racial category depended on the census taker rather than on the person being counted, because the census taker determined a person's race, a practice that continued until 1960. - ln 1870. the categories were expanded to include Chinese and lndian, and census takers were instructed to use the "one drop rule" for anyone who appeared to come from a mixed racial background. ln 1890, a category was added for Japanese, and it was also the only year in which the blood quantum definitions of "quadroon" and "octoroon" were used. - However, it is also clear that the dominant group-whitescontrolled racial definitions throughout the early 2Oth century using the one drop rule and blood quantum definitions to extend the fiction of a "pure" white race. Even today, the U.S. Census uses questions about "race," which makes it appear that concrete and objective criteria exist for determining race.
What are the goals of science?
-Explain why something is happening, such as a phenomenon, event, or experience -Make generalizations that go beyond one's experience. (Understand the patterns) -Predict future events
Know the main elements of the research methods
1. select a topic 2. define the problem 3. review the literature 4. formulate a hypothesis 5. choose a research method (ie. survey, experiments, case study) 6. collect the data 7. analyze the results 8. share the results - stimulates more ideas for research and generates hypothesis.
What is a majority and a minority group? How does this apply to the terms dominant and minority groups?
A DOMINANT group of people-those controlling social, economic, and political power-made the laws for identifying a person's race in order to keep those in the SUBORDINATE group in a lower position.
assimilation
ASSIMILATION is the process that involves a group gradually blending into the dominant culture.
Racism
Any attitude, belief, behavior, or institutional arrangement that favors one race or ethnic group (usually a majority group) over another (usually a minority group). This is not only intentionally but the consequences as well.
Minority Group
Any group that is assigned an inferior status in society- that is any group that has less than its proportionate share of wealth, power, or social status. They are often discriminated against by those in the majority.
Blood Quantum
BLOOD QUANTUM is a government measurement of the percentage of a person's heritage according to racial composition, using terms such as full blood, half-blood, and more outdated terms like mulatto, quadroon, and octoroon
Conflict Theory
Conflict theorists believe that disparities in employment and income are a clear indication of upper classes exploiting lower classes. Racist policies in education, training' and employment all help upper-class whites maintain their economic, social, and political control by placing them in jobs with the highest pay and greatest power. Conflict theory points to admissions policies at upper-level colleges and universities, underrepresentation of non-whites in executive positions and professions' such as lawyers and physicians, low levels of investment in education in non-white regions' and . a variety of other policies as means to maintain control over economic resources and political decisions.
Critical Race Theory
Critical race theory assesses issues in terms of legal and social ' justifications. Although discriminatory 'practices in education, training, and employment have been against the law for several decades, they have not been successful in erasing the significant disparities between races in employment and income. these thinkers might review and address the ways in which the laws and their implementation support racism in society, expose how law reinforce a hierarchical view of race and identify ways to change how non-whites are treated.
Dominant Group
DOMINANT GROUP are those people in a society who control social, economic, and political power.
Ethnic group or Ethnicity
ETHNIC GROUP OR ETHNICITY refers to members of a group that is recognized by the members of the group and is based on social or cultural characteristics rather than physical characteristics.
What are the ethics and biases in research?
Ethics in research includes —formal guidelines for conducting sociological research—consisting of principles and ethical standards to be used in the discipline. It also describes procedures for filing, investigating, and resolving complaints of unethical conduct. Some of the guidelines state that researchers must try to be skillful and fair-minded in their work, especially as it relates to their human subjects. Researchers must obtain participants' informed consent and inform subjects of the responsibilities and risks of research before they agree to partake. During a study, sociologists must ensure the safety of participants and immediately stop work if a subject becomes potentially endangered on any level. Pioneer German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) understood that personal values could distort the framework for disclosing study results. While he accepted that some aspects of research design might be influenced by personal values, he declared it was entirely inappropriate to allow personal values to shape the interpretation of the responses. Sociologists, he stated, must establish value neutrality, a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment, during the course of a study and in publishing results (1949). Sociologists are obligated to disclose research findings without omitting or distorting significant data.
Functionalist Theory and Racism
FUNCTIONALIST THEORY Functionalists view society as a single structure that requires people to fulfill a variety of roles for the society to function modern industrial society. Lower-level, lower-paying jobs' from janitorial work to unskilled labor at construction sites, must be filled for society to function as well as upper-level jobs that require years of training. Racial divisions and discriminatory practices in education, training, and hiring may Serve to provide workers willing to perform these lower-level jobs. These jobs hive also often been filled with recent immigrants, but they have not faced consistent discrimination for multiple generations based on perceived racial characteristics'
Ghetto
GHETTO is a neighborhood that is populated by members of one racial group and where most of the particular group's members live, no matter the economic standing of the family or social problems of the neighborhood.
What is hypodescent?
HYPODESCENT in which a child of mixed heritage is automatically given the status of the parent with the lower racial status
Hypodescent
HYPODESCENT is the rule by which any child of mixed heritage is automatically given the lower status of the races of the parents.
Ideological Racism
IDEOLOGICAL RACISM is the belief that groups of people are superior or inferior to other groups because of genetic, biological, or cultural differences.
Know examples that could be applied to each research method, such as interviews, surveys, etc.
INTERVIEWS: is a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject, and it is a way of conducting surveys on a topic. Interviews are similar to the short-answer questions on surveys in that the researcher asks subjects a series of questions. However, participants are free to respond as they wish, without being limited by predetermined choices. In the back-and-forth conversation of an interview, a researcher can ask for clarification, spend more time on a subtopic, or ask additional questions. In an interview, a subject will ideally feel free to open up and answer questions that are often complex. SURVEYS: collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire. The survey is one of the most widely used scientific research methods. The standard survey format allows individuals a level of anonymity in which they can express personal ideas. RESEARCH METHODS: CASE STUDIES: is an in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual. To conduct a case study, a researcher examines existing sources like documents and archival records, conducts interviews, engages in direct observation and even participant observation, if possible. Researchers might use this method to study a single case of, for example, a foster child or drug lord. ETHNOGRAPHY: is the extended observation of the social perspective and cultural values of an entire social setting. Ethnographies involve objective observation of an entire community. The heart of an ethnographic study focuses on how subjects view their own social standing and how they understand themselves in relation to a community. An ethnographic study might observe, for example, a small U.S. fishing town. An ethnographer would commit to spending a determined amount of time studying every aspect of the chosen place, taking in as much as possible. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION: researchers join people and participate in a group's routine activities for the purpose of observing them within that context. This method lets researchers experience a specific aspect of social life. A researcher might go to great lengths to get a firsthand look into a trend, institution, or behavior. Researchers temporarily put themselves into roles and record their observations. Examples include becoming a waitress, or live as a homeless person.
What is the difference between ideological and systematic racism?
Ideological racism refers to the belief that some races are biologically, intellectually, or culturally inferior to others. Used to mean various races are superior or inferior to one another. Systemic Racism is defined as a way to organize society based on inequality between races that is perpetuated by institutional structure, such as the justice and educational systems that favor one race over another through advantages, privileges, and head starts.
What is the difference between individual discrimination and institutional discrimination
Individual discrimination references behavior, not beliefs or attitudes. Can be defined as any behavior by an individual that leads to unequal treatment because of race or ethnicity. What is important is their actions, their behavior rather than what they think. Examples include a homeowner refusing to sell his house to an African American. Institutional discrimination is arrangements or practices in social institutions and their related organizations that tend to favor one racial group or ethnic group (usually the majority) over another. Is sometimes conscious and deliberate such as the legal segregation of the jim crow era and sometimes unconscious such as the high cost of college tuition that disadvantages African Americans and Hispanic Americans.
Differences between natural sciences vs. social sciences
NATURAL SCIENCE: attempts to understand, explain, and predict events in our natural environment SOCIAL SCIENCE: to study the social world
One Drop Rule
ONE DROP RULE defines a person as black if they have "one drop" of blood from an African ancestor
Phenotype
PHENOTYPE describes the observable characteristics of an organism and was used to categorize people by race.
What is Hawthorne effect?
People change their behavior because they know they are being watched as part of a study. The Hawthorne effect is unavoidable in some research. In many cases, sociologists have to make the purpose of the study known. Subjects must be aware that they are being observed, and a certain amount of artificiality may result. An example may be if a researcher walked into a coffee shop and told the employees they would be observed as part of a study on work efficiency, the self-conscious, intimidated baristas might not behave naturally.
What is the sociological imagination? Who developed this concept?
Pioneer sociologist C. Wright Mills described as an awareness of the relationship between a person's behavior and experience and the wider culture that shaped the person's choices and perceptions. It's a way of seeing our own and other people's behavior in relationship to history and social structure (1959). One illustration of this is a person's decision to marry. In the United States, this choice is heavily influenced by individual feelings; however, the social acceptability of marriage relative to the person's circumstances also plays a part.
What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative studies?
QUANTITATIVE DATA—research collected in numerical form that can be counted—are easy to tabulate. Just count up the number of "yes" and "no" responses or correct answers, and chart them into percentages. QUALITATIVE DATA—results that are subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting. Qualitative information is harder to organize and tabulate. The researcher will end up with a wide range of responses, some of which may be surprising. The benefit of written opinions, though, is the wealth of material that they provide. Questionnaires can also ask more complex questions with more complex answers—beyond "yes," "no," or the option next to a checkbox. In those cases, the answers are subjective and vary from person to person.
What is the difference between race and ethnicity?
RACE - Definition imposed by others and cannot be changed by individual - Based on Physical differences - Hierarchical -one race is superior to another - Possible to belong to only a single race - Hierarchy establishes unequal economic, social, and Political power. - Source of collective identity ETHNICITY: - Definition determined by members of the group and voluntarily accepted by them - Based on social and cultural similarities; members may share physical characteristics, language, nation of origin, religion, customs, or ancestry. - No ethnic rankings - Possible to belong to several ethnic groups - Ethnicity is not generally used a basis for economic, social, and political power - Source of collective or symbolic identity
Racial Formation
RACIAL FORMATION is the constant process of defining race according to social, economic, and political forces that reflect the issues and conflicts of the time
Racialization
RACIALIZATION refers to the process of extending racial meanings to a relationship, social practice, or group that had not been previously associated with race.
Based on the census, how has the definition of race changed over the years?
Race used to be determined by surveyors and was limited to free white persons, other free persons, and slaves. In 1850 it then evolved to three labels under color: white, black, and mulatto and depended on the census taker. In 1870 it expanded to include Indian and Chinese. In 1890 Japanese was added. In 1910 census takers were instructed to distinguish between "full-blooded negroes" and "mulatto's." In 1930 anyone of mixed race was categorized as Negro. In 1960 people could choose their race when taking the census. The evolving definition of race reflects the fact that there is no scientific or political agreement on racial divisions.
Emergence of racial distinctions.
Racial distinctions emerged in 1775 when Johann Blumenbach described the five races, building from Linnaeus's four excluding monstrous and was the first person to use the word race to describe groups. His five groups, categorized through phenotype were Caucasian, Mongolian, Malayan, Negroid, and the Americans. It attached value based on region, skin color, and temperament to attach a hierarchical classification to these features.
Ideological Racism or Racist Ideology
Refer to the belief that some races are biologically, intellectually, or culturally inferior to others. Scientific racism was the idea that science supposedly proved that some groups are innately superior to others.
Race
Refers to a socially defined group who are generally considered to be physically distinct in some way, such as skin color, hair texture, or facial features from other groups and are generally considered by themselves or others to be a distinct group. Race has two components: 1. social (group identity 2. physical (races are seen as being distinct and different in appearance than other races)
What are some examples of documents that researchers can analyze?
Researchers can analyze surveys, view research from a variety of agencies such as the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics or the World Health Organization, public records, through periodicals, newspapers, or magazines from any period in history.
Understand the 3 sociological perspectives
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM: The way each part of society functions together to contribute to the whole. Is a micro or mid-level analysis. Theory sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society. Functionalism grew out of the writings of English philosopher and biologist, Hebert Spencer (1820-1903), who saw similarities between society and the human body; he argued that just as the various organs of the body work together to keep the body functioning, the various parts of society work together to keep society functioning. Multiple components work together to help maintain society. If there are any disruptions, society will heal itself Robert Merton - a functionalist-Functions: good actions that come about people's decisions-Dysfunctions: negative, unintended consequences that come from people's decisions An example: laws, morals, values and each of these social facts serves one or more functions within a society. For example, one function of a society's laws may be to protect society from violence, while another is to punish criminal behavior, while another is to preserve public health. CONFLICT THEORY: The way inequalities contribute to social differences and perpetuate differences in power. Is a macro analysis. Not optimistic that society will always repair itself. Always going to have a constant struggle between two or more groups. Karl Marx, feminists, and racial theorists fall under conflict perspective. looks at society as a competition for limited resources. This perspective is a macro-level approach most identified with the writings of German philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx (1818-1883), who saw society as being made up of individuals in different social classes who must compete for social, material, and political resources such as food and housing, employment, education, and leisure time. An example is feminists, Karl Marx, and racial theorists. A conflict theorist studying a political protest might focus on class difference, SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM: One-to-one interactions and communications. Is a microanalysis. Symbols constantly presented throughout society. Society is the product of everyday interactions between individuals. When interacting with others, we react and respond to those symbols. Symbols change over time and may change one's behavior. If people did not have symbols, people would have difficulty determining different types of interactions between one another. Social scientists who apply symbolic-interactionist thinking look for patterns of interaction between individuals. Their studies often involve observation of one-on-one interactions. Examples: During a political protest symbolic interactionists would be more interested in how individuals in the protesting group interact, as well as the signs and symbols protesters use to communicate their message.
Subordinate group
SUBORDINATE GROUP are people in a society who have little control of social, economic, and political power.
Symbolic Ethnicity
SYMBOLIC ETHNICITY is superficially identifying with an ethnic group without suffering any negative effects
Systemic Racism
SYSTEMATIC RACISM is a way to organize society based on inequality between races that is perpetuated by institutional structures, such as the justice and educational systems that favor one race over another through advantages, privileges, and head starts,
What is segregation?
Segregation is the separation of races.
Definition of social location. Why is social location important?
Social location can be comprised of one's culture, history, geographical location, gender, race, class, etc. Social location is important because it acknowledges that all people in a society don't think alike or experience reality in the same way. Despite many advantages, people in more privileged positions can be blind to the social experience of those who have encountered discrimination or oppression.
Definition of sociology
Sociology is the study of groups and group interactions, societies and social interactions, from small and personal groups to very large groups.
Explain why common sense can't replace sociological research
Some common knowledge that the general public has are inaccurate. Thus, sociological research allows sociologists to debunk these false statements or assumptions.
What is one-drop rule?
The one-drop rule defined a person as black if they have "one drop" of blood from an African ancestor.
What is the difference between traditional explanations and scientific explanations?
Traditional versus science -People questioned the explanations of superstitions and myths -The Enlightenment period arose, individuals used science to explain how society maintained itself -Science needed theories which could be tested through a scientific method to conclude explanations
Understand Durkheim and his explanation about suicide
Wanted to show how social factors influence individual behavior ■ Started looking at suicide rates and noticed a consistent pattern every year ■ Based on his research, Durkheim noticed suicide was not individualistic, but social factors explained suicide rates ■ Durkheim concluded that Protestants, males, and unmarried individuals were more likely to commit suicide.
Institutional Racism
Well-established structures such as family, the state, education system, and economic system play a critical role in the creation and perpetuation of racial inequality. Therefore, arrangements or practices in social institutions and their related organizations tend to favor one racial group or ethnic group over another. It is sometimes conscious and deliberate and in other times it is not. Examples include the cost of higher education and its link to higher-paying jobs.
Can sociological research change based on time differences? (openstax section 2.2)
When conducting content analysis, it is important to consider the date of publication of an existing source and to take into account attitudes and common cultural ideals that may have influenced the research. For example, Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd gathered research for their book Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture in the 1920s. Attitudes and cultural norms were vastly different then than they are now. Beliefs about gender roles, race, education, and work have changed significantly since then. At the time, the study's purpose was to reveal the truth about small U.S. communities. Today, it is an illustration of 1920s' attitudes and values.
verstehen
a German word that means to understand in a deep way
population
a defined group serving as the subject of a study
Racial Group
a group of people of the same race who interact with one another and who develop some common cultural characteristics.
Ethnic Group
a group of people who are generally recognized by themselves or by others as a distinct group, based entirely on social or cultural characteristics. The most common of these are nationality, language, and religion.
society
a group of people who live in a defined geographical area who interact with one another and who share a common culture
culture
a group's shared practices, values, and beliefs
reliability
a measure of a study's consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced
interview
a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject
value neutrality
a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment during the course of a study and in publishing results
theory
a proposed explanation about social interactions or society
literature review
a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research
code of ethics
a set of guidelines that the American Sociological Association has established to foster ethical research and professionally responsible scholarship in sociology
interpretive framework
a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing
dynamic equilibrium
a stable state in which all parts of a healthy society work together properly
random sample
a study's participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population
meta-analysis
a technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together
dramaturgical analysis
a technique sociologists use in which they view society through the metaphor of theatrical performance
hypothesis
a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables
hypothesis
a testable proposition
functionalism
a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society
symbolic interactionism
a theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols)
conflict theory
a theory that looks at society as a competition for limited resources
dependent variables
a variable changed by other variables
macro-level
a wide-scale view of the role of social structures within a society
grand theories
an attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change
reification
an error of treating an abstract concept as though it has a real, material existence
scientific method
an established scholarly research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions
constructivism
an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be
Majority Group
any group that is dominant in society-that is any group that enjoys more than a proportionate share of the wealth, power, or social status in that society. They are usually in a position to dominate or exercise power over other groups.
content analysis
applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as it relates to the study at hand
surveys
collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire
qualitative data
comprise information that is subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting
Craniometry
craniometry-the technique of measuring skulls as a way to classify people according to race, sex, or body type
primary data
data that are collected directly from firsthand experience
Eugenics
eugenics, the practice of selective breeding to "improve" the racial quality of future generations, became popular in the United States and some European countries.
empirical evidence
evidence that comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation
Explain why both history and biography are essential for the sociological perspective
future of sociology: - 2 trends emerging: -Doing more public sociology ■Sociology can be made public for others to use in making social change or have access to the sociological research, such as politicians, policy makers, and journalists -Globalization ■Develop theories or conducting research that can be applied universally ■Can transcend and be used for other different societies or nations
field research
gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey
case study
in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual
qualitative sociology
in-depth interviews, focus groups, and/or analysis of content sources as the source of its data
What is blood quantum?
is a government measurement of the percentage of a person's heritage according to racial composition, using terms such as full blood, half-blood, and more outdated terms like mulatto, quadroon, and octoroon.
ethnography
observing a complete social setting and all that it entails
social institutions
patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs
paradigms
philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them
Individual Discrimination
references behavior, not beliefs or attitudes. Can be defined as any behavior by an individual that leads to unequal treatment because of race or ethnicity. What is important is their actions, their behavior rather than what they think. Examples include a homeowner refusing to sell his house to an African American.
Structural Racism
refers to a system in which policies, practices and cultural norms act together in ways that perpetuate racial group inequity.
quantitative data
represent research collected in numerical form that can be counted
samples
small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population
dysfunctions
social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society
manifest functions
sought consequences of a social process
operational definitions
specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study
significant others
specific individuals that impact a person's life
quantitative sociology
statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants
sociological imagination
the ability to understand how your own past relates to that of other people, as well as to history in general and societal structures in particular
Racial Prejudice
the attitudinal form of racism, refers to peoples thinking- their attitudes and beliefs that tend to favor one group over another or to cause unequal treatment on the basis of race. Prejudice refers to peoples thinking-their attitudes and beliefs- not their behavior. Can be direct or overt.
validity
the degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study
social facts
the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life
generalized others
the organized and generalized attitude of a social group
function
the part a recurrent activity plays in the social life as a whole and the contribution it makes to structural continuity
figuration
the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of an individual and the society that shapes that behavior
positivism
the scientific study of social patterns
social solidarity
the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion
micro-level theories
the study of specific relationships between individuals or small groups
sociology
the systematic study of society and social interaction
experiment
the testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions
latent functions
the unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process
antipositivism
the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values
secondary data analysis
using data collected by others but applying new interpretations
nonreactive research
using secondary data, does not include direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people's behaviors
independent variables
variables that cause changes in dependent variables
correlation
when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation
participant observation
when a researcher immerses herself in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an "insider" perspective
Hawthorne effect
when study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed by a researcher
Understand Karl Marx and Class conflict theory
■Society can be divided into two classes: -Bourgeoisie: individuals who own the mode of production, labor, and workers. - Small group of individuals who own most of the wealth and can have a lot of political influence -Proletariats: the individuals who have to sell their labor to the bourgeoisie - The average worker ■Marx's solution: have a revolution, overthrow the old structure of power, and make it more egalitarian in the distribution of wealth. Please keep in mind that a revolution does not need to resort to violence to overthrow the old structure of power.