Soil/Land #31-44

Identify key stakeholders, agencies, and organizations that oversee soil resource protection and land use management, such as local conservation districts, OHIO agencies, and national environmental and conservation agencies.

-Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS): national -Department of the Interior's Bureau of Land Managment (BLM): national -National Park Service (NPS): national -Department of Agriculture Farm Service Agency (FSA): national -Ohio Soil and Water Conservation Commission (OSWCC): state -Ohio Department of Natural Resources (ODNR): state -Warren County Soil and Water Conservation District (Warren Co. SWCD): local

Describe the roles of key leaders in the soil conservation movement, both historical and present (such as George Washington Carver, Hugh Hammond Bennett, Dr. Robert Bullard, etc.)

Bennett had begun his campaign to preserve the soil by reforming farming practices before Roosevelt became president. He had joined the Department of Agriculture in the early 1900s. His mission to address the problems of land depletion was spurred on by the 1909 Bureau of Soils announcement, "The soil is the one indestructible, immutable asset that the nation possesses. It is the one resource that cannot be exhausted; that cannot be used up." Throughout his career, Bennett worked to prove just how wrong this statement was.​In 1933 Bennett was made director of the newly formed Soil Erosion Service, which worked to combat erosion caused by dust storms by reforming farming methods. "...Americans have been the greatest destroyers of land of any race or people, barbaric or civilized," he announced, calling for "a tremendous national awakening to the need for action in bettering our agricultural practices." Although his criticisms of Dust Bowl farming techniques raised the backs of farmers, he saw his reforms as necessary to avoid similar catastrophes in the future.​ Bennett gained the support of Congress with the help of a providentially timed storm from the plains that hit Washington, D.C. in May 1934, while he was testifying before a congressional committee. Experiencing a debilitating dust storm for the first time in the Capital, Congress put its weight behind the Soil Conservation Act of 1935, which focused on improving farming techniques.​Carver was an agricultural scientist, inventor, and educator at Tuskegee University who not only famously popularized the peanut—but gave modern agriculture a road map for soil health and conservation.​ Known as the "Father of Environmental Justice", Professor Robert D. Bullard is a scholar, activist and leader of the environmental justice movement. Through extensive research and advocacy, he has served as a catalyst of environmental racism for four decades.

Demonstrate a solid understanding of the land use issues facing marginalized communities (including Native and Indigenous peoples, people of color, and other minority communities), and identify rights associated with a clean and healthy environment.

Executive Order 12898 (February, 1994) (PDF)(5 pp, 19 K), "Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations" (EO 12898) directs each Federal Agency to "make achieving environmental justice part of its mission by identifying and addressing, as appropriate, disproportionately high and adverse human health or environmental effects of its programs, policies, and activities on minority populations and low-income populations," including tribal populations.

Explain the processes by which fossil fuels are formed, and their ecological, economic and social impacts.

Fossil fuels are made from decomposing plants and animals. These fuels are found in the Earth's crust and contain carbon and hydrogen, which can be burned for energy. Coal, oil, and natural gas are examples of fossil fuels.​ According to the National Academies of Sciences, 81 percent of the total energy used in the United States comes from coal, oil, and natural gas. This is the energy that is used to heat and provide electricity to homes and businesses and to run cars and factories. Unfortunately, fossil fuels are a nonrenewable resource and waiting millions of years for new coal, oil, and natural gas deposits to form is not a realistic solution. Fossil fuels are also responsible for almost three-fourths of the emissions from human activities in the last 20 years. Now, scientists and engineers have been looking for ways to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels and to make burning these fuels cleaner and healthier for the environment.

Explain how human development on floodplains impacts the soil formation and ecology around streams and rivers.

Human alterations along stream channels and within catchments have affected fluvial geomorphic processes worldwide. Typically these alterations reduce the ecosystem services that functioning floodplains provide; in this paper we are concerned with the sediment and associated material trapping service. Similarly, these alterations may negatively impact the natural ecology of floodplains through reductions in suitable habitats, biodiversity, and nutrient cycling. Dams, stream channelization, and levee/canal construction are common human alterations along Coastal Plain fluvial systems. We use three case studies to illustrate these alterations and their impacts on floodplain geomorphic and ecological processes. ​Human alterations typically shift affected streams away from natural dynamic equilibrium where net sediment deposition is, approximately, in balance with net erosion. Identification and understanding of critical fluvial parameters (e.g., stream gradient, grain-size, and hydrography) and spatial and temporal sediment deposition/erosion process trajectories should facilitate management efforts to retain and/or regain important ecosystem services.

Describe common agricultural/urban practices and their effects on soil health.

No Till or Reduced Till: most operations do not need heavy tillage - or often any tillage at all - to produce healthy crops. Minimizing tillage can reduce soil erosion across your operation while saving time and money by reducing annual fuel and labor investments. ​Cover Crops: Though not typically harvested for a profit, cover crops still provide valuable services to your operation. The roots of cover crops make channels in the soil that improves its ability to take in water. Cover crops also build soil organic matter, hold soil in place, and feed soil organisms that provide valuable nutrients to cash crops during the traditional growing season.​ Rotational Grazing: Grazing animals recycle nutrients across the landscape. By managing your livestock to graze where and when you want, you can return valuable nutrients and organic matter back to your land and ultimately your soil. ​ Crop Rotation: Diversity can be improved with cash crops as well as cover crops. Diverse crop rotations can reduce pests and diseases that are specific to certain plant species, build the health of soil microbes that provide nutrients to your plants and ultimately lead to improved yields.

Relate soil conservation concepts to agriculture, land development/construction, and everyday life.

Soil conservation is important and is needed today to protect the loss of this natural resource and improve agricultural production. But there is a lack of implementation of conservation of technology as the soil restoration and conservation measures are not in practice on most agricultural lands. Several factors contribute to the failure of conservation techniques, such as scientific knowledge, poverty, technical institutions, human attitude, untrained farmers, farm size, and work organization. Changing farming practices must be inherently difficult due to such factors.

Explain how certain types of soil are better suited than others for specific human uses (mining, farming, septic tanks, etc.)

Sandy soils: ​It's beneficial to minimise ground pressure from machinery to reduce compaction. Use deep tines or subsoiling on a regular basis to loosen plough pans and deep compaction.​ Silty soils​: Bed systems for vegetables are useful to prevent widespread compaction. Reduced tillage is not appropriate on light and medium silts but may be possible on heavy silts. It is preferential to use mouldboard ploughing, especially in vegetable growing areas where more than one crop a year is grown and trash must be incorporated quickly. The seedbed should not be too fine otherwise capping is likely. Likewise, subsoiling or deep cultivation is required to break up plough pans and deep compaction caused by ground pressure from machinery. It is advisable to avoid power harrows which destroy soil structure.​ Clay soils​: Cultivations should be kept to a minimum. Reduced tillage is often appropriate, especially where free lime is present, with deeper loosening every 3-4 years and mole draining every 4-7 years to ensure good drainage. Clay makes spring cropping difficult and seedbeds should be achieved with one pass if possible.​ Loam soils​: Where free lime is present on heavier loams, reduced cultivation is suitable. Whereas, it is less appropriate on sandy and silty loams. Deep loosening will be required, especially on lighter loams.​ Peat soils​: Avoid excessive cultivations in spring as this can dry out surface layers, leaving soil vulnerable to wind erosion. Deep ploughing shallow peats can incorporate silts or clays from below the peat. This can help to stabilise peat and may reduce acidity.​ Best Soils for Septic Systems and Drainfields:​ With most yards and landscapes being a combination of multiple soil types, it's more helpful to look at characteristics and clay levels. The best soils and soil types for drain fields are:​ Sandy Soils​Grounds with Low Clay Content​Loamy Soils (soils with a mixture of particle sizes that allows spaces and pores)​Non-Retentive or Non-Absorbing Soils. Soils like clay and silt absorb water readily, taking up more space and clogging the system.​ The ideal soil is somewhere between gravel and clay.​Farming:​ Loam Soil

Identify major legislation (local and national) and international agreements pertaining to soils and land use, and describe how they provide protection for natural resources.

Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act 1977: provides the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) broad strategic assessment and planning authority for the conservation, protection, and enhancement of soil, water, and related natural resources. Appraises the status and trends of soil, water, and related resources on non-Federal land and assesses their capability to meet present and future demands; evaluates current and needed programs, policies, and authorities; and develops a national soil and water conservation program to give direction to USDA soil and water conservation activities. OLAR Section 504.21: The board of township trustees of a township that has adopted a limited home rule government may, for the unincorporated territory in the township, adopt, amend, and rescind rules establishing technically feasible and economically reasonable standards to achieve a level of management and conservation practices that will abate wind or water erosion of the soil or abate the degradation of the waters of the state by soil sediment in conjunction with land grading, excavating, filling, or other soil disturbing activities on land used or being developed in the township for nonfarm commercial, industrial, residential, or other nonfarm purposes, and establish criteria for determination of the acceptability of those management and conservation practices. The rules shall be designed to implement the applicable areawide waste treatment management plan prepared under section 208 of the "Federal Water Pollution Control Act," 86 Stat. 816 (1972), 33 U.S.C.A. 1228, as amended, and to implement phase II of the storm water program of the national pollutant discharge elimination system established in 40 C.F.R. Part 122. The rules to implement phase II of the storm water program of the national pollutant discharge elimination system shall not be inconsistent with, more stringent than, or broader in scope than the rules or regulations adopted by the environmental protection agency under 40 C.F.R. Part 122.

Describe how soils and their associated ecosystems can be impacted by pollution.

Soil has a finite capacity to cope with pollutants; when this is surpassed, contaminants will impact other parts of the environment, such as the food chain. As a result, soil pollution also affects food security as it reduces crop yields and quality.​Soil pollution contributes to air pollution as it releases volatile compounds into the atmosphere. Furthermore, air pollution created by the burning of fossil fuels can cause acid rain which produces an acidic environment in the soils. This harms micro-organisms, which improve the soil structure by breaking down organic material and helping water flow.​ Chemicals within soils can also be leached into groundwater, which can then reach streams, lakes, and oceans. Also, soils with high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus can leach into waterways, causing algal blooms, which decrease the oxygen available for aquatic life. Likewise, soil erosion can lead to pollution and sedimentation in waterways.

Explain how soils impact the biodiversity of an ecosystem, and how biodiversity in an ecosystem may impact the soil.

Soil provides a habitat for many microorganisms that are needed for the advantage of an ecosystem. Bacteria, fungi and insects are microorganisms that interact and aid in nutrient cycling throughout the soil and other biochemical processes. Soil allows for water to be stored in the environment naturally for organisms to take advantage of. The soil helps to impact the survival of many microorganisms that are able to create a large diversity in the ecosystem. The nutrients and water in the soil, as well as the consistency, help provide a home to create biodiversity. Humus ( decayed organic matter in the O-Horizon) helps to keep the water stored in the soil's pores. Soil may also have a lot of organic matter that can absorb water which may help with the resistance to erosion. Biodiversity in the soil can help to restore the soil's structure, improve water storage/infiltration and create a resistance to erosion.

Describe the impact of changes in climate on soil ecology.

Soils are essential to plant life, supporting ecosystems and agriculture. ​Climate change will affect soils, leading to changes in soil erosion, organic carbon, nutrients and alkalinity. ​Decreasing soil carbon due to climate change also has implications for accounting of carbon emissions from the land. Greater heavy rainfall in Ohio and the midwest are leading to severe soil erosion and nutrient loss. Climate change will affect rates of soil erosion. This is because: ​reduced rainfall in southern states may lead to drier topsoils and reduce soil structure ​more frequent extreme weather events will bring heavy downpours. ​Downpours - heavy rain that falls in a short period of time - are a major cause of soil erosion. If the rain is heavy enough, the soil cannot absorb it and water flows across the surface taking a layer of topsoil with it. Changes in nutrient levels will also affect natural ecosystems. These ecosystems often have narrow and typically low requirements for nutrients, so increased nutrients may be harmful. These are issues that may need to be considered and addressed in land management. ​Soil pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity. All plants, including both agricultural and native vegetation species, have particular ranges of pH that they find suitable, beyond which they will suffer. Some plants have a broad range while others may have a relatively narrow range. pH levels also influence the availability of nutrients and toxic elements, which affect plant growth. ​

Describe the importance of historic events relevant to soil conservation (such as the 1930s Dust Bowl, etc.)

The dust bowl led to the government to establish the first soil conservation laws.

Describe how soil type and other soil properties can influence the plant communities found on a particular soil

The type of soil can determine what plants live where. Particle sizes and how they react with nutrients, water and air can dictate what is necessary for plants to survive in their environment. The more porous and aerated the soil is, the more oxygen the roots can take in. Plants that are indigenous to sandy soil have shallower roots to quickly absorb water, while clay soil plant roots grow deeper to search for water that has slowly infiltrated down and accumulated as groundwater. pH also affects the properties of soil as most plants thrive in a neutral pH. Large quantities of Calcium and Magnesium deficiencies often means the soil is more acidic and often large amounts of humus lead to acidity in the soil. Types: Sandy soil- gritty texture, has large sand particles, holds more water, low in nutrients, a light soil, warm and dry Clay soil- fine mineral particles, has more nutrients, holds water well, hard to work with, sticky Silt soil- light, medium sized particles, holds water well, cold, drains relatively well but not in the rain Loam soil- comprised of the three soils above, holds a lot of moisture, drains well, rich in organic matter, ideal for most garden plants