SPCH 1315 Final Exam Blinn Hibbeler

Criteria to use when evaluating sources:

+Accuracy: Should be verifiable from the original source as well as supported by multiple sources; use the support materials within their original context +Currency: Make sure you have the most current information possible about your topic; should always check the copyright date; If your topic does not change rapidly, use sources published in the past five years +Completeness: The more you want your audience to accept, change, or the less your audience knows about the topic, the more support materials you need +Trustworthiness: The audience should see the author of the information as an expert on the topic, so provide their credentials if necessary; Select materials from unbiased sources, if they are you need to inform your audience; Hold electronic sources to high standards of credibility +Suitability: Use support materials with a purpose that is clear and concrete; Use materials that relate back to your central idea; Include information that shows your audience why the materials are relevant to them, to the topic, and to the occasion; Use support materials acceptable to the situation

Guidelines for constructing visual aids:

+Unity: Color unity, Color Harmony, Image unity +Pattern: Create a design format and use it consistently, will help the audience digest the material quicker as layout is familiar; Fonts, content, symbols (bullet-points) +Balance: A feeling of stability, symmetry, organized; Balanced fonts, Readable font size (44 for titles, 24-32 for other text), +Emphasis: Titles, Emphasizing text (light text against dark background), Emphasizing elements (bullets, color, images, text size/structures (underline/bold/italic)

Ethics:

1. Show Respect for Your Audience This is number one on my list because who determines the ultimate success of your speech is your AUDIENCE. ++One of the most important things you need to learn as a public speaker is showing respect for your audience. ++Miss this point and you kill your presentation even before you begin! ++Everyone loves to be respected and your audience loves that too. ++It definitely does not show respect to talk down on your audience or any particular person in the audience irrespective of their gender, religion, ethnicity, race, educational or social status. ++If getting your points across effectively requires making practical examples, then avoid making examples of your audience that will belittle them or harm their reputation. ++Never... and I repeat... Never poke expensive jokes at any in your audience! Rather poke such jokes at yourself (if that is necessary anyway). 2. Respect Your Audience's Time In a fast-paced world such as we live in today, time is of essence. It is a valuable asset. Your audience value their time too... So don't waste it! ++Therefore, show respect for your audience's time by keeping to the allotted time for your speech. A good way to do this effectively is good preparation. If you prepare well in advance, it will keep you from running overtime. ++Spending a few minutes more than necessary may make your audience uneasy and lose interest in your speech. That may defeat the very purpose of the speech. It may make all the hard work you've put into the delivery from the beginning a waste. So be careful! 3. Prepare Very Well I had a very big problem choosing which one would appear as number one on my list between this point and 'showing respect for the audience'. This is because good preparation is an ethic in public speaking you dare not overlook. ++There is nothing else that can compare with good preparation in public speaking. This is an ethical issue not just because the level of your preparation determines the level of your success but also because it shows the value you place on your audience. ++Remember that in listening to you, your audience have 'invested' the time, effort (and in some cases) money they would have used for something else. In return, they expect value for their time, effort and money! It won't be fair and ethical for you to repay such 'investments' with a wishy-washy presentation! ++Prepare well in advance. Do research on the subject and gather all necessary facts and references. Thereafter, rehearse your speech. Remember that saying: 'Practice makes perfect? So practice, practice and practice until you gain mastery of your speech. ++Such advance preparation will make your delivery flow. It will make your speech achieve its intended purpose. And more importantly, it will leave your audience satisfied. ++Take it or leave it. Your audience will be able to tell if you do not prepare well. And this can be really harmful. Apart from failing to achieve your objective, the audience may get angry for taking them for granted. ++So start early! Don't wait for the dying minutes! Don't procrastinate! This can save you from a very big, big mess! I'm dead serious! 4. Be Honest and Don't Mislead Your Audience How would you feel if you listened to a speech and you enjoyed it so much but you later discovered that the facts presented in the speech were distorted to suit the speaker's selfish motives? Bad and greatly disappointed! Isn't it? ++Ethics in public speaking demand that you are honest and accurate in the information you are presenting to your audience. Do not mislead your audience intentionally. Do not distort the facts to suit your aim. If you are not sure about a piece of information or fact or statistics, don't use it! ++Nothing can hurt a speaker's credibility more than inaccurate, distorted information. Once again, be careful! 5. Avoid Plagiarism What is plagiarism? Hmmm... Plagiarism as defined by the Cambridge International Dictionary of English (1996 Edition) is to take another person's idea or part of their work and pretend that it is your own. ++Avoid using another person's work without permission. Give credits to whomever you are using his or her work as your reference. That builds up your credibility too. 6. Ensure Your Objective Is Ethical If the objective of your speech is to motivate people to get involved in harmful, illegal or unethical activities then you are not observing the ethics in public speaking. It is as simple as that! ++For example, how do you perceive a very good public speaker who promotes terrorism or the use of hard drugs? Ethical? I doubt it! ++As a further example, Adolf Hitler is considered a great public speaker. But his speech started one of the greatest atrocities known in human history! 7. Be Yourself Everybody on the surface of the earth is unique. Even identical twins are different in some ways. While it is a good idea to learn from others, especially those we consider as role models, don't try to be someone you are not! ++You can never be someone else... You can only be you! ++Hence, be natural in your delivery. When you try to be someone you are not, your audience will notice and you will only look and sound fake to them. ++This will harm your credibility and water down the effectiveness of your delivery. ++Simply be yourself!

Presentational aids:

Any object that reinforces your point visually so that your audience can better understand it

Monroe's Motivated Sequence:

A five-step strategy that motivates and audience to action based on their needs Step 1: Get Attention-- Through the use of attention getting devices, you will aim to do two basic things: get the audience''s attention, and ease the audience into the topic. Step 2: Build the Need/Want-- In this step, you will work to get your audience to feel a need or want, whichever you determine to be appropriate. This is accomplished via four steps: A. Statement: give a definite, concise statement of what the need or want is. B. Illustration: give one or more examples illustrating the need or want. This is where you try to ""paint pictures"" verbally to really get audience to feel that need or want. C. Ramification: here you can offer additional evidence, such as statistics/testimony/examples which give even more weight to the need or want. D. Pointing: this is where you really point out how this need or want is directly related and important to the audience. Step 3: Satisfy the Need/Want-- In this step, you will now fill the need/want you built in step 2. It is vital that you be consistent; i.e., be sure the solution you offer really does fit the need/want. There are five steps here: A. Statement: tell your audience in a very specific, direct sentence what it is you want them to do (THIS IS THE FIRST TIME WE WILL HAVE HEARD--PRECISELY--WHAT IT IS YOU ARE ADVOCATING) B. Explanation: Explain what exactly it is you are advocating. C. Theoretical Demonstration: This is where you make it clear how what you are advocating fulfills the need you built in step 2. D. Reference to Practical Experience: This is where you bring in external evidence supporting the value of your proposal. E. Meeting Objections: here you anticipate counter-arguments and you pre-empt them, i.e., address them before the audience has time to actually bring them up. Step 4: Visualizing the Results-- In this step you are working to intensify your audience's desire for your product/service. This is often called the projection step because it looks forward to the future. There are three options here: Option A: The Positive Method: Using this method, you offer vivid descriptions of how much better the person's life will be as a result of buying your product or service. Option B: The Negative Method: Using this method, you offer vivid descriptions of how bad the person's life will be as a result of not buying your product or service. Option C: The Contrast Method: Using this method, you combine the previous two methods, addressing negatives first, and positives second. Step 5: Call for Action-- This step is the final call for the buyer to actually make the purchase, the "go out and get it already" step. It should be brief, powerful, and well worded. End on a strong note, then sit down.

Audience analysis:

Audience analysis involves identifying the audience and adapting a speech to their interests, level of understanding, attitudes, and beliefs. Taking an audience-centered approach is important because a speaker's effectiveness will be improved if the presentation is created and delivered in an appropriate manner. Identifying the audience through extensive research is often difficult, so audience adaptation often relies on the healthy use of imagination. Adaptation guides the stylistic and content choices a speaker makes for a presentation. Audience adaptation often involves walking a very fine line between over-adapting and under-adapting - a distinction that can be greater appreciated by understanding the general components of this skill.

Speaking environment/situational analysis:

Examining the time and place of a speech, the audience size, and the speaking occasion in order to develop a clear and effective message

Types of speaking:

Impromptu: Delivery method in which the speaker has little or no time for preparation or rehearsal prior to giving the speech Manuscript: Delivery method in which a speaker reads word for word from a copy of the speech Memorized: Delivery method in which the speaker delivers a speech from memory exactly as written Extemporaneous Speaking: Delivery method in which the speaker plans out, rehearses, and delivers the speech from an outline of key words, phrases, and delivery notes.

Plagiarism:

Intentional or accidental use without proper credit of all or a portion of the words, ideas, or illustrations created by someone else Global plagiarism is stealing your speech entirely from another source and passing it off as your own. Patchwork plagiarism occurs when a speaker pilfers from two or three sources. The best ways to avoid these is not to leave your speech to the last minute but start early and make clear ideas that are your own. Also remember to quote from source Suggestions to Avoid Plagiarism: +Read and make sure you understand your institution's and instructor's plagiarism policies; for example, some instructors will allow you to use the topic and research from a paper you submit in another class as the groundwork for a speech. +Do your research early so that you have enough time to properly prepare. Students are more tempted to cut corners and commit plagiarism when they are rushed and stressed about finishing the speech. Plus, you will have time to prepare effective oral citations. +Utilize a variety of sources +Keep detailed notes on any sources you use and the material you find there. That way you won't be temped to not give an effective citation because you don't have the necessary information +Use your own words, sentence structure, and organizational information +Follow the class assignment rules for citing sources on your outline, on your source page, and during your speech

Types of ceremonial speeches:

Introduction: a minispeech given by the host of a ceremony that introduces another speaker and his or her speech. Few things are worse than when the introducer or a speaker stands up and says, "This is Joe Smith, he's going to talk about stress." While we did learn the speaker's name and the topic, the introduction falls flat. Audiences won't be the least bit excited about listening to Joe's speech. Just like any other speech, a speech of introduction should be a complete speech and have a clear introduction, body, and conclusion—and you should do it all in under two minutes. This brings up another "few things are worse" scenario: an introductory speaker who rambles on for too long or who talks about himself or herself instead of focusing on the person being introduced. For an introduction, think of a hook that will make your audience interested in the upcoming speaker. Did you read a news article related to the speaker's topic? Have you been impressed by a presentation you've heard the speaker give in the past? You need to find something that can grab the audience's attention and make them excited about hearing the main speaker. The body of your introductory speech should be devoted to telling the audience about the speaker's topic, why the speaker is qualified, and why the audience should listen (notice we now have our three body points). First, tell your audience in general terms about the overarching topic of the speech. Most of the time as an introducer, you'll only have a speech title and maybe a paragraph of information to help guide this part of your speech. That's all right. You don't need to know all the ins and outs of the main speaker's speech; you just need to know enough to whet the audience's appetite. Next, you need to tell the audience why the speaker is a credible speaker on the topic. Has the speaker written books or articles on the subject? Has the speaker had special life events that make him or her qualified? Lastly, you need to briefly explain to the audience why they should care about the upcoming speech. The final part of a good introduction is the conclusion, which is generally designed to welcome the speaker to the lectern. Many introducers will conclude by saying something like, "I am looking forward to hearing how Joe Smith's advice and wisdom can help all of us today, so please join me in welcoming Mr. Joe Smith." We've known some presenters who will even add a notation to their notes to "start clapping" and "shake speakers hand" or "give speaker a hug" depending on the circumstances of the speech. Acceptance: The speech of acceptance is a speech given by the recipient of a prize or honor. For example, in the above video clip from the 2009 MTV Music Video Awards, Taylor Swift starts by expressing her appreciation, gets interrupted by Kanye West, and ends by saying, "I would like to thank the fans and MTV, thank you." While obviously not a traditional acceptance speech because of the interruption, she did manage to get in the important parts. There are three typical components of a speech of acceptance: thank the givers of the award or honor, thank those who helped you achieve your goal, and put the award or honor into perspective. First, you want to thank the people who have given you the award or honor and possibly those who voted for you. We see this done every year during the Oscars, "First, I'd like to thank the academy and all the academy voters." Second, you want to give credit to those who helped you achieve the award or honor. No person accomplishes things in life on his or her own. We all have families and friends and colleagues who support us and help us achieve what we do in life, and a speech of acceptance is a great time to graciously recognize those individuals. Lastly, put the award in perspective. Tell the people listening to your speech why the award is meaningful to you. Commemorative/Tribute:Commemorative speeches are addresses of praise, tribute or celebration. Commemorative speeches pay tribute to a person, group, institution, thing, event or an idea. Eulogies, Fourth of July speeches, testimonial addresses, and dedications are examples of commemorative speeches. The fundamental purpose of a commemorative speech is to inspire the audience-to heighten their admiration for the person, group, institution, event, thing/monument or idea being praised. Although it usually presents information about its subject, a commemorative speech is different from an informative speech. The aim of an informative speech is to communicate information clearly and accurately. The aim of a commemorative speech is to express feelings, arouse sentiments, and inspire. It is NOT just a list of a persons achievements, accomplishments and/or background; it is much more. Commemorative speeches depend, above all, on the creative and subtle use of language. Some of the most memorable speeches in history are commemorative addresses that we continue to find meaningful because of their eloquent expression. Two aspects of language use are especially important for commemorative speeches. The first is avoiding cliches and trite sentiments. The second is utilizing stylistic devices to enhance the imagery, rhythm, and creativity of the speech. (eg., Antithesis = "If you fail to prepare-You prepare to fail." or "Let us never negotiate out of fear. But never let us fear to negotiate") (Alliteration="You want your speech to be a clear, concise, creative, commemoration." Parallelism= "Our mission is to right wrong, to do justice, and to serve humanity"-- the use of parallel ideas in succession. Alliteration and Parallelism="The task is heavy, the toil is long, and the trials will be severe"). (Simile="Her eyes were like limpid pools." or "The Red Man has ever fled the White Man, as the morning mist flees before the morning sun") Metaphore="Your eyes are the windows to your soul." or "My Mother was the spoonful of sugar that sweetened life's bitter medicine" Repetition=using the same phrase over throughout your speech or in succession as in Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" speech and the "I have a dream" phrase.

Aristotle's Canons of rhetoric:

Invention: Refers to coming up with or "inventing" an idea. Any good communication starts with having a good idea. +Topic +General purpose +Specific purpose +Thesis statement (central idea) Arrangement: All about the organization. Once you have a good idea, you need to determine what order it needs to go in to be most effective. +Arrange words, paragraphs, images, page layouts, etc. to make your message clear +Guidelines for organizing information in the speech +Introduction +Body +Main Points +Conclusion Style: Refers to choices you make to impact the audience. Consider word choice, tone, pace, visualization, and other emoting-evoking style options +Use of language Memory: Your knowledge and understanding of the content. The more you know, the more you research, the more you learn and understand, the better your presentation will be Delivery: Refers to how you actually present the message. Eye contact, posture, rate of voice, articulation, etc. +Managing voice, gestures, posture, facial expressions, and visual aids +Extemporaneous delivery

How to appeal to critical thinkers:

Logos: Logic

Rules to follow when citing sources:

Orally: In an oral presentation, your audience can't flip back and forth between in-text citations and a reference list, nor can they look for a footnote or an endnote: you need to tell them where the information, idea, or words come from as you say it. Since listening to a live presentation is a linear process (you can't skim or jump around and hear it out of chronological order), it's best to introduce the source before you present the information, so your audience members are ready to evaluate the information with the source (and your view of it) in mind when they hear the material from the source. The citation needs to be brief, because it's hard to digest the citation while evaluating the information, both of which are given within a few seconds' time. +Use an introductory phrase such as one of the following: --According to Joseph X, a professor of Yada Yada at Blah Blah University,... --Farooq Y, author of the well-researched 2010 study, Early American Nutrition and Politics, argues that... --Katherine Z, a journalist writing for the prestigious New York Times, offers this example.... --Give your audience just enough detail to help them understand who provided the idea or information and how credible the source is. --If your source is original research (e.g. you conducted a survey, interview, experiment, or observation), just simply tell your audience what you did. --You might choose give your audience a brief (a couple of sentences) overview of how you did your research, much like the "methodology" part of a scientific study or the "literature review" in a scholarly article in the social sciences and humanities. This can work well when you combine original research and published resources, when you work with different fields (e.g. both popular press articles and scholarly articles), or when you rely heavily on one or two sources that you present up front. +Clearly tell the audience what is quoted by marking the beginning and end of the quotes using one of the following options: --Pause slightly after the introductory phrase, then read the quote expressively so that the quote sounds like a second voice. Pause slightly again after the quote to indicate switching back to your own voice. This is the best method, but not easy to master quickly. The two methods below, while not preferable, are also acceptable. --Say "Quote" immediately before you start reading the quote, and then say "Endquote" immediately after the last words of the quote. --If people can see you clearly, you can use "air quotes" by holding up one or both of your hands and moving your pointer and index fingers up and down, as if you were drawing quotation marks in the air. Visuals: In the same way that you cite the source of everything in your paper that did not originate in your own head, you must also cite the sources of the text and images that appear on your visuals. You need to cite-as-you-go on your visuals too, because your audience can't page back and forth in your PowerPoint. Again, keep in mind how much information your audience can handle at once. Remember the public speaking maxim: your visuals should guide your audience's attention and support what you're saying, not distract from what you're saying. +Distinguish your citations from the information by using one of these methods: ++Use a smaller font ++Use italics for the source (and then use underlining, not italics, for book titles) ++Use a different color ++Make the citation big enough so people can see it from anywhere in the room. ++Don't make your slides too busy. It's okay if you don't have enough space for all the information you would put on a formally formatted reference list. If trimming your citation, leave in the most important information: e.g. the author's name, the title of the book or article, the sponsor and title of a website, the title of any book or journal the work is in (in the case of an article), and the date. If your visual is a mashup, you still need to cite the sources of information, quotes, and images: in short, credit everything that someone else made that appears in your mashup. Use the same brief methods in the mashup that you use for other visual aids—sort of like the names and descriptions that flash on the screen when people are interviewed in a documentary or in a newscast. +Make sure that you leave the citations showing long enough that someone can read them. If you add a source list and/or a set of credits at the end (don't forget to credit the music!), make sure they scroll slowly enough that the average person can read them. Source List/Bibliography: You might get questions that require you to refer to sources that you used in your full study, but did not use in the presentation. If you have a formal source list available, it can remind you of author names, titles, dates, and other specific information your audience might want. You might also need to repeat specific information about a source you mentioned orally or give information that was too much to put on the visual. +Put your list in a conventional format such as MLA style, APA style, Chicago style. If your presentation is based on a paper you wrote, you can simply use the list at the end of the paper. +Make your list easily available to you in hard copy so that you can retrieve it during the presentation or follow-up question period. +Make sure you save an electronic copy of the reference list so that you can easily email it to an audience member if needed. +Should you put this list as a slide at the end of the presentation? Only if you can fit it all on one slide that's easily readable from all positions in the room. Using multiple slides often doesn't work well because either you flip too quickly through them for them to be useful, or different audience members are interested in sources on different slides. While it might be good to have such a group of slides "just in case," a better solution would be ready with a couple of hard copies you can hand out, if needed.

Elements in the communication process:

Speaker: The person who initiates and is responsible for most of the message Audience:The person or persons receiving the speaker's message and contributing feedback Message: Consists of the verbal and nonverbal ideas encoded by the speaker and decoded by the audience Encoding: The process of conveying Decoding: The process of interpreting Feedback: Consists of the verbal or nonverbal messages encoded by the audience and decoded by the speaker Channel: The means of getting the message across, such as a voice over the airwaves or visual messages in the form of nonverbal or visual aids Noise: Anything that interferes with the message or feedback, such as external sounds or internal fear or illness Situation: The location and time in which the communication takes place Background: The speaker's and audience's identities and life experiences Common Ground: The overlap within the speaker's and audience's identities and life experiences

Establishing common ground with the audience:

Step into their shoes: Start by finding out as much as you can about the people you will be addressing. Ask your contact to put you in touch with a few of the people who will be attending your presentation. For example, you may be giving a presentation that impacts different departments in an organization, such as marketing, production, and legal. Gaining some insight about each of these groups can be quite telling. Ask questions such as: What are your experiences and / or level of knowledge with your subject? What questions do you have, or want to have answered? What are your concerns? What would make this presentation a good use of your time? Try to see the issues from their various perspectives and identify the overlaps. Look for what your potential listeners have in common, in terms of their questions, concerns, and what they would find valuable. Finding this "common ground" will allow you to craft a core message that will speak to your entire audience. If it's impossible to talk with stakeholders in advance, arrive early for your presentation and circulate with attendees before the meeting begins. Again, ask about their issues and concerns on the topic, as well as their expectations for your presentation. Make sure you know your material well enough that you can make adjustments based on their feedback. Identify false assumptions: Sometimes your audience member's interests or concerns are at odds because of misconceptions or inaccurate information. When you are speaking to stakeholders, you may uncover some of these false assumptions. Listen carefully to what people are saying and not saying . . . try to understand the backstory. If you can clear up misconceptions, it can help audience members to see how their various interests align. For example, let's say a convenience store is moving into a new neighborhood, and you are asked to address a town hall meeting as a representative of the company. If you've been able to identify people's questions and issues prior to the meeting, you can begin to address those in your talk. You can give relevant information to your audience in a way that lets them know that their concerns were heard and understood. It's also important to make sure you aren't making any false assumptions yourself. Proper preparation is the key to avoiding this problem. Do your research and make sure your facts are correct. Connect with all your listeners: Once you know what your audience members have in common, you can craft your message in a way that makes each listener feel that you "get" him or her. Use stories or metaphors that everyone can relate to. Speak in a conversational tone and a common language that all can understand. For instance, a business leader talking about an upcoming product launch with a marketing group would not use "legalize" in his presentation. When you connect with all listeners, you have done your job and brought then to a point of shared understanding. They "get" it because you have found the common ground!

Determining your target audience:

The primary group of people you are aiming to persuade; it is the subset of the audience that you most want to engage

Transactional model of communication:

Transactional model of communication is the exchange of messages between sender and receiver where each take turns to send or receive messages. Here, both sender and receiver are known as communicators and their role reverses each time in the communication process as both processes of sending and receiving occurs at the same time. The transactional model is the most general model of communication. Everyday talk and interactions are also a form of transactional model communication. It is more efficient for communicators with similar environment and individual aspects. For instance, communication between people who know each other is more efficient as they share same social system. In transactional model, efficiency and reliability of communicated message also depends on the medium used. For example, the same message might not be perceived by a person the same way when it is send through a phone and when it is provided face to face. It is because of possible loss of message on a phone call or absence of gestures.

Purpose of visual aids:

focus, understand, remember, and organize the audience

Type of information you can include in visual aids:

objects, models, people, drawings, photographs, maps, graphs, charts, flip charts, and chalkboards/whiteboards

Appropriate sources of information for speeches:

primary sources in scholarly editions, peer-reviewed journal articles,