Speech- Chapters 5,6,7,9,10,11
Challenging Audiences & Situations
*Hostile Audiences* -Find out why they are hostile -Emphasize points of agreement -Try to be friendly and objective *Hecklers* -Respond quickly, return to your speech -Audience is on your side -Nonverbals -Heavy artillery *Questions* -Treat each question as legitimate -Remind questioner of time constraints -No comment
Speaking to Persuade-
- Baylor is going to beat Iowa State -Act as an advocate or partisan -Espousing a change -Change or structure the attitudes of the audience -Goal is to convinced (Deeper degree of being persuaded) -Change personal behavior or change political thoughts
Wikipedia
-18 million articles -400 million people access one or more of its articles -good place to start learning
Gender: demographic factors
-1970 only 8% of doctors in the U.S were women -30% of American doctors and 50 % of medical-school students are women -Must take into account or negative reactions -Men and women are NOT alike in all their values and beliefs -American women (education, health care, and social justice) -Men (economics, national security)
Demographic factors: Sexual Orientation
-Adapt to his audience on the basis of sexual orientation -Homosexual----lifestyle
Quotation books
-Barlett's Familiar Quotations -25,000 quotations from historical to contemporary figures -Oxford dictionary of quotations
Situational Audience Analysis: Size
-Bigger=more formal -Audience size may affect your language, choice of appeals, and use of visual aids
During the Interview
-Dress appropriately and be on time -Repeat the purpose of the interview -Set up recorded if needed -Keep the interview on track -Listen carefully -Don't overstay your welcome
Age: Demographic Factors
-Few things affect a person's outlook more than his or her age- Aristotle (2,500 years ago) -No age group is monolithic -Generation has more or less common values and experiences that set it apart from other generations. -40% of college kids are 25+
Situational Audience: Physical Setting
-Look over space in advance -Require technology? -What time is the speech? -Adverse conditions
Demographic factors: Racial/ Ethnic/ Cultural Background
-Millennial Generation (1981-2000) -Most racially diverse generation in the U.S history -most tolerant -5 million Americans live abroad -20th largest state
Demographic factors: Religion
-Passionately defended of all human concerns -U.S is the most religiously diverse nation in the world
Audience psychology
-People can be compelled to attend a speech, but they must choose to actively listen -Speaker must make the audience choose to pay attention -Auditory perception is selective Two messages 1). One sent by the speaker 2). Received by the listener
Source Credibility
-Psychologist Carl Hovland's studies led to a re-definition of credibility as believability Hovland's 7 implications of source believability research 1). High credibility= trustworthiness (track record) 2). Identification doesn't always = influence Doesn't mean that you can influence 3). Physical attractiveness helps 4). Formal standards for judging source credibility aren't usually employed by listeners The audience doesn't think about qualifications 5). Audiences retain info regardless of source believability 9/11 information- doesn't matter what source 6). Audiences remember specifics about the message, not the source Tuned into what you look like 7). The needs of the listener often outweigh consideration of source credibility Natural emergency you just want information
Situational Audience: Disposition Toward the Occasion
-Retiring/ politically pulled -Do not exploit the occasion -Audience has definite ideas about the speeches they consider appropriate -Occasion will dictate how long a speech should be -Do not exceed time under any circumstances
After the interview
-Review your notes -Transcribe your notes
General Purpose to Inform
-Speaking to Inform -Teacher/ Lecturer -Convey info interestingly -Goal is to enhance audience understanding -How to make chocolate chip cookies -Teach person how to do something -Enhance the knowledge and understanding of your listeners
Controversial Topics
-Strongly opinionated -Goal is to get the grade/ become a better speaker -You don't want people to change their ideas about it -Topics do NOT have to be poltical -Audience might also have a strong opinion -Likely to elicit emotional response
Specific Purpose
-Tell the audience what they get out of it -Precise goal, summed up in a purpose statement -Narrow your choices to determine the specific purpose of your speech -ONE main purpose -Must keep in mind the people for whom it was intended
Getting Information about the audience
-The person that invites you -formal audience-analysis questionnaire for at least one of the speeches
Choosing a Topic
-Usually determined by occasion, audience, or speakers qualifications -Bill Clinton, Christian Amanpour (CNN on women's issues), Stephen Colbert (Media, Journalism, Culture) Doctors, Attorney General, a florist -So persuasive because of the title of the person -Listen to doctors because we are not experts on health -In a classroom, students have more leeway Not policy experts on anything
Personal Inventory
-What do you know about the topics? -Topics that make you upset (Pet-lover) -Inventory of your experiences, interests, hobbies, skills, beliefs, and so forth.
call number
-a number used in libraries to classify books and periodicals and to indicate where they can be found on the shelves
Situational Audience: Disposition Toward the Speaker
-big group=positive feelings -Audience's response is colored by their perception of the speaker -If they believe speaker has best interests they will respond more positively -Same set of attitudes toward the speaker
Year books
-facts on file -world almanac and book of facts -published annually -current information
Demographic Factors: Group membership
-frats or sororities -Occupation, economics position,
Academic databases
-infotraf-100 million scholarly articles -JSTOR-1,000 academic journals
Biographical Aids
-people in the news -contain brief life and career facts -Who's Who in America
What are the demographic factors?
1). Age 2). Gender 3). Religion 4). Sexual Orientation 5). Racial/ethnic/ cultural background 6). Group membership
Evaluating Internet Documents
1). Authorship 2). Sponsorship 3). Recency
Guidelines for the Central idea:
1). Declarative sentence that refines and sharpens the specific purpose statement -Should be expressed in a full sentence -Should not be in the form of a question -Should avoid figurative language 2). Speaker should address 3 main points -Summarizing the development -Methods -Exploring theories that account for the success of... 3). Should not be vague or overly general -Ineffective: paying college athletes a monthly salary is a good idea -More Effective: Because college athletes in revenue-producing sports such as football and basketball generate millions of dollars in revenue for their schools, the NCAA should allow such athletes ot receive a $300 monthly salary as part of their scholarships.
General: Guidelines for The Central Idea
1). Declarative sentence that refines and sharpens the specific purpose statement 2). Speaker should address 3 main points 3). Should not be too vague or overly general
Interviewing Before the Interview
1). Define the Purpose of the Interview 2). Decide Whom to interview 3). Arrange the Interview 4). Decide Whether to Record the Interview 5). Prepare Your Questions 6). Don't ask questions that can be answered outside the interview 7). Leading Questions 8). Loaded Questions
Questions to ask about your specific purpose?
1). Does my purpose meet the assignment? 2). Purpose vs. Time Constraints 3). Relevance to Audience? (tie it in with their interests/ values) 4). Too trivial? (steer clear of superficial topics/ min jargon) 5). Too technical for audience?
Getting Information about the audience: audience analysis questionnaire
1). Fixed-alternative 2). Scale questions 3). Open-ended questions -elicited specific information about the audience -deeply into their attitudes
Source Credibility & Power Foucault, Power, and Language
1). Foucault, Power, and language -Power is pervasive in society -Language is the vehicle through which disciplinary power is exercised -Parents have the power -Power is almost always used to exploit 2). Power & Fear Appeals -Physical or psychological threats -It isn't persuasion (gun to head). You have made a fear appeal -Assignment of authority to one specific person or group -Surgeon general- they have power to do that -Initiation of control through personal or secret action -David Koresh
Audience Adaptation BEFORE the speech
1). More than just remembering who your listeners will be 2). Assess how your audience is likely to respond 3). Adjust message to make it clear and convincing 4). Identify and shield yourself from the opposite key argument -We have trouble seeing things from other people's perspectives -anticipate
Brainstorming for Topics
1). Personal Inventory 2). Clustering 3). Internet Search
Nature of Evidence
1). Reliability 2). Expertise 3). Objectivity- attempted unbiased evidence 4). Recency- research topics change 5). Relevance 6). Access -Field research 7). Accuracy of Citation- reliable 8). Consistency
Situational Audience Analysis
1). Size 2). Physical Setting 3). Disposition Toward the topic (interest/ knowledge/ attitude, speaker, occasion,
Tips for Doing Research
1). Start Early- research will take longer than it seems, preliminary bibliography 2). Take notes efficiently (plenty,consistent format, and separate entry) -distinguish between direct quotes, paraphrasing, and your own ideas
Checklist.
1). To whom am I speaking? Know about the audience 2). What do I want them to know, believe, or do as a result of my speech? -Change their votes 3). What is the most effective way of composing and presenting my speech to accomplish that goal? 4). How does the speech create identification or solidarity with the audience?
3 main parts to a argument
1). claim- an expressed opinion or conclusion/ statement 2). Warrant/ support- facts, conditions, beliefs, that are generally accepted or provable as true 3). Attempt to persuade0 attempt to get the audience to act, or to intellectually endorse one's position
Specialized Research Resources
1.) Virtual libraries 2). Government Resources 3). Wikipedia
How fast do people speak?
120-150 words a minute
LexisNExis
45,000 information sources -magazines, legal documents,
The central idea
A concise statement of what you expect to say
Academic Database
A database that catalogues articles from scholarly journals
Attitude
A frame of mind in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution.
Preliminary bibliography
A list of compiled early in the research process of works that look as if they might contain helpful information
Central idea-
A one-sentence statement that sums up or encapsulates the major ideas of a speech
Newspaper and Periodical databases
A research aid that catalogues articles from a large number of magazines, journals, and newspapers -JSTOR (med), PROJECT MUSE (philosophical), Lexis-nexis -abstract of the article
Virtual libraries
A search engine that combines Internet technology with traditional library methods of cataloguing and accessing data -reliable/ high quality -Librarians Internet Index: 20,000 entries with 12 main topics
Prestige and Legitimation
A speaker uses his/her own prestige and perceived power to make their ideas acceptable to the audience Steve Jobs Gave him a lot of credibility
Abstract
A summary of a magazine or journal article written by someone other than the original author
Reference works
A work that synthesizes a large amount of related information of easy access by researchers -encyclopedias, yearbooks, quotation books, biographical aids, and thesaurus
Sponsoring organization
Absence of a clearly identified author, is responsible for the content of the document on the Internet -check credibility -About link
Open-ended questions
Allow respondents to answer however they want
What is the most important element in the rhetorical act?
Audience
Situational Audience Definition
Audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical setting for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker and the occasion.
tabula rosa-
Blank slate Vote on anything and listen to anything. Ideal speeches- people are not objective through own experiences.
General purpose-
Broad goal of a speech
Internal Consistency
Can be taken out of context.
Stereotyping
Creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike.
External Consistency
Does the evidence match/compare with what we already know
Pathos-
Emotional Appeals
What is ethos Dependent on?
Ethos is dependent on the conveyance of these traits to the audience, either directly or indirectly
What is polysemous
Every message has multiple meanings. 1). how it was intended 2). How you conceived it
Using your Own Experience
Everyone is an expert on something Don't depersonalize your speech by over reliance on facts and figures Have enough for the goals of the assignment Even if your life/stories/experiences aren't dramatic, you still have a reservoir of experience to draw from!
Audience Psychology
Filtered through the listener's frame of reference-sum of her or his needs, interests, expectations, knowledge, and experience.
Fixed-alternative questions
Fixed choice between two or more alternatives
demographic audience analysis-
Focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural backgrounds. -Must identify the general demographic features of the audience -gauging the importance of those features to a speaking situation
What is the purpose of speechmaking
Gain a desired response from the listeners
Authority & Acquiescence
History is filled with examples of strong leaders who have used threats and coercion to persuade Used to get people to alter their behavior
Situational Audience: Disposition toward the topic
Interest: Do not often spend time/ effort to attend a speech unless they are interested. Supporting materials, langue, dynamic delivery, visual aids etc. Knowledge: Strong correlation between interest in a topic and knowledge about it. Attitude: Address the concerns or to answer their objections.
Audience -Centeredness-
Keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of the speech preperation and presentation.
Catalogue
Listing of all the books, periodicals, and other resources owned by a library
Brainstorming- =
Method of generating ideas for speech topics by free association of words and ideas
Should you compromise your beliefs, and adapt to others?
No Recognize where they are coming from and predict those arguments. Message to the goals, values, and attitudes of your audience.
Clustering
People, Events, Concepts, Places, Processes, Natural Phenomena, Things, Problems, Plans and Policies.
The Charismatic Persuader
Persistent, expressive personalities who impose themselves on their audience/ environment Steve Jobs is a charismatic persuader and Oprah (even policy issues) Expressive Personality Imposes herself on audience
Identification-
Process in which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences. -highlighting points of similarity
Scale Questions
Questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers
Rather than saying that you are credible, Aristotle wanted you to CONVEY it
Rather than saying that you are credible, Aristotle wanted you to CONVEY it
Specific Purpose-
Single infinitive phrase that states precisely what a speaker hopes to accomplish in his or her speech
Mystification
Special use of symbols and technical jargon to imply that the persuader has special power and expertise to which others should defer The technical vocabulary- you listen to them
The Rational/ Legal Model of Credibility
Statements should be believed if the source meets general standard for accuracy and objectivity (eye witness test) 1-Ability 2-Objectivity
Topic-
Subject of the speech
Internet Search
Subject-based Web- site, online encyclopedia, or another reference portal
Present Only One side of
The listeners already agree with you The listeners know nothing about your topic The listeners are unlikely to hear about your topic for other sources The listeners are unlikely to hear about your topic from other sources
Egocentrism
The tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being. -message that only impact their lifestyle
Audience Adaptation DURING the speech
Watch for feedback How is the audience sitting? Nods of approval or frowns? May need to repeat a point?
Residual Message-
What a speaker wants the audience to remember after it has forgotten everything else in the speech
Statistical Questions
What is meant by average? Were unbiased questions asked? Was the sample representative? Are you looking at the right research? Is the statistic based on a poll? Margins of error vs. difference What are the percentages based on?
The Nature of Expertise & Source Credibility
What is the sources expertise? Does the expert have a reputation for reliability? Is the source unbiased? Ethos and the idea of "good character"
Argumentation
argumentation is a set of statements in which a claim is made, support is offered for it,and there is an attempt to persuade someone in disagreement
Doing Library Research
librarians, card catalogue, reference works, newspaper and periodical databases, searching the internet, special sources
Logos-
logical arguments
Ethos-
speakers credibility To convey to audience you must have "good sense", "goodwill", and "good character"
Authorship
what are the qualifications not cite without credentials