Speech Exam 3 (Final)

Distractions

"If something can go wrong, it will" seems to be especially true when it comes to public speaking. This truth is magnified whenever technology is utilized. Here are some suggestions on how to mitigate the effect of Murphy's Law. Check for Possible Sources of Distraction Ignore Low-Level Distractions during Your Speech. Incorporate Moderate Distractions into Your Speech Confront Interruptions Quickly if Necessary

Training Sessions

A form of informative speaking that is in an extended and focused format. Associated with the workplace, it will often take the form of a series of workshops or seminars in which the goal is to help people learn a rather specific set of skills or body of knowledge.

Pulbic or Private

A context is established in part by the venue or domain in which speaking occurs. One set of expectations accompanies a meeting in a legislative hall, a large city square, or a cathedral. Quite different expectations come into play if a speech about the same topic takes place in a private office or a living room. Your audience analysis should help to clarify this issue.

Forum

A group of experts publicly discussing a topic among themselves. Individually prepared speeches, if any, are limited to very brief opening statements

Panel

A group of experts publicly discussing a topic among themselves. Individually prepared speeches, if any, are limited to very brief opening statements

Group Planning

A speech given by a small group of presenters who have worked collaboratively to prepare a unified statement and to make sure that all the requirements of an effective speech are present. Presumably, the presenters all bring some special expertise or perspective to the presentation.

Pitch

How high or low a speaker's voice is. It is helpful to find a pitch that is natural and also to vary one's pitch.

Calling on Questions

Call on questioners in the order they sought recognition, and maintain eye contact while the question is being asked. If you are not sure you understand the question, paraphrase it according to your own interpretation and ask the questioner if it is accurate. When both of you are satisfied, restate or paraphrase it for the entire audience and direct the answer to them.

Inference

Chapter 7 asks you to analyze your listeners' possible reactions to your thesis. Based on surveys, observations, or inference, you can make some determination of their predisposition toward your topic. The following continuum classifies audiences according to that predisposition:

Less Informed Audience

Check your perceptions with questions such as, "How many of you know the difference between fission and fusion?" Use more supporting materials that are geared toward clarification: definitions, explanations, examples, restatements, and analogies comparing the unknown to the known. Delete the more technical materials.

Paralanguage

Components of nonverbal communication include physical appearance and dress, body movement and posture, touch, facial expressions, eye behavior, and vocal cues are called ______

Harshness, Hoarseness, Stridency

These qualities are caused by constriction of the throat or by tension in or damage to the vocal folds. The voice may sound husky, rough, or shrill and so give an impression of anger or gruffness.

Extemporaneous

mode of delivery that consists of preparing the organization of a speech and becoming familiar with the structure and some of the phrases where language is important, but not writing out or memorizing the speech. It is delivered in a conversational manner from general notes. This is the most common form of delivery.

Parallel Structure

the repetition of phrases, clauses, or sentences that have the same grammatical structure

Eye Contact

Be familiar enough with your material that you can look at as many members of your audience as possible, as often as possible. In an American culture, looking into another's face connotes openness and interest, whereas looking away or down is interpreted as a sign of insincerity or shiftiness. People would much rather look at your face than the top of your head. Moreover, it can distract them from what you are saying if you stare fixedly out the window or up at the ceiling. After a while, listeners' attention begins to shift in those directions, and they wonder if cue cards are taped to the rafters or if a major crime is in progress outside. But more essentially, maintaining eye contact allows you to read your listeners' faces to get feedback on how your message is being received. Faking eye contact by looking between heads or just over the heads of the people in the back row misses the whole point.

Practice Sessions

Although you can get feedback from a number of sources, the best way is to establish an ongoing relationship with people who have similar goals. In a speech class, this may be a group of classmates who meet to discuss ideas and practice speeches. The value of peer collaboration is acknowledged in business and professional settings and by politicians and citizens' groups. The most effective speakers routinely test their messages with others throughout the phases of development.

Neutral Audience

An audience can be neutral toward your position for one of three reasons: they are uninterested, they are uninformed, or they are genuinely undecided.

Preview

An organization tool that gives listeners a road map of what is to follow: "Today I will cover these three points." In addition to clear previews and summaries (Chapter 13 and Chapter 14, you will make it much easier for your listeners to understand the points of your speech if you implement the following techniques.

Appropriate Communication

As the person who speaks first and from a position of leadership, you can let a group know about a situation by the way you present yourself, the tone you take, and the level of formality you assume. Most astute observers will read the communicative norms and feel at ease.

Nasality, Denasality

Incorrect flow of air through the nasal passages creates these problems. With nasality, too much air escapes through the nose; with denasality, too little air escapes. These problems primarily affect m, n, and ng sounds, and produce either whiny or stuffed-up qualities.

The 9 Natural Gestures

Do not lock yourself into any of these gesture-inhibiting stances: The bear hug: Arms across the chest—one of the most common ways of getting a grip on yourself Ten-hut!: Arms stiff, wrists nailed to hips The flesh wound: One arm hanging useless at the side, the other hand serving as a tourniquet above or below the elbow The firing squad: Legs slightly spread, hands clasped behind back The choirboy/girl: Hands clasped at waist level, with fingers entwined The supplicant: Same as the choir, but higher, at chest level The fig leaf: Demurely crossed hands, strategically placed The Lady Macbeth: Hands wrung compulsively and continuously to wash out the "stain" of having to speak Happy pockets: Keys, change, and other pocket contents set to jingling by restless hands, the sound competing with the speaker's voice

Ground Rules

Examples like Because of the sensitive nature of our topic, we request that you not use names or identifying information when you share examples from your organization. So that more people have time to participate, we request that you keep questions and comments brief. This morning, we will be discussing only the problems that have brought us together and the causes we can identify. After lunch, we will get into possible solutions. If we start to jump ahead of ourselves, I will remind you to hold the thought until later.

Presentation Aid

If you've concluded that presentation aids of some sort would be useful in your speech, the issue to consider is what the venue permits. Begin by investigating the physical environment of your speaking space. Does the room include projection technology and audio capabilities? Is the room small or large? Is the room bright or dark? Can the lights be adjusted? Will the room be noisy or quiet? Are electrical outlets available? Knowing the physical limitations allows you to decide what visual aids will work best. You also need to consider how much time you have to prepare your aids, how much time you will have to share your aids, how portable the aids are, what technology is available to you for creating the aids, and how visible (or audible) the aids will be should you utilize them.

Repetition

People learn and remember what they hear repeatedly. If a principle is important, say it over again, in the same words or different words. Repeat it. Paraphrase it. Reinforce it. Refer back to it. Then mention it again.

Volume

The loudness (or softness) with which one speaks.

Proposition of:

The thesis of a speech and the claim of an argument are also described as propositions—in persuasion, the speaker proposes something to the audience. There are three kinds of propositions: the proposition of fact , the proposition of value , and the proposition of policy . Determining which kind of proposition lies at the heart of your speech is essential to identifying your obligations and planning your persuasive strategy. Proposition of Fact It may seem that if something is a fact there is no need to use persuasion to establish it, but there are issues in the factual domain that cannot be verified directly. For instance, there either is or is not life on other planets. The question is one of fact, but because we lack the means to find out, we must argue from the data we have, drawing the most logical inferences from them. Here are some other examples: Sparks from a cell phone can ignite gasoline vapors while you fuel your car. Lack of physical activity increases a person' risk of developing type II diabetes. Converting to solar energy can save the average homeowner money. Proposition of Value Persuasive speakers are often attempting to prove evaluative positions. Their goal is to judge the worth of something, to establish that it is good or bad, wise or foolish, just or unjust, ethical or unethical, beautiful or ugly, competent or incompetent. For example: It is wrong to try to avoid jury duty. The free enterprise system is the best economic model for the working class. Peyton Manning is the best NFL quarterback to ever play the game. Proposition of Policy The most common and most complex of the persuasive theses is the proposition of policy, which advocates a specific course of action. Here are some propositions of policy: The federal government should legalize marijuana for private use. You should avoid consuming high fructose corn syrup. You should send your children to a charter school. When you undertake to prove a thesis statement that is a proposition of policy, you must be very specific about what plan or program should be adopted by what specifically empowered group or agency. Otherwise, although your thesis includes should or should not, it is really a disguised proposition of value. "Tax loopholes should be closed," for example, is only another way of saying, "The present tax system is bad." To be a proposition of policy, it must read, "Congress should change the present tax structure to reduce oil depletion allowances, home mortgage deductions, and home office deductions." The thesis of a speech is a claim that, in turn, is supported by subpoints. (See Chapter 16.) By the same token, notice that the types of propositions are cumulative: The proposition of value assumes certain propositions of fact, and the proposition of policy takes its direction from a proposition of value. Or, proving that something should/should not be done depends on proving that something is good/bad, which, in turn, requires establishing that something else is/is not the case. For instance, to establish this proposition of policy Our local government should/should not commence the aerial spraying of malathion to eradicate the Mediterranean fruit fly. one has to prove at least this proposition of value: It is appropriate/inappropriate to risk some danger to human health in order to protect an important agricultural product. To accept this proposition of value, three propositions of fact need to be established: The effect of malathion on human health is/is not minimal or nonexistent. Malathion is/is not effective in controlling the Mediterranean fruit fly. The fruit attacked by the fly is/is not important to the agricultural economy of the area. Propositions of fact: IS/IS NOT Propositions of value: GOOD/BAD Propositions of policy: SHOULD/SHOULD NOT

Memorized

A mode of delivery that involves writing out a speech fully (in the oral style preferably) and then practicing it until it can be delivered word for word from memory.

Impromptu

A mode of speaking that does not allow for any formal preparation but requires the speaker to speak "off the cuff ." Impromptu speaking can still draw on many of the principles of other kinds of speaking, such as having a clear first and last sentence, involving the audience, and using lots of examples.

Symposium

A series of short speeches, usually informative, on various aspects of the same general topic. Audience questions often follow.

Agenda Planning

A specific predetermined plan for the conduct of a meeting or a group event. It provides structure for groups and helps minimize conflict over what will be discussed, in what sequence, and, perhaps, for how long.

Persuasive Goals

A strong grasp of purpose is especially important in persuasive speaking . When you try to change people, and not simply educate or inspire them, you are more likely to run into resistance. It helps establish a realistic target based on what your goals are—and what they are not. (See Chapter 6.) Some authorities distinguish between persuasive speeches that seek to change actual behavior and those that merely try to influence beliefs and attitudes. Generally, if you want action, you should set your goals in terms of action and tell the audience what to do, not what to think. However, you can make an exception to this guideline when you will be speaking to an unfavorable audience. Here, it is better to set a realistic goal of obtaining agreement with your views; you risk losing the audience if you ask for too much too soon. In any persuasive speech, then, ask yourself if you are primarily trying to change people' minds or their actions. It is also important in setting goals to think carefully about the nature and direction of the impact you seek. There is a tendency to characterize persuasion as "getting people to start doing something," such as buy a product or vote for a candidate. This persuasive goal, known as adoption, is only one of four. You might also try to persuade a person to stop doing something (discontinuance), to keep doing something (continuance), or to not start doing something (deterrence)Footnote. On the general topic of physical fitness, for example, you could choose one of a number of persuasive tacks for your speech, such as persuading your audience to: Adopt an exercise program Continue eating healthful foods Stop eating junk foods Avoid cigarette smoke Technically, then, persuasion is not always geared toward change. The advocates of continuance or deterrence want to maintain the status quo from what they fear might happen. These two persuasive goals make sense only if there is some jeopardy or pressure from the opposite direction. A football coach might give a persuasive speech to the booster club asking them to continue supporting the team. He knows that his audience has other demands on their time and money, and might choose to stop donating to the football team.

Debate

A structured argument in which participants speak for or against a preannounced proposition. The proposition is worded so that one side has the burden of proof, and that same side has the benefit of speaking first and last. Speakers assume an advocacy role and attempt to persuade the audience, not each other.

Introductions

Begin by explaining the importance of the material to be covered and then be quite specific about the objectives: When this workshop is over, the participants will be able to [do these particular things]. Typically, the participants are invited to introduce themselves and to state their goals for the training. In dealing with busy adults, it's always a good idea to give a detailed agenda of what is to come and to be specific about timelines and breaks. You will also need to establish your credibility on the topic and establish rapport. People learn better when they like and trust the instructor.

More Informed Audience

Condense your basic material and call it a review: "As most of you know ... " Use some of the more technical information you encountered in your research. Introduce the issues that you see as unresolved aspects of the topic. Cut the speech short and invite discussion of your topic.

Long Speech

Consider cutting out an entire main point. (Adjust your thesis accordingly.) Eliminate redundant supporting evidence and examples. (But save the ones cut; you might be able to use them for the question-and-answer period.) Turn some of your illustrations into examples; instead of telling the whole story, toss off a one-liner that encapsulates it. Eliminate long stories, jokes, and narrations unless they are absolutely essential. Instead of explaining technical or detailed information, use handouts or visual aids.

Short Speech

Consider whether some important ideas are not sufficiently developed in relation to the other points. See if you are too concise for your own good. Remember that the spoken word needs repetition, embellishment, and illustration to bring home your message to every member of the audience. Make sure you have proved all your points. Double-check your evidence to make sure you have not assumed too much or made some logical leaps that are not justified. Do more research. You may have given up too soon at the library.

Monologic or Diologic

Contexts are also defined by the role of the participants. In monologic situations, the primary speaker dominates the event, taking primary responsibility for what is talked about. In dialogic situations, other participants can direct both the topic and the form of the interaction. As with all the other continua, many situations fall between the extremes or blend the norms. At a public lecture, for example, the expectation is that the audience will listen to the main speaker without interruption until the question-and-answer period begins. Then, the norms of dialogic speech take precedence, and it is considered inappropriate for the speaker to give another speech. An invitational speech follows a more dialogic format as does a question-and-answer session after a speech, although perhaps to a lesser extent.

Analogy

Continually compare the known to the unknown. You might start with a simple analogy: A nuclear power plant is like a steam locomotive. The fireman shovels coal into the furnace, where the heat it gives off turns the water in the boiler into steam. The steam travels through pipes to pistons, where the energy is converted and carried by driving rods to the wheels, pulling long trains of cars down the rails. Substitute a nuclear pile for the coal, a turbine for the pistons, and an electrical generator for the drive wheels, and you have a nuclear power plant. Then you could clarify the points of dissimilarity: Of course, whereas in the locomotive you'd see a grimy engineer squinting at a pressure gauge that has a pop-off valve, in the plant you'd see a large number of scientists and operators presiding over banks of sensors, controls, and computers, each with tripleredundancy safety telltales. The biggest difference, as we know, is that a lump of plutonium contains 240 million times the potential heat energy of a similarly sized lump of coal. To reinforce points and reach more listeners, draw analogies from many areas: sports, movies, nature, history, culture, and so on.

Oral Reports

In contrast to situations in which learners speak for the purpose of improving speech skills, the most common use of oral assignments in educational contexts is as a means to a broader end. Educators in almost every field have found that oral reports, debates, and group presentations are powerful ways to explore and master subject matter. When student presenters know they have to talk about ideas in public, they are forced to engage material deeply to synthesize points and make them clear to others. In essence, they learn more completely. Members of classroom audiences of en find that peer presentations help reinforce course content, possibly because their classmates explain things in more accessible ways than professors sometimes do. Instructors find oral presentations to be one important way to assess student learning, a way that is sometimes superior to papers or exams in showing how fully students understand course material and how creatively they can apply it

Fact

It may seem that if something is a fact there is no need to use persuasion to establish it, but there are issues in the factual domain that cannot be verified directly. For instance, there either is or is not life on other planets. The question is one of fact, but because we lack the means to find out, we must argue from the data we have, drawing the most logical inferences from them. Here are some other examples: Sparks from a cell phone can ignite gasoline vapors while you fuel your car. Lack of physical activity increases a person' risk of developing type II diabetes. Converting to solar energy can save the average homeowner money.

Anticipate Questions

Keep in mind the importance of the question-and-answer period throughout the stages of preparing your speech. Anticipate the audience questions that will likely arise from each of your points. One aid to this is to have the friends who listen to your practice sessions ask you questions afterward. Rehearse aloud possible answers to the most complicated and difficult ones in the same way that you prepare the "planned" portion of your speech.

Need

Listeners must become aware of a compelling, personalized problem. Excessive reliance on automobile transportation to the county's major employment areas is causing severe problems. Major traffic jams Pollution Stress to commuters

Gesture Inhibiting

Many people have trouble figuring out what to do with their hands while speaking. The solution is actually quite simple. We should use our hands while speaking exactly as we do in normal conversation. For some people, using their hands in this manner means hardly using them at all. For others, it means gesturing a great deal. Whether you gesture a little or a lot, you do it to describe, to point out, to enumerate, to emphasize, to implore, and so on. There is no need to plan what gestures go with your speech. If you are absorbed with your topic and with communicating it to your listeners, your gestures will emerge spontaneously at the appropriate points. But this will happen only if your hands are free to move. Too many speakers immobilize their hands completely, out of both the panicky need to cling to something and the desire to prevent uncontrolled movement.

Generic Seaking Skills

Most introductory speech classes teach analysis, research, organization, and delivery—skills that apply across contexts. But in advanced academic classes and in organizational training programs, you will have opportunities to learn how those generic speaking skills are modified in various contexts. In presenting a literary critique, a social science research report, an engineering design review, a health care plan for a patient, or a training program for employees (see Chapter 32), you must master a new set of conventions.

Ceremonial Speeches

No matter how predictable they are, you must cover the expected bases. Do not be too creative but, at the same time, strive to make these ceremonial moments special and fresh. Above all, avoid overused phrases or expressions such as: On this auspicious occasion... It is indeed an honor and a privilege... ...this small token of our esteem. Information exchange is secondary in these speeches; style becomes crucial. Because the two or three ideas you transmit will be fairly basic, you should expend your energy crafting ways to express them, polishing your language and timing. This is made easier by the fact that ceremonial speeches are usually short and rarely unexpected.

Enumeration

Numbering is an obvious organizational cue: The many steps in building an apartment complex can be grouped into these three phases: One: Finding attractive sites with the proper zoning. Two: Negotiating for the purchase of a piece of property. Three: Contracting with architects and builders.

Signposts

One organizer is the _____ . _______, like their physical counterparts, point the way you are going and can serve as a reminder of where you've been: First, I'll show you how to make a simple white sauce, and then move on to three more elaborate sauces that start with this basic recipe. Finally, from this short description of one novel and three poems, you can see once again the two themes that permeate Sylvia Plath's work.

Value

Persuasive speakers are often attempting to prove evaluative positions. Their goal is to judge the worth of something, to establish that it is good or bad, wise or foolish, just or unjust, ethical or unethical, beautiful or ugly, competent or incompetent. For example: It is wrong to try to avoid jury duty. The free enterprise system is the best economic model for the working class. Peyton Manning is the best NFL quarterback to ever play the game.

Personal Involvement

Powerful element of communication, rooted in two-way communication. Organizational-site involvement and Audience-site involvement.

Visualization

Psychologically, it is important that the audience have a vivid picture of the benefits of agreeing with the speaker or the evils of alternatives. The new system would be a vast improvement. (Scenario with the light rail system) (Scenario without the light rail system)

Violations of Rules and Norms

Remind the entire group of the ground rules: "Remember, we agreed not to make any personal attacks in this discussion." If there have not been explicit ground rules, ask the group if it wishes to set some: "I notice that we've covered only two points on our agenda. Because we have to finish by four o'clock, would the group like to set a policy of limiting discussion to ten minutes per point, and then we can return to discuss any in more depth once we've covered everything?" If you must single out an individual, try to do so with a compliment: "Mr. Breslin, you have so many experiences to share that you have already given us a great deal to think about. Now we need to move on to the next area of discussion."

Formal or Informal

Some contexts carry the expectation of a high level of formality—dressy attire, use of titles, respectful forms of address, dignified word choice, and rules of order. The informality of other contexts is signaled by casual dress, use of first names, colloquial speech forms, and loose use of rules. All public speaking is rule-bound to some extent, but there is tremendous variation in how explicit those rules are. Some contexts have very rigid rules about who may speak, for how long, and on what topic. In a formal parliamentary meeting, a speaker must receive recognition and then link the discourse to a particular motion. Contrast this to a meeting of a small task force, in which participants can seize the floor at any time and change subjects at will. Highly rule-bound contexts tend to also have formal expectations for dress, titles, and word choice. It may be helpful to plan to observe the group you hope to speak to in order to learn the level of formality to expect.

Metacommunication

Sometimes it is necessary to be more explicit about the way communication will proceed. In these cases, a leader should metacommunicate, or talk about talking. For example, you might say: At our meetings, we agree to seek the floor by raising a hand and letting the speaker call on people.

Voice

Speakers who have clear speaking voices devoid of vocal tics waste these good qualities if they speak hypnotically, with no variation in pitch, rate, or volume. Such change and movement of the voice—what's referred to as vocal variety —are intrinsically more interesting than the static or predictable.

Audience Agreement

Stress common ground. Spend extra time establishing your credibility. Modify your goal; do not try to do so much. Appeal to your listeners' sense of fair play: "Whether you agree with me or not, I'm sure you will hear me out."

Satisfaction

The course of action advocated must be shown to alleviate the problem. A light rail system should be constructed to alleviate these problems. (Definition of light rail) (Proposed route) (Proposed funding)

Policy

The most common and most complex of the persuasive theses is the proposition of policy, which advocates a specific course of action. Here are some propositions of policy: The federal government should legalize marijuana for private use. You should avoid consuming high fructose corn syrup. You should send your children to a charter school.

A smile

The one expression that has the same meaning in every culture is the smile. Most public speakers underuse or misuse this powerful tool. A constant, fixed, jaw-aching grin is as bad as a deadpan expression. A smile at a sad or serious moment is inappropriate. However, remind yourself to smile genuinely whenever it can reinforce your message. Begin your speech with direct eye contact and a smile to your audience. It is one of the easiest ways to establish rapport, show your goodwill, and put you and your audience at ease.

Attention Getter

The opening one or two sentences of a speech introduction designed to immediately engage the listeners' interest.

Self-Indulgent Questioners

The purpose of a question-and-answer period is to clarify issues for the entire audience. When individual audience members attempt to use this time for a detailed consultation on a specialized problem or to get on their favorite soapbox, you have an obligation as speaker to bring the interaction back to its true course. Be prepared to keep control of the situation by dealing in a firm and tactful manner with several types of distracting questioners.

Attention

The speaker must first motivate the audience to listen to the speech. Introduction: I was on my way to work, having left home earlier than usual so I could be there in plenty of time for my first important presentation. I heard screeching brakes. It turned out to be only a fender-bender a quarter-mile ahead of me. Nevertheless, I sat in my car, and sat, and sat, while my mood progressed from irritation to outrage to despair. I arrived at work an hour and a half late, just as the meeting was breaking up.

Action

The speech should end with an overt call for the listeners to act. Conclusion: Support the county initiative for a light rail system. Urge your friends to vote for it. Write to members of the county board of supervisors on this issue. Ask your employer to commit to providing free shuttle service from the proposed light rail station to your place of business.

Rate

The speed or pace at which one speaks. Ideally, rate must be fast enough to hold attention, slow enough to be understood, and varied to emphasize meaning.

Conclusions

The wrap-up of a training program differs from a simple conclusion in a speech. Of course, you will have provided opportunities for questions and comments throughout the session, but leave additional time for discussion during the wrap-up. In addition to a summary of what has been covered, which provides closure, it is a good idea to have participants state what has been most meaningful and useful for them, because training often includes explicit plans for the application of the concepts covered. Participants might be asked to make an action plan to use the material on the job, or they might be invited to a follow-up session to discuss how the training has influenced their work. Finally, always save time at the end of training for feedback and a written evaluation of some sort.

Manuscript

There is a widespread misconception that manuscript speaking is the easiest and safest mode of delivery ("I'm not an experienced speaker, so I'm going to read my speech"). This is no excuse for avoiding the extemporaneous mode. A bad manuscript speech is much worse than a bad extemporaneous speech. Stilted phrasing, monotonous vocal delivery, and lack of eye contact are all dangerous pitfalls confronting an inexperienced manuscript style speaker.

Emphasis Cues

Underline and highlight key points with phrases like "this is very important," "if you don't remember anything else...," and "here's what it all comes down to..." You can also emphasize points by vocal or physical cues. When you want an idea to stand out, speak more loudly or, occasionally, more softly. Pause before and after the big idea. Step forward. Let your facial expression forecast the seriousness of a point.

Deliverable

Understand exactly what "deliverables" will accompany the presentation. This will vary with each class and might be an outline, a paper, a set of slides, or an analysis of your group process.

Restless Audience

Use more humor and novelty. Use more concrete examples. Make more direct references to the audience. Invite direct participation—ask listeners to give examples or to raise their hands in agreement. Cut out or simplify technical descriptions and statistics. Make your delivery more animated. Make a physical change—walk around the lectern and sit on a desk. Cut it short—especially if the program is running late, cut out subpoints, drive home your thesis, and stop.

Constructing Presentation Aids

Use simple typefaces. Do not mix more than two typefaces. Stay with block style fonts such as Verdana and Tahoma. Avoid ornate type, and stay away from decorative modifications that add visual "noise." Use uppercase and lowercase letters in the titles and text. Sentences printed exclusively in capital letters are harder to read. Maintain "open space." Do not crowd information on one slide. Keep the information simple; use your spoken words to provide details. Maintain visual continuity. Settle on a design theme and use it on each slide. Use the same border or background on all slides. Seek color legibility. Use high contrast foreground and background colors. Background colors should be cooler (dark blue and green tones) and easy on the eye. To check the adequacy of your color choices for your presentation slides, go to your

Examples

When an audience is confused, nothing reassures them like the appearance of a concrete example. You might begin with a simple, even whimsical, example: A "win-win" negotiation has occurred when both parties achieve their important goals without perceiving that they have had to make a major sacrifice. Phil and Dave are roommates, and they both think the other needs to do more around the apartment. After talking about it, they agree that Dave will do all the cooking and Phil will do all the cleaning. Each thinks he got off easy. Next, you could move to a more complex and realistic example: Or suppose you have a used car for sale and your neighbor wants to buy it but does not have all the cash now. You offer to carry an interest-free note due in six months if your neighbor will take care of your pets and plants for three weeks while you are on vacation. You are happy because you will receive the asking price for your car and won't have to worry about arranging for a house sitter. Your neighbor is happy because she can have the car now and doesn't have to pay finance charges on a loan. Finally, you might give an example that is advanced enough for your audience to apply to situations they may actually encounter: Now, let's see how these principles apply to negotiating a new job. On this chart you will see the employer's needs and bargaining chips listed in column 1 and your prioritized needs and bargaining chips in column 2. Let's assume an original offer was made of.... It is acceptable to use one example elaborated on throughout an entire presentation to provide unity.