Speech Final exam
Metaphor
- A word or phrase applied to something in a way that is not literally true - Doesn't use like or as - Helps make comparisons to the audience with using things they already know to make unfamiliar things familiar - ex: He's a monster referring to a football player
Hyperbole
- Extreme overstatement that is obviously not true but can help get a point across - ex: I have a million things to do today
Personification
- Human qualities ascribed to an abstract or inanimate object - ex: The cost of this school speaks volumes about it's importance to the community
How to generate emotional appeals in a speech
- Positive appeals: appeals to positive emotions (appeals that connect your topic or the thesis with emotions that people typically want to feel such as sympathy, nobility, and empowerment) - Fear/Negative appeals: fear appeals identify a threat and then let audience members know what actions will prevent them/people they know from being harmed - Framing: emotional reactions can help guide our interpretation of speakers/situations and so they become a frame for the speech
Argument
- a claim backed by reasons (logic and evidence) in support of a specific conclusion - goes with logos
Bar graph
- show a trend or correlation over time - can show comparisons of magnitude or size - can show trends side by side
Text
- a number of different kinds of presentations can use text - handouts, posters, and flip charts - make text elements clear and easily readable - use text sparingly - use text for specific purposes - summarize or outline - highlight a quotation - define a central concept or idea
Nonverbal communication
- about 55% of interpersonal messages is non verbal - can contradict verbal communication "i'm fine"
Issues of fact
- access to the truth/falsity of a claim - Proposes whether something is or is not, true or false. Frequently verifiable, and often takes a more objective approach. Draws on logical inferences. - EX: "Experiments using animals are essential to the development of many life-saving medical procedures." - EX: "Several modern religious cults use brainwashing techniques to convert young people."
Audio
- add an extra dimension to speech.. particularly if you are addressing a musical element or quote from a great speaker (can't always do justice in your own words) - follow CUTS
Manuscript
- all written down, you need to practice a lot so it isn't obvious
Metonymy
- an expression that substitutes part or a property for the whole - ex: TV executive saying "we need to double the eyeballs in this time slot" means viewer not actual eyeballs
Arguments from analogy
- analogies are comparisons that link unfamiliar things to familiar things by highlighting a similarity - ex: doing my math homework is like throwing myself against a brick wall - arguments from analogy compares two things and asks the audience to believe that one of them has characteristics of the other (if your body is like a well oiled machine, and if a machine needs fuel, then your body needs fuel as well) - you can use analogies to argue; by claiming a similarity between two things, you can claim that something true of one must be true of the other - for an analogy to work it must be appropriate - types of analogies 1) literal: comparison has factual basis 2) figurative: analogy is suggestive and useful but not based on fact (powerful emotional appeals)
6) Rebuttal
- anticipation of objectors to claim and or evidence and or warrant
Visual aid
- anything that is added to your presentation that provides a visual means of highlighting, accenting and supplementing the verbal presentation
Tests of reasoning through sign
- are there enough signs? - is there more plausible alternative explanation? - can sign be found w/o thing for which it allegedly stands?
Tests of reasoning through example
- are there enough? - is example too ambiguous (does it potentially support a bunch of different kinds of claims)?
Pictures and photos
- avoid images that are offensive/difficult to stomach - photo are most effective when they demonstrate good visual composition: 1) size and image resolution count 2) cropping 3) brightness and focus
Handouts
- best suited to provide a complete outline or summary, an outline for taking notes, important quotations, data that might be cumbersome to present thoroughly in a speech, reference to more resources
Materials used
- chalkboard - flip charts - poster board - handouts - transparencies - slides - video - powerpoint
Types of visual aids
- charts and graphs - illustrations - drawings - diagrams - photographs - film - objects and models (actual or 3D) - people
CUTS
- clear (free of interference) - uncluttered (focusing on the action you want to discuss) - topical (supporting of one of your speaking goals) - simple (free of unnecessary elements or information)
Haptics
- communication through touch - when you meet people shaking their hand is a important first interaction
1) Claim
- conclusion or thing you're trying to prove
Criteria satisfaction
- criteria: a set of standards by which you can evaluate something - used when audience agrees that there is a serious problem, but may not agree with you on how to solve it - organization of main points: 1) issue or problem summary 2) criteria for solution that makes it the best (example, it must be affordable) 3) show how the current solution isn't meeting that criteria, and propose better solution
Impromptu
- delivery on the fly
Proxemics
- distance between people - certain distances that are deemed appropriate for different relationships - suggest to audience that we are "like" them.. move closer - people also communicate power with space.. angry get in your face - unhappy you may move away from them
Test of reasoning through analogy
- do differences outweigh similarities?
Charts and graphs
- effective way to visually represent relationships between data - can't be too data rich - use color for contrast and clarity - pick the right kind of char or graph to support point
Issues of value
- issues of worthy/morality, right or wrong, good or bad - criteria for evaluation - Takes a more evaluative position. Judges whether something is good/bad, right/wrong, just/unjust, ethical/non-ethical, etc. We judge the worth of something. - EX: "Animal experimentation benefits both humans and animals." - EX: "Psychology can best improve the human condition by directing its efforts toward controlling human behavior."
Three methods of persuasion (proofs)
- ethos, pathos, logos.. what Aristotle calls "artistic proofs"
Channels of nonverbal communication
- facial expressions - kinesics - eye contact - physical appearance - vocal quality - haptics - proxemics - chronemics
Issues of persuasion
- fact - value - policy
Kinesics
- gestures/movements - study of body language (arms, head/hands, posture) - keep gestures above waste - communicate confidence
Line graph
- good at showing trends or correlations to see how two things relate to each other
Pie chart
- good way of showing the relationship between one data point and it's context
Arguments from examples (inductive reasoning)
- i.e. statistics - inductive: specific to general conclusion - you draw a conclusion based on examples or instances. you're making a general claim based on a number of examples - ex: you want to argue Milwaukee has good restaurants you increase strength of support through examples - often times use of statistics (80% of Milwaukee restaurants get two stars or higher) ..but make sure stats are clearly connected to claim - also tailor strength of claim to strength of evidence (Milwaukee certainly has many good restaurants vs. Milwaukee has some good restaurants) - Inductive reasoning is most useful when you are trying to support a general claim, often as part of a larger argument. - for example if you were speaking about the problem of student cheating, you'd need to establish facts (how many students cheat, what type of students cheat, how often do they cheat, in what ways do they cheat) - to see power of inductive reasoning, contrast statistics with personal experience - rely on a large number of examples taken from a reliable source
Objects
- if you are talking about an object or something you do with an object - should be appropriate
Maps and diagrams
- if your speech relies on making a point about geography (show the geographic distribution of AIDS) or if speech requires listeners to have familiarity with the geography of a place (yellowstone) a good map can add visual impact and give audience useful point of reference - they require that you provide visual context - should be large enough for audience to see the particular geographic area in its context - be labeled appropriately with just enough info to support your points in readable form
Test of reasoning through cause
- is it post hoc ergo propter hoc? (after this therefore because of this) - are there alternative causes?
Eye contact
- make it real - sweep the room - communicates that you are confident and trustworthy - important that audience members remain eye contact too shows interest
Recommendations in lecture for how to best use language
- make sure that it's appropriate to the rhetorical situation/context - use language that is appropriate to you - avoid verbal fillers but don't obsess over it ("like") - be concise (concrete, not abstract details) - avoid jargon
Ethos
- method or persuasion - using credibility or qualification or ethics in order to persuade - an appeal based on the speakers trustworthiness and expertise.. convince audience you are someone they should listen to - ex: expert credibility/title, personal experience, reliable sources - important to speak in own voice, why are you/who are you to speak about this issue, important part of ethos is being invested
Facial expression
- most universal channel - smile is universal - facial expression should reflect content of speech (don't grin telling a sad story) and should reflect level of interest you have in your topic
Video/Animation
- moving images can add impact and interest - grabs attention and makes connection between images more effectively than words alone - must be Clear Uncluttered Topical and Simple
Formatting tips for visual aids
- no more than 2/3 fonts or styles - use contrasting colors within a consistent visual theme - do not use tech for it's own sake - let the visuals add to and not merely repeat verbal presentation - avoid providing too much into in bullet point lists - avoid visual clutter
Extemporaneous
- note cards - limited preparation - glancing at notes
Casual arguments
- one factor brings about another - cause must precede lead effect - cause/effect vary together - cause/effect connected by describable mechanism - show why something happened - not what it's purpose was, but what caused it - demonstrate that an event or situation has a cause and that changing the cause or causes would change the situation - knowing the real causes allows you to propose effective solutions - in causal reasoning you are trying to show that two events, situations, or attributes 1) occur together 2) vary together 3) are connected by a describable mechanism - ex: claim that studying hard causes better grades you'll need to show that studying and grades are associated and that they vary together - when you show that two things are associated you have demonstrated correlation - weak causal claim: two things are associated but maybe not causal (heart beating every morning when you wake and the sun coming up every morning) - strong causal claim: relies on a clearly proven mechanism, usually scientific (how solar power cells convert light into electricity)
Written vs. Oral
- oral delivery is ephemeral - it goes away, there is no stopping or going back. in oral delivery, you can repeat yourself - in manuscript you write sign posts/transitions
Vocal quality
- paralanguage/inflection - tone (quality of voice), volume (loud/soft), rate (use of speed/pauses), pitch (high/low) - includes laughter and sighs - add emphasis on certain words
5) Qualifier
- places conditions on the claim (most, some, occasionally, seldom) - degree of certainty of the claim
Organizational strategies for persuasive presentations
- problem/solution - motivated sequence - criteria satisfaction
2) Grounds
- provide foundation of information/proof for the claim 3 types of evidence/ground 1) testimony - words said by people who are either experts or peers - tests of testimony = bias & qualifications 2) statistics - reasons to use statistics: establish significance (how big/small), show trends, comparisons - test of statistics: how were they gathered, what do they represent 3) examples - 3 types of examples: brief (lists), extended (longer stories/anecdotes), hypothetical (made up situation that could happen) - tests of examples: are there enough, are they real
3) Warrant
- reasoning process that connects grounds to claim, describes why the information you provide supports the claim
Posters
- should be place in an easily visible position near the center of the speaking area, not good for large places - contain one major theme.. not a series of images or a lot of text
Argument from signs
- something stands for something else - types according to notes: physical observations, statistical indexes - try to show that an event, condition, or characteristic is a sign of some future event - they work when we are discussing relationships that are highly correlated but not causal - if you look for one thing, will you almost always find another? If so then it's a sign of the second - dark clouds are a sign of rain, because they don't cause the rain, they are a reliable sign that rain is approaching - types of signs 1) conventional: human created (white flag means surrender) 2) realistic: reflects relationship in real world (ECONOMICS - prices are going to rise, Federal Interest may change interest rates) - signs require support bc there it's possible the relationship we've inferred is inappropriate (racial/gender stereotypes)
Reasoning
- start with what the audience already knows, believes, or values (reasons) and move them to what they should believe or value (claim/conclusion) - 6 types of reasoning 1) inductive argument (example) 2) formal (or deductive) argument 3) casual arguments 4) arguments from analogy 5) arguments fro signs 6) arguments from authority - can mix these types, typical speech contains several
4) Backing
- support for the reasoning (explanation of the warrant and/or ground)
Persuasion
- the act of motivating an audience through communication to voluntarily change a particular belief, attitude, or behavior
Formal arguments (deductive reasoning)
- the form of an argument persuades us (an if-then format is convincing) - arguments from form are also called deductive arguments - deductive reasoning has an if-then form - if X is true, then so is Y - to create the deductive inference using this form you establish the relationship between the "if" and "then" statements and the conclusion you want to draw - Example: 1) if there are five 4 star restaurants in a town, then it is a good restaurant town 2) Milwaukee has six 4 star restaurants 3) therefore, Milwaukee is a good restaurant town - statements 1 and 2 are called the premises, and 3 is the conclusion - the challenge in formal reasoning is justifying the premises
Problem/Solution
- type of persuasive presentation where your problem and solution are two main points - presents the problem/causes and then discusses ways to solve or lessen it
Logos
- use of rational appeals or reasoning to persuade an audience - in certain situations pathos can fail, unless it is followed by logos (can't evoke indignation about why a president should be impeached just because.. you have to back it up or else people won't see you as credible or impartial.. this is where logos comes in) - Ex: statistics, surveys, polls, authorities on a certain subject, and the use of historical evidence
Chronemics
- use of time to communicate - if you are late, you are sending a message - if you make someone wait you are sending a message - time of day matters too
SHIPS
- used for policy action - S: Significance -> magnitude of the issue, justification for the action - H: Harms -> problems, what are the effects of the issue - I: Inherency -> barriers to the solution or action, attitudes, laws - P: Plan -> specific course of action - S: Solvency -> plan will work
Motivated sequence
- used when you're advocating a policy change or specific action - similar to problem/solution but has 5 steps 1) attention (get attention of audience, in intro) 2) need (first main point that describes the problem, states significance/harms) 3) satisfaction (second main point offer solution to satisfy problem, typically is a plan or inherency) 4) visualization (third main point where you picture the future as positive or negative depending on action taken by the audience) 5) action (conclusion/peroration where you challenge audience to act)
Pathos
- using emotional appeals in order to persuade - putting audience in the right frame of mind to accept the argument - using vivid examples, personal stories, and imagery that make people want to act immediately (ex: show pics of victims of war in a humanitarian ad) - but you can't use too much/too little emotion, don't want to scare people away and also don't want to bore them.. want them in frame of mind consistent with your persuasive purpose - also need to use the right kind of emotion "appropriate emotion)
Diagrams
- visual schemas that show the parts of something - represents spatial relationship/shows relationship in regard to object (clock, camera, lawn mower) - should be simple enough for audience to digest in context of speech - high resolution and contrast so audience can read easily
Physical appearance
- what you look like is a large element of a first impression - physical appearance should be appropriate to occasion and to your personal style - don't want to be "trying too hard" - don't wear anything too trendy or revealing that could distract
Arguments from authority
- when you are speaking from expertise on a subject based on research or experience - crucial thing is to figure out how to make your expertise clear to your audience - if you want to argue that you know the most likely reason that student drop out during their first year of college, you'll have to cite an authority in the field of higher education) - important that authority is a proper specialist (don't site a theologian on gun violence) - important to ensure that your authorities aren't biased or have self serving motives
Issue of policy
- whether or not a specific course of action should or shouldn't be taken - be specific about the course of action in a speech (what needs to be done, who will do it, hows it getting done, etc) - Propositions of policy call for some form of action. In general, they may contain some elements of both fact and value. They are often recognizable by use of the word *should* and must speculate about the consequences of the action - EX: "Experimental treatments should always be tested on animals before they are tested on humans." - EX: "As a national policy we should eliminate all forms of violence from television programming."
Methods of visual analysis...
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Toulmins model (6 parts)
1) claim 2) grounds 3) warrant 4) backing 5) qualifier 6) rebuttal
Nonverbal communication serves 4 general purposes
1) expresses emotion 2) conveys interpersonal attitudes 3) presents your personality 4) accompanies verbal communication
Logos (class notes)
1) use a variety of supporting materials -> statistics, examples, personal experience 2) use evidence that is novel -> info that audience doesn't know 3) provide credible sources 4) always make points of evidence clear - explain warrant clearly state claim - explain what you want audience to conclude
Artistic
Evaluation emphasizes issues of creativity and invention in achieving purpose. Critical focus on the discourses ability to: Alter perception Create virtual experience Attract and hold attention Induce identification Content for Analysis includes: Techniques Means/styles Strategies. Limitation: Does not encourage/include an evaluation of the purposes or ends of rhetorical action.
Ethics
Evaluation emphasizes judging whether the rhetoric helps or harms; evaluates the social consequences of rhetorical action. Critical focus on the discourse's: Long term consequences Social worth/value Promotion of oppression or liberation Content for analysis includes: How strategies construct messages How those messages either promote or harm ethical ends. Limitations: Requires healthy self-reflection: Are your ends/aims in evaluating the rhetorical act ethical or are you merely attempting to support your own point of view?
Argument
Evaluation emphasizes the accuracy and typicality of the rhetorical act/event as compared to other sources. Critical focus on the discourse's: Validity of argument Quality of evidence Quality of reasoning Content for analysis includes: Evidence Warrants Limitations: No simple judgments about social truth can ever be made. No discourse is extensive enough to ever contain or represent the whole truth of a matter. Rhetoric is designed to persuade---will almost always leave some information out.
Effects
Evaluation emphasizes the response that the rhetoric produces/incites. Critical focus on the ability to: Communicate Induce participation from an audience Affect perceptions Induce a reaction Content for analysis includes: Social response to the rhetorical event Strategies used to achieve that response Limitations: Does not encourage evaluation of ethics of message Effects are difficult to measure in some cases
