Speech Midterm

Which of the following persuasive strategies is suggested by your text?

Attempt a modest amount of persuasion to get the best persuasive results.

Patterns of organization

Chronological pattern: time-ordered format; historical development is the most common chronological pattern. Spatial pattern: arranges points according to the relationships among physical locations and is often based on geography Topical: the most frequently used speech pattern, and also the most difficult in that you must understand the range and limitations of the subject. This pattern consists of simply developing each topical area in turn, with no implication that these points have a specific logical relationship or relationships in time or space. Often, the best structure for a speech is a list of the components of a whole or a list of reasons that add up to the thesis. Sometimes, topical patterns combine aspects of other organizational patterns. Cause-effect pattern: used to show the events that occur in sequence are causally related Problem-solution pattern: arranges ideas to move from discussion of an area of concern to an explication of how that concern can best be addressed

Confirmation bias

A tendency for people to favor information that confirms their preconceptions or hypotheses regardless of whether the information is true. As a result, people gather evidence and recall information from memory selectively, and interpret it in a biased way.

Common conclusion pitfalls

Don't end with an apology: "I guess I've rambled on long enough," "I don't know if I've made this clear," or "I'm not usually this hyper; it must be the coffee." Don't trail off. Do your audience the courtesy of wrapping things up and using a clincher Don't introduce a whole new point in your conclusion. The body of your speech is the place for that Don't read your conclusion. Or if you have memorized it, be sure it does not sound mechanical. Practice moving into your conclusion so that you maintain eye contact and keep your vocal presentation natural and conversational. Don't make the conclusion disproportionately long. It is a summary and an ending. Don't end in a style or mood that is at odds with the rest of the speech. Don't hit your listeners with a stark recitation of doom if you have kept them laughing up to the very end. Don't use the phrases "in conclusion" or "in summary" in any part of the speech other than the conclusion. You will lose part of your audience while they realize that the speech is continuing when they thought it was winding down.

Which of the following are suggested by your text as methods of speech anxiety reduction: A. Cognitive restructuring B. Skills training C. Relaxation and exercise D. Systematic desensitization E. All of the above

E. All of the above

Which is most important when evaluating internet resources? A. Authority of the source B. Bias or agenda of the author C. If the information is verifiable and timely D. Clarity and orderliness of the site E. All of the above are equally important

E. All of the above are equally important

Which of the following misconceptions are not presented by your text: A. Good speakers are born, not made B. There are simple formulas for effective speaking C. Good speaking should be easy right away D. Speaking will always be as difficult as when 1st learned E. Speakers often totally blank out when speaking

E. Speakers often totally blank out when speaking

What is emotional contagion and why is it significant to speaking?

Enthusiasm and sincerity If you don't care, we don't care. If you're bored, you are boring! Emotional contagion and reciprocal energy

What are the top 10 keys to good delivery?

Enthusiasm and sincerity If you don't care, we don't care. If you're bored, you are boring! Emotional contagion and reciprocal energy Extemporaneous Audience focused at least 75% of speaking time Direct eye contact Different from frequent eye contact Speak to specific people in the crowd Appear confident and composed The audience sees very little of your anxiety Relaxed conversational style to create identification Gestures Help with interest & comprehension Vocal variety Purposeful pausing Fluctuations in volume and pitch Use of humor Even for serious subject matter Use of transitions and some repetition Tell them what you're gonna tell them, tell them, then tell the what you told them General dynamism Purposeful movement (use the speaker's triangle), visual aids, audience involvement, develop your own style! Avoiding distracting mannerisms Verbal fillers (likes, ums), putting self down, rate of speech, chewing gum

Full sentence outlining

In a full-sentence outline, the thesis statement, the main points, and at least the first level of subpoints are stated as declarative sentences. Declarative sentences are propositions that can be proved or disproved, accepted or rejected. Makes the speech more coherent for your audience and makes you more conscious of the exact points you want to make and forces you to frame them explicitly Full-sentence outlines are important in preparing informative, invitational, evocative, argumentative, and persuasive speeches. Full-sentence outlines help you to cover topics fully; they are a necessary tool to demonstrate logical relationships in the speech.

Speech structure flowchart

Introduction Attention getter Psychological orientation Logical orientation ↓ Connective to body of speech First main point Subpoint Supporting materials Subpoint Supporting materials ↓ Connective to second main point Second main point Subpoint Supporting materials Subpoint Supporting materials ↓ Connective to third main point Second main point Subpoint Supporting materials Subpoint Supporting materials ↓ Connective to conclusion Conclusion Logical closure Psychological closure Clincher

Audience analysis

Introduction Age, sex, attitudes and expectations are all relevant to your planning Within a given audience, the degree of homogenity or heterogenity can differ for each of the characteristics discussed in this chapter Homogeneous (similar) Heterogeneous (diverse) Seek information through many channels Introduction You and your listeners probably share some things in common Every person is also a member of multiple discourse communities that are tied to specific cultural heritages, geographical locations, occupational groups, and so on Each community has its own code of conduct and specialized vocabulary Discover what communication links are already present and what gaps need to be bridged Use direct observation You know what will interest an audience that you share much in common with Try to observe a less familiar audience, noticing demographics such as age, gender, and ethnicity Try to determine their attitudes, beliefs, and values Observing a group's business meeting or their response to another speaker can tell you a great deal about them Do systematic data collection

What is audience-centeredness?

Keeping the audience foremost in the mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation.

Goodwill statement:

Listeners want to believe that you have their best interests in mind. In the case of an informative speech, it is enough to assure them that this will be an interesting speech and that you, yourself, are enthusiastic about the topic.

The best best predictor of persuasive success is?

Logos

Main point construction

Main points are primary ideas, those that are central and indispensable to the development of the thesis Choose main points that correspond to your thesis and are mutually exclusive Sometimes you may need to adjust your thesis to reflect the refinement of your ideas that resulted from the organizing process Main points should be mutually exclusive for maximum clarity A place for everything and everything in its place. Each idea should fit in ONE place When you are grouping ideas under potential main points, you will find that many fit into two or more categories. Thus, if you don't know where an idea fits your audience certainly will not Include from two to five main points Hierarchical structure Coordinate points - ideas of equal importance or of parallel logical function Subordinate points - points of lesser significance that support, explain, or contribute steps of logical development to other ideas Subordinate points should fit within a larger idea - don't let ideas be too big for the points they are intended to support Coordinate points should be of equal importance - don't allow ideas too small to fit with the others at its level exist Each subpoint should directly relate to the point it supports

Which orator once called the U.S. government, "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world"?

Martin Luther King

Ethical considerations of speaking

- Beware of ethical implications of your choice - Recognize that every action has an ethical dimension - Recognize that ethical decisions are rarely clear-cut - Recognize that ethical decisions vary with context - Respect the integrity of your own core values - Respect the integrity of your audience - You have every right to pursue your own reasons for speaking, but not at the expense for your listeners' welfare Do not underestimate audience members' intelligence Do not try to trick audience into making decisions that endanger their health, safety, financial security or other interests Respect the integrity of ideas Don't plagiarize Don't lie Don't oversimplify Weigh the complex factors and competing goals in ethical decisions Be especially aware of the ethical impact of choices you make about language, emotional appeals, and persuasive strategies Balance the value of using lively language against the risk of causing pain and offense Balance the importance of appealing to your audience on an emotional level against the risk of abusing emotional appeals Balance the right to use compelling persuasive appeals against the obligation to avoid simplistic persuasive techniques Propaganda devices used to short-circuit an audience's rational processes: Name-calling to provoke fear or hatred in an audience: traitor, sexist, etc. Glittering generalities Using words or phrases that represent some abstract virtue Attempts to convert listeners not on the merits of a position but because adoption of the position would be, for example, the patriotic thing to do Testimonials are used to link a popular figure with some cause or product. The speaker replaces sound argument with inappropriate extension of the person's credibility "Just plain folks" "You should believe me because I'm just like you" Makes an unwarranted distinction between the "common sense" notions of the audience and the reasoning of experts, academics, and opponents in general Card stacking - a speaker carefully uses only facts or examples that bolster his or her position, and the biased selection is passed off as representative The band wagon discourages independent thinking The "everyone is doing it" technique appeals to the need for security and plays on fears of being different or left out Transference Makes some unfamiliar thing more (or less) acceptable to an audience by ascribing to it characteristics of something familiar Often there is no true relationship between the two Snob appeal (opposite of "just plain folks") Stand-out-from-the-crowd (opposite of bandwagon) Beware of ethical implications of your choice Recognize that every action has an ethical dimension Recognize that ethical decisions are rarely clear-cut Recognize that ethical decisions vary with context Respect the integrity of your own core values Respect the integrity of your audience You have every right to pursue your own reasons for speaking, but not at the expense for your listeners' welfare Do not underestimate audience members' intelligence Do not try to trick audience into making decisions that endanger their health, safety, financial security or other interests Respect the integrity of ideas Don't plagiarize Don't lie Don't oversimplify Weigh the complex factors and competing goals in ethical decisions Be especially aware of the ethical impact of choices you make about language, emotional appeals, and persuasive strategies Balance the value of using lively language against the risk of causing pain and offense Balance the importance of appealing to your audience on an emotional level against the risk of abusing emotional appeals Balance the right to use compelling persuasive appeals against the obligation to avoid simplistic persuasive techniques Propaganda devices used to short-circuit an audience's rational processes: Name-calling to provoke fear or hatred in an audience: traitor, sexist, etc. Glittering generalities Using words or phrases that represent some abstract virtue Attempts to convert listeners not on the merits of a position but because adoption of the position would be, for example, the patriotic thing to do Testimonials are used to link a popular figure with some cause or product. The speaker replaces sound argument with inappropriate extension of the person's credibility "Just plain folks" "You should believe me because I'm just like you" Makes an unwarranted distinction between the "common sense" notions of the audience and the reasoning of experts, academics, and opponents in general Card stacking - a speaker carefully uses only facts or examples that bolster his or her position, and the biased selection is passed off as representative The band wagon discourages independent thinking The "everyone is doing it" technique appeals to the need for security and plays on fears of being different or left out Transference Makes some unfamiliar thing more (or less) acceptable to an audience by ascribing to it characteristics of something familiar Often there is no true relationship between the two Snob appeal (opposite of "just plain folks") Stand-out-from-the-crowd (opposite of bandwagon) Beware of ethical implications of your choice Recognize that every action has an ethical dimension Recognize that ethical decisions are rarely clear-cut Recognize that ethical decisions vary with context Respect the integrity of your own core values Respect the integrity of your audience You have every right to pursue your own reasons for speaking, but not at the expense for your listeners' welfare Do not underestimate audience members' intelligence Do not try to trick audience into making decisions that endanger their health, safety, financial security or other interests Respect the integrity of ideas Don't plagiarize Don't lie Don't oversimplify Weigh the complex factors and competing goals in ethical decisions Be especially aware of the ethical impact of choices you make about language, emotional appeals, and persuasive strategies Balance the value of using lively language against the risk of causing pain and offense Balance the importance of appealing to your audience on an emotional level against the risk of abusing emotional appeals Balance the right to use compelling persuasive appeals against the obligation to avoid simplistic persuasive techniques Propaganda devices used to short-circuit an audience's rational processes: Name-calling to provoke fear or hatred in an audience: traitor, sexist, etc. Glittering generalities Using words or phrases that represent some abstract virtue Attempts to convert listeners not on the merits of a position but because adoption of the position would be, for example, the patriotic thing to do Testimonials are used to link a popular figure with some cause or product. The speaker replaces sound argument with inappropriate extension of the person's credibility "Just plain folks" "You should believe me because I'm just like you" Makes an unwarranted distinction between the "common sense" notions of the audience and the reasoning of experts, academics, and opponents in general Card stacking - a speaker carefully uses only facts or examples that bolster his or her position, and the biased selection is passed off as representative The band wagon discourages independent thinking The "everyone is doing it" technique appeals to the need for security and plays on fears of being different or left out Transference Makes some unfamiliar thing more (or less) acceptable to an audience by ascribing to it characteristics of something familiar Often there is no true relationship between the two Snob appeal (opposite of "just plain folks") Stand-out-from-the-crowd (opposite of bandwagon) Beware of ethical implications of your choice Recognize that every action has an ethical dimension Recognize that ethical decisions are rarely clear-cut Recognize that ethical decisions vary with context Respect the integrity of your own core values Respect the integrity of your audience You have every right to pursue your own reasons for speaking, but not at the expense for your listeners' welfare Do not underestimate audience members' intelligence Do not try to trick audience into making decisions that endanger their health, safety, financial security or other interests Respect the integrity of ideas Don't plagiarize Don't lie Don't oversimplify Weigh the complex factors and competing goals in ethical decisions Be especially aware of the ethical impact of choices you make about language, emotional appeals, and persuasive strategies Balance the value of using lively language against the risk of causing pain and offense Balance the importance of appealing to your audience on an emotional level against the risk of abusing emotional appeals Balance the right to use compelling persuasive appeals against the obligation to avoid simplistic persuasive techniques Propaganda devices used to short-circuit an audience's rational processes: Name-calling to provoke fear or hatred in an audience: traitor, sexist, etc. Glittering generalities Using words or phrases that represent some abstract virtue Attempts to convert listeners not on the merits of a position but because adoption of the position would be, for example, the patriotic thing to do Testimonials are used to link a popular figure with some cause or product. The speaker replaces sound argument with inappropriate extension of the person's credibility "Just plain folks" "You should believe me because I'm just like you" Makes an unwarranted distinction between the "common sense" notions of the audience and the reasoning of experts, academics, and opponents in general Card stacking - a speaker carefully uses only facts or examples that bolster his or her position, and the biased selection is passed off as representative The band wagon discourages independent thinking The "everyone is doing it" technique appeals to the need for security and plays on fears of being different or left out Transference Makes some unfamiliar thing more (or less) acceptable to an audience by ascribing to it characteristics of something familiar Often there is no true relationship between the two Snob appeal (opposite of "just plain folks") Stand-out-from-the-crowd (opposite of bandwagon)

Mental dialog

- Emphasized one-way transmission from a sender to a receiver. - Messages originate inside senders or sources who formulate their mental images into words or symbols in a process of encoding - The sender then transmits the message through a channel, where it may encounter resistance or noise - If the message gets past the noise, it is received at its destination - The signal must then be turned back into meaningful symbols through a process of decoding - If the resulting mental image generally corresponds to the mental image of the sender, there is fidelity of communication -If the two images are significantly different, there has a been a communication breakdown - The comparison of the intended message with the received message is accomplished through the process of feedback - Interactional and transactional perspectives - Feedback entails reversing the role of sender and receiver - Could be nonverbal communication such as smiling and eye contact - Speaker notices, reacts, and adapts to these micromessages

Misconceptions of speaking

- Good speakers are born not made - Good speaking should be easy right away - Speaking will always be as difficult as it is when you are first learning it - There are simple formulas for effective speaking - Each speaker has a distinctive style and personality, the audience has idiosyncratic needs and preferences, and the situation differs form case to case

Joint creation of meaning - mental dialog

- Meaning is social - no individual, sender or receiver, can control the "true meaning" of a statement - Meaning is contextual - the context (what surrounds a text) must be considered to understand its meaning - Ultimately, meaning is negotiated by discourse communities - groups work out meanings over time

Performance Style

- Performance skills means your use of physical qualities --tone of voice, gestures, and movements-- to create a focal point - Drama and virtuosity - Energetic and intentional movement - Doesn't refer to display or phoniness but to the enactment of an event - Performance skills that are useful to speakers - The ability to pay attention to the entire effect - The knowledge of how to use setting and timing - The capacity to turn a collection of individuals into a cohesive group - Visual effects, lighting, sound, music, humor & drama - A sense of timing and an understanding of how to direct emotional build up & choose the right moment for the climax

Conversational style

- Relaxed, spontaneous, and responsive to the situation - Express your changing feelings naturally - Your attention is centered on the person or people to whom you are speaking and on the ideas you want to convey - Conversation is a form of risk taking that you are not sure of the outcome at any point - Conversation skills that are useful to a public speaker - Speaking in a comfortable and confident manner - Listening to and considering the perspectives of others - Adapting constantly to feedback

According to your text, a body should have?

2-5 main points

Physical delivery

Direct eye contact, purposeful movement Be conscious of your appearance Consider what your hairstyle, grooming, clothing, and accessories might communicate to your audience Be aware of regional, cultural, and occupational norms Lean towards conservative business attire Audience could be distracted by loud colors, busy patterns, showy jewelry or piercings, visible tattoos, unorthodox combinations of apparel, and any clothing they consider too revealing Eliminate distracting mannerisms Those you have all the time Those you have only when giving a speech Few acts are inherently distracting; it's the repetition of some acts that becomes distracting Stand or sit with a relaxed, but alert posture Weight evenly distributed, your notes grasped casually in one hand at waist level, and no props of any kind for support Appropriate variations might include leaning forward to show deep involvement or sitting on the edge of a desk or table to signal the shift to an informal mood Avoid draping yourself across the lectern, slouching, standing with hands at your hips, elbows extended, or rocking back and forth Avoid the rigid stance of a military academy cadet. Be careful never to lock your knees, as you risk becoming light-headed or even fainting Make only purposeful and relevant movements Establish contact with the segment of the audience that you move toward Sometimes movement toward the audience can regain their attention Physical movement works best at transitional points, where it signals a change in mood, content, or form Make natural gestures No need to plan what gestures go with your speech, they will emerge spontaneously at the appropriate points Leave your hands free to move The bear hug Ten-hut The flesh wound The firing squad The choirboy/girl The supplicant The fig leaf Do not stay in these positions like you're a statutes Do nothing distracting such as nervously shredding notecards, drumming on the table, scratching, or making other kinds of unproductive hand movements The lady Macbeth Happy pockets Do nothing contrived-- no rehearsed gestures Maintain eye contact Maintaining eye contact allows you to read your listeners' faces to get feedback on how your message is being received Faking eye contact by looking between heads of the people in the back row misses the whole point At the beginning of your speech, find a few listeners who are responding supportively. Use their support to help you through this uncomfortable period. As soon as you start to roll, broaden your eye contact to include everyone. Look into the eyes of the individual audience members, and hold that contact for at least three seconds Do not skim across rows of faces. Move your eye contact randomly throughout the room: do not fall into a head-bobbing pattern: left, center, right, center, left. You should have eye contact 85% of the time, looking down only to read technical material or to refer briefly to your notes Maintain eye contact throughout your introduction and conclusion and during the most telling points and pivotal arguments Use facial expression to reflect tone Do not let the tension of a speaking situation force you into a deadpan face Changes in facial expression precede and forecast shifts in tone or mood Do not plan facial expressions, exaggerate slightly those expressions that arise normally. Subtle facial expressions will not reach the back row.

Common introduction pitfalls

Don't begin with "Before I start, I'd like to say..." You have already started. Don't begin with an apology like "I'm not really prepared" or "I don't know much about this, but..." Don't read your introduction. Or if you have memorized it, be sure it does not sound mechanical. Maximize eye contact and keep your inflection natural and conversational Don't be dramatic to the point of assuming a whole new identity or persona. Leave that to the comedians, and give your speech as yourself. Don't use an attention getter that has no real link to your topic. don't try to stretch a point so you can start with an unrelated joke you think is hilarious Similarly, firing a starter's pistol to begin a speech on "How to Get a Running Start on Your Competition" will distract rather than attract your audience. Don't make your introduction seem disproportionately long. Don't use stock phrases like "Unaccustomed as I am to public speaking" or overworked stories that are probably untrue, but are passed off as true (apocryphal). Don't name-drop to build your credibility Don't startle your audience by bursting out of a trance into an explosion of oral energy. (This is a favorite of high school orators). Engage your audience before you start. Don't start with a long quotation that leaves your audience wondering where the quotation ends and your words begin.

What is ethnocentrism? Why is it significant to public speaking?

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to believe that one's ethnic or cultural group is centrally important, and that all other groups are measured in relation to one's own. The ethnocentric individual will judge other groups relative to his or her own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behavior, customs, and religion. These ethnic distinctions and sub-divisions serve to define each ethnicity's unique cultural identity. Try to find out what is meaningful to your audience Learn how a particular group of people make meaning Age, race, sex, religion, social class, educational level, economic status, sexual orientation, health, and physical ability all contribute to a person's interpretation of the world. Your task is to consider thoughtfully how they engage in a constant process of constructing, and reconstructing the world You can begin to grasp how different people can observe the same events, but interpret them "logically" to come to opposite conclusions Core values (or worldviews, personal construct systems, frames of reference, informal theories, or master narratives) What do your listeners draw on to organize their experience and make sense of it?

What is credibility? Why is it so important to persuasion?

Ethos - Credibility. Expertise, trustworthiness and goodwill "Showing moral character" in Greek and Latin Believability A conferred subjective perception, dynamic in nature The single greatest predictor of persuasive success Ways to create and maintain credibility Identification - talking with them or as one of them. Similarity hypothesis Find common ground: Community via language choices, wardrobe, expressed values and experiences. Showing concern and empathy for the audience (S.A.T.) When we like someone, we adjust our verbal and nonverbal habits to be similar to them. Converge When we don't like someone, we tend to diverge and act the opposite of them. Use narrative that speaks to your history (competence) and character (trustworthiness). Discuss credentials Cite legitimate sources Address multiple perspectives Be confident, yet humble.

Writing a clear thesis statement

Formulate a single declarative sentence Your thesis sentence states your topic as a proposition to be proved or a theme to be developed Thesis is sometimes referred to as the central idea A thesis statement should not merely announce your topi, it should encapsulate what you plan to say about the topic What you are talking about (the subject of the sentence) and what you are saying about it (the predicate of the sentence Break your thesis statement into a list of questions Break up a topic to find all the subtopics within it Consider the set of questions your thesis statement bring to mind, which are the questions your listeners will expect to be answered before they accept your thesis The analysis will help you anticipate your audience's reaction to your speech, direct your research, help you develop your main points

What is the definition of Rhetoric?

Genesis of formal theorizing about speech is in the thousand years of C.E. Aristotle's definition of rhetoric is "the ability to find in any situation the available means of persuasion" Recognize the many truths about each topic and select the one that is most appropriate to the specific audience and situation Plato's philosophical notion of seeking one absolute, all-encompassing truth contrasted with Aristotle's belief that what counts as truth varies with each situation Effective speaking is made up of five areas of study (canons of rhetoric) Invention Organization - grouping ideas with supporting evidence and then arranging the parts Style - selection of words to make points clear and engaging Delivery - use of body and voice to project a compelling message Memory - Focusing one's mind during a speech so all elements are coordinated with ease

What is the golden rule of public speaking?

Have a clear intro, body, and conclusion

Causes of speaking anxiety

Most communication apprehension is psychological. Pessimistic attitude Insufficient experience Inadequate practice Inaccurate perception of audience Negative self-talk Feeling conspicuous, evaluated Facing an unfamiliar audience Seeming incompetent - many fears have roots in inadequate preparation Uncomfortable physical response - tension release & relaxation suggestions Not measuring up to your ideal Fear of failing to meet your own high standards can be positive motivation to do the best you can Dwelling on failure can cause it to happen Visualization and verbalization techniques can be used to create positive self-expectations

Demographic and situation audience variables

Pertinent demographic questions Age, gender, sexual orientation, relational arrangements, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic, occupations, religious groups, political orientation. How homogenous or heterogenous are the audience members for each of the above characteristics? Sex and gender Sex - demographic category that relates to biological maleness or femaleness Gender - the socialized roles we have learned as appropriate for our sex Note how many audience members of either sex think about masculinity Women, especially as they become aware of past oppression, are naturally sensitive to slights to their dignity and their roles as autonomous adults Avoid examples suggesting that everyone fits into traditional roles Race and ethnicity Ethnicity refers to a person's "identity with or membership in a particular racial, national, or cultural group and observance of that group's customs, beliefs, and language." Race is more problematic. It has historically been used to group people along lines of physical appearance, particularly skin color. Most biologists think of race as an arbitrary social construction that does not align with genetic and biological boundaries. Regardless of the biological reality, people do self-identify as members of a particular race, and that identification and perception of racial differences has great sociological and political force. Knowing the audience's predisposition toward the topic is the most important bit of information

Characteristics of good visual aids

Prepare your aids to be clear and manageable Make sure the entire audience will be able to see and hear your aids The nature of the place in which you will be speaking and the size of the audience determine the form your aids may take Look over the facility in advance if possible Place a rough mock-up or draft where you expect it to be when you speak and walk around the space. Can you see it clearly from all points? If the room is too large for a poster, consider a projector Reduce any aid that is too large for the size of the room or so unwieldy you will have to wrestle with it Keep visual aids simple and clear Visual aids should contain just enough detail to allow your listeners to distinguish one part easily from another Do not crowd maps, charts, graphs, models, and photographs with so much data that your audience is confused about which part you are referring to In photographs, try to find one that shows the object in isolation or in sharp focus in relation to other objects Keep the wording on any visual aid simple and familiar. Use no more words than strictly necessary Maintain continuity when you spread your information out -- if you use a pie chart for your first aid, any following aids dealing with similar or related information should also be pie charts When using hand-lettered means, print in lear block letters Use color to delineate different aspects of the object or symbol Design visual aids for maximum audience impact The design and form of your visual aids can enhance your credibility, add humor, provide information beyond the data presented, or simply maintain the interest of your listeners Just because you can add sound, multiple color variations, and font types, doesn't mean you should Basic, unexotic colors are best to use unless a certain color is popularly associated with the object or idea being depicted Color choices should be easy on the eye. Include the use of high contrast colors between foreground and background

What is the first thing you should do in a speech and how can you accomplish it? Why is the introduction considered the most important part?

Primacy - attention is heightened, first impression are forming immediately Organized messages More memorable More credible/convincing Tell em' what you're gonna tell em' (The Introduction) Opening Tips Project confidence (even if you have to fake it!) Create a sense of anticipation... Memorize at least the first 30 seconds Attention getter is something that allows audience to interact Reveal topic/audience relevancy How can you motivate your audience to listen? Discuss significance of issue, impact on people's lives, new information or research.. Establish credibility Credibility is a conferred perception of trustworthiness, expertise & goodwill Specifically preview your main points why is this important? Public speaking is unrepeatable, comprehension, retention and credibility are expanded with connectives

What is the Primacy-recency effect and why is it important to public speaking?

Primacy - attention is heightened, first impression are forming immediately Recency - people tend to remember and be most influenced by what they heard last

Characteristics of a good introduction

Project confidence before starting Speaking anxiety will make your audience feel anxious Your listeners will relax when they see that you know what you are doing, that you are obviously in control You're the center of attention Engage the audience's attention immediately Use an attention getter - a few opening sentences to capture the audience's interest and invite them to listen to you: Telling a joke, relating a story, citing an apt quotation, making a startling statement, or asking a provocative question. Be imaginative, and even a little dramatic, but do not go too far. It should relate reasonably to your topic Avoid contrived and gimmicky openings Should be consistent with your personality and the situation Provide a psychological orientation Attention must be transformed into interest Establish a good relationship with your audience Set a tone of collaboration with your audience You recognize that communication is a two-way street involving the give and take of information Establish credibility Establish common ground Refer to the setting or occasion Flatter your audience Refer to the person who introduced you or to some other person present Use humor Motivate your audience to think about your topic The most overlooked in speech making, but the pivotal step of the introduction Provide a logical orientation Logical orientation - show your listeners how you will approach and develop your topic Offer clear, logical connections to aid listening Establish a context for your speech Fit your topic into a familiar framework Place your topic historically Place your topic conceptually Provide new definitions and concepts Orient the audience to your approach to the topic Preview the structure of your speech; offer your listeners a framework on which to attach your main points, improving their understanding and a recall of your ideas Preview - gives your listeners a reassuring roadmap to carry through the speech, one they can refer to if they start to get lost Make your introduction as compact as possible Should take up to 10-15% of your speaking time Rather than progressing mechanically, organize your introduction in a natural narrative style Combine/omit steps

Characteristics of a good conclusion

Provide logical closure Summarize the main ideas Include an explicit (clear) restatement of your thesis and main ideas Reestablish your topic's connection to a larger context Pull together several ideas into a pattern that has been implicit all along Build on the points you established in order to highlight broader implications or ramifications of your topic Show how your ideas tie back to the original larger picture Reinforce new definitions and concepts or familiar definitions and concepts in unfamiliar ways Provide psychological closure Think about what your listeners need and how you want them to feel at the end of the speech Remind the audience how the topic affects their lives Make an appeal Ask them directly to behave in a certain way (through adoption, deterrence, discontinuance, or continuance) or ask them to change their attitudes A statement of your intent can strengthen an appeal In some speeches, the appeal makes the most sense if it is partitioned. You might make one appeal for long-range action and another for immediate action. Telling people what they can do individually and another of what they can do collectively. You may direct different appeals to segments of the audience End your speech with a clincher Clincher: a powerful, memorable closing Answering definitively the provocative question you asked initially or reintroducing your opening joke or story and taking it one step further--or twisting it in the light of your thesis. Consider clinching your speech with a proverb, aphorism, quotation, or piece of poetry Do not use "thank you" as a substitute for a clincher The delivery of your clincher is as important as its content Deliver t while maintaining eye contact with your listeners Remind yourself to project a confident image here so you do not undo the effect of your clincher

Techniques for overcoming speaking anxiety

Put your fear of speaking into perspective Accept some fear as normal Analyze your fear as specifically as possible List your fears -- be as specific as possible and try to identify the actual outcome you find troubling Classify your fears - writing fears down makes them manageable and often points immediately to a solution Seeming incompetent - many fears have roots in inadequate preparation Uncomfortable physical response - tension release & relaxation suggestions Not measuring up to your ideal Fear of failing to meet your own high standards can be positive motivation to do the best you can Dwelling on failure can cause it to happen Visualization and verbalization techniques can be used to create positive self-expectations Reconceptualize the role of the audience Change the audience from "critic" to "recipient" You are not there to perform, but to share Center your thoughts on audience members who appear sincere and responsive Realize that the listeners are on your side; they want to hear a good speech given by a confident speaker "Talk with" your listeners; don't perform for them Build your confidence through thorough preparation and practice Manage the physical effects of fear by releasing tension and relaxing Tension release Relaxation techniques Use positive self-suggestion to combat your anxiety Visualize success Replace negative internal statements with positive ones Cognitive restructuring - used to prove mental commentaries, identify the unrealistic or irrational statements that cause fear, and replace them with more positive, logical, and realistic beliefs Practice systematic desensitization Introducing yourself to a stranger or answering a question in front of classmates, can systematically reduce the apprehensions associated with speaking in public 1. Be prepared 2. Be optimistic - a chance to share 3. Realize the audience wants you to succeed - emotional contagion 4. Set realistic goals - errors make you look human, not foolish Use constructive self-talk - i.e. mantras/cognitive restructuring Realize even extreme anxiety is hardly noticeable Speak conversationally - avoid a "speech tone" - with vs. at Breathe :) Nail your intro - anxiety wanes with time Use visualization techniques Make direct eye contact Exercise Wear clothes that make you feel confident and professional Avoid caffeine and other stimulants Get experience!

Evaluating internet resources for credibility

Questions for evaluating internet sources Who created it? What's its slant? Is it up to date? What company does it keep? How does it compare to reliable print sources?

Informative strategies

Redundancy, avoid information overload, use examples and analogies, etc. Help your listeners grasp your information Avoid information overload Give listeners a framework for organizing the information Move from the simple to the complex Move from the familiar to the unfamiliar Use common techniques of clear explanation Use organizers Signposts point the way you are going and can serve as a reminder of where you've been Enumeration: numbering is an obvious organizational cue Acronyms are words formed from the first letter of a series of words and that can be thrown like a word. It can make a point more memorable. Slogans, catchwords, and memorable phrases gives your listeners a framework for remembering your points "the four D's" Use emphasis cues Emphasize points by using phrases such as "this is very important," "here's what it all comes down to..." You can also emphasize points by vocal or physical cues. Speak more loudly or more softly Pause before a big idea Step forward Let your facial expression forecast the seriousness of a point Use examples liberally When an audience is confused, nothing reassures them like the appearance of a concrete example Move on to a more complex and realistic example Give an example sophisticated, subtle, and complex enough for your audience to apply to situations they may actually encounter Sometimes one example can be extended and elaborate on throughout an entire presentation to provide unity Use analogies: to reinforce points and reach more listeners, draw analogies from many areas such as sports, movies, nature, history, other cultures, and so on. Compare the known to the unknown. Use multiple channels and modes As you describe a process with words, also use your hands, a visual aid, a chart, or a recording. Appeal to as many senses as possible to reinforce the message If a point is very important or difficult, always use at least one other channel besides the spoken word Use repetition and redundancy: People learn and remember what they hear repeatedly Say it over again, in the same words or different words Repeat it, paraphrase it, reinforce it, refer back to it, then mention it again.

Criteria for a good topic

Select a speech topic Select a topic appropriate to the audience and occasions What does the audience expect? What might the audience expect on the day you speak? Empathize with your audience What topic do you think would be worth your time to hear? Don't be the speaker that wastes the time of an audience with a speech that doesn't meet their needs and interests or is beyond their comprehension Select a topic that is both timely and timeless Certain issues have always been and always will be part of human discourse Select a topic that is both meaningful and manageable A manageable topic is one that can be discussed in the time allotted for your speech Focus on just one or two key aspects

Social Judgement Theory

Social Judgment Theory (Sherif & Hovland, 1961) People judge everything according to anchor positions Latitudes of acceptance, non-commitment, and rejection Ego involvement - the more important the issue is to our self-identity the more rigid the latitude of acceptance Psychological reactance A listener's latitude of acceptance can be stretched by a highly credible speaker Appeal to a larger audience can be accomplished through ambiguity. This lack of clarity appeals to many people's latitude of acceptance

Previews, transitions, and connectives

Sometimes called transitions, connectives literally connect ideas and often signals to listeners how two ideas are related. They serve as bridges between points. Connective words can completely change the message. An internal preview is a kind of connective that provides a link by forecasting the points that are yet to be developed An internal summary is a kind of connective that provides a link among parts of the speech by recapping what has been covered so far.

Speech preparation timeline

Speech Planning and Practice Initial decisions and analysis Select topic Narrow topic Clarify purpose Frame thesis statement Analyze topic Analyze audience Research Preliminary research Do background reading Locate resources Main research effort Investigate articles and books Conduct interviews Continuing research Check details Locate a few specific facts/statistics Watch daily paper/newscasts for latest applications Development of speech materials Jot down possible points Develop rough working outline Develop full-sentence outline of points to be covered Add supporting materials and attention factors to outline Prepare introduction, conclusion, and transitions Prepare presentation aids and handouts Prepare Speech notes Make minor revisions to content and style Practice Ongoing talk Developmental practice sessions Feedback practice sessions Refinement practice sessions Make your speech preparation an oral and collaborative process The ideas and intonations of your collaborators influence you Listen to those inner voices that positively guide you

What are some major organizational guidelines for main points, intros and conclusions?

Tell em' what you're gonna tell em' (The Introduction) Opening Tips Project confidence (even if you have to fake it!) Create a sense of anticipation... Memorize at least the first 30 seconds Attention getter is something that allows audience to interact Reveal topic/audience relevancy How can you motivate your audience to listen? Discuss significance of issue, impact on people's lives, new information or research.. Establish credibility Credibility is a conferred perception of trustworthiness, expertise & goodwill Specifically preview your main points why is this important? Public speaking is unrepeatable, comprehension, retention and credibility are expanded with connectives Tell 'em (The body) Limit number of main points to 4 (2-3 desired) Independent and interdependent points Points support a thesis Pick a logical pattern (Topical, Chronological) Balance support Internally cite each of your sources Use diverse source material Tell 'em what you told 'em (The Conclusion) Why could the conclusion be considered the most important part of a speech? Recency - people tend to remember and be most influenced by what they heard last Most overlooked and weakest part of most presentations Show your interpretation and be creative Terminal credibility Conclusion Summarize (interpret) Action step Memorable close (recency)

What does 'tell em' what you're gonna tell em', tell em', and tell em' what was told' mean?

Tell em' what you're gonna tell em' (The Introduction) Opening Tips Project confidence (even if you have to fake it!) Create a sense of anticipation... Memorize at least the first 30 seconds Attention getter is something that allows audience to interact Reveal topic/audience relevancy How can you motivate your audience to listen? Discuss significance of issue, impact on people's lives, new information or research.. Establish credibility Credibility is a conferred perception of trustworthiness, expertise & goodwill Specifically preview your main points why is this important? Public speaking is unrepeatable, comprehension, retention and credibility are expanded with connectives Tell 'em (The body) Limit number of main points to 4 (2-3 desired) Independent and interdependent points Points support a thesis Pick a logical pattern (Topical, Chronological) Balance support Internally cite each of your sources Use diverse source material Tell 'em what you told 'em (The Conclusion) Why could the conclusion be considered the most important part of a speech? Recency - people tend to remember and be most influenced by what they heard last Most overlooked and weakest part of most presentations Show your interpretation and be creative Terminal credibility Conclusion Summarize (interpret) Action step Memorable close (recency)

Aristotle's ethos, pathos, and logos

The Psychology of Persuasion (Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC)) Ethos - Credibility. Expertise, trustworthiness and goodwill "Showing moral character" in Greek and Latin Believability A conferred subjective perception, dynamic in nature The single greatest predictor of persuasive success Ways to create and maintain credibility Identification - talking with them or as one of them. Similarity hypothesis Find common ground: Community via language choices, wardrobe, expressed values and experiences. Showing concern and empathy for the audience (S.A.T.) When we like someone, we adjust our verbal and nonverbal habits to be similar to them. Converge When we don't like someone, we tend to diverge and act the opposite of them. Use narrative that speaks to your history (competence) and character (trustworthiness). Discuss credentials Cite legitimate sources Address multiple perspectives Be confident, yet humble. Balance ethos, pathos, and logos. Logos - Appeal to logic. Argumentation and evidence. Pathos - Appeal to emotions. Fear, pride, joy.

What is propaganda? a. Ideological biased communication b. Institutional in nature c. Involves mass persuasion d. Tends to rely on ethically suspect communication e. All of the above

e. All of the above

Vocal delivery

volume, extemporaneous speaking, vocal variety, etc. Speak to be heard and understood Speak loudly enough to be heard by the entire audience Aim for a louder voice that retains the rhythms and inflections of your normal conversation Speak at a rate your audience can follow Average rate of speaking is around 150 words per minute When giving a speech, plan to speak a little slower than you do in daily conversation Requires extra breath Enunciate words distinctly and naturally: use your tongue, teeth and lips to pronounce every sound Consider making some adjustments if you have an accent Do not start out with the most important material. Use your introduction to let the audience adjust to the pronunciations and patterns of emphasis that differ from their own. Speak ore slowly and distinctly than you do in daily conversation Be very alert to feedback. If you see confused faces, repeat ideas slowly. Unclear vocabulary or mispronunciation of one key word may mystify your listeners. Try several synonyms for important words. Consider using more visual presentation aids and gestures with key phrases Prolong your vowel sounds Also blend the end of one word into the beginning of the next so that each phrase sounds like one long word Use vocal variety Vocal variety - change and movement of the voice are more interesting than the static or predictable hypnotic voice Changes in pace, and emphasis show your audience what is significant and can signal humor, seriousness, irony, and a range of emotions Vary your pitch (varied inflection) Implies a high energy level and self-confidence and generally aids your credibility. Pitch can underscore the meaning of a word or phrase or imply its opposite. Vary your rate of speaking: can be effective in creating interest by establishing moods or adding emphasis Vary your volume: Speak loudly enough so that you can drop your voice for effect and still be audible to the listeners in the far corners. At the same time, you should hold some volume or loudness in reserve so that you can raise your voice for emphasis Use standard acceptable pronunciation Identify words that you habitually mispronounce: "GoverNment instead of goverment" Check preferred pronunciations of unfamiliar words Eliminate distracting vocal characteristics Difficult to identify and even more difficult to change Familiar to you and your friends, but are blatant to a new audience Use a video or audio recordings and feedback from knowledgeable friends to get some objective perspective on your performance Resolve to correct problems gradually and permanently by modifying your everyday speaking habits Identify problems of voice quality Harshness, hoarseness, or stridency Caused by constriction of the throat or by tension in or damage to the vocal folds Give an impression of anger or gruffness Breathiness, thinness or weakness Caused by having an inadequate air stream, by releasing excessive air, or by speaking in an unnaturally high falsetto Lacks authority and power Nasality and denasality Incorrect flow of air through the nasal passages creates these problems. Produce whiny or stuffed-up qualities Identify problems of articulation Articulation - the way you produce consonant sounds or blends of consonants Substitutions (dese for these) Distortions: slushing, hissing, or whistling s or the lazy l or r Additions (athalete) Omissions (doin) Works against the credibility you want to project: make you sound unintelligent or sloppy Identify vocalized pauses and other irrelevant sounds and phrases (uh, um) Pause between sentences or thoughts when you speak Avoid vocalized pauses - filling pauses with distracting and meaningless sounds and phrases Identify repetitious patterns of inflection Use a systematic self-improvement program or get professional help Self-improvement Devise a simple plan of action Breathing exercises and practice projection Tongue twisters Map out a program of behavior modification If you are troubled by distracting vocal characteristics, determine their origin and make every effort to correct them either on your own or with the assistance of professionals: speech therapists, voice coaches, public speaking teachers & consultants

Credibility statement

The credibility statement establishes your qualifications as a speaker You should come up with reasons why you are someone to listen to on this topic. Why do you have special knowledge or understanding of this topic? What can the audience learn from you that they couldn't learn from someone else? Credibility statements can refer to: Your extensive research on a topic Your life-long interest in an issue Your personal experience with a thing Your desire to better the lives of your listeners by sifting through the topic and providing the crucial information.

Why would you want to analyze your audience?

To be more persuasive To reduce anxiety To be relevant To avoid offending Audience relevancy Appropriateness - sophistication, language Crucial to persuasion - mental dialog To create identification

Carl Hovland (1912-1961)

Yale Psychologist Worked with the US Army during World War II Studied attitude change and persuasion Studied effects of Capra's Why We Fight - Join the Allies Developed Social Judgment Theory

Why would a speaker want to take the time to analyze their audience?

a. To be more persuasive b. To reduce anxiety c. To be relevant d. To avoid offending e. All of the above

Psychological reactance

an emotional reaction in direct contradiction to rules or regulations that threaten or eliminate specific behavioral freedoms. It can occur when someone is heavily pressured to accept a certain view or attitude. Reactance can cause the person to adopt or strengthen a view or attitude that is contrary to what was intended and also increases resistance to persuasion.