Sport

Sport, Activism and Power

Athletes as activists >Connecting sport to dominant power structures >LeBron James >Missouri Tigers football team Some athletes take a stand against something Eg. LeBron James takes a stand on social issues. He disrupts the thing that other athletes don't want to speak about politics. He wants to be an activist and a marketable superstar. Atheltes can be involved in social change

Intersectionality

Definition: An understanding of human beings as shaped by the interaction of a number of different identities and relationships (race, social class, gender, sexuality, age, disability etc.) Inequality is never the result of a single, distinct factor at one time - but is always the outcome of multiple power relations and experiences of identity.

Symbolic interactionism

George Herbert Mead Key Questions: >How do individuals experience sport? >How do sports shape ideas about who we are (i.e. identities)? Key Assumptions: Symbols + Interactions Society/Culture produces/reflects Identities >A sense of who we are and how we are connected Understand the social world from the inside >"From the bottom up" >Through the perspective of the people. >Race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexuality, ability etc. Emphasizes the differences between us. Based on interactions and relationships we have with each other Identities are formed through our relationships/interactions with others How we give meaning to our interactions/activities and how these can be different/change over time Understanding society from the perspective of the people Microsociological: attempting to understand the real life behaviours of people in society. Overemphasizes on sweeping structural processes at the expense of understanding how people understand the world around them and interact About people: We need to focus on people and the relationship between people Recognized that culture in society is socially constructed (changes over time based on the relationships we have with each other) Identities can change based on experience Sport reflect and reinforces differences that are found in broader society Both through our participation and consumer activities related to sport and physical activity Processes of Symbolic interactionism: 1. Socialization: as we get involved in physical activities, we learn how they work, how to participate, rules, codes, languages, how to learn how to use them >Eg. Yoga studio and aerobics studio. >It is the process through which people are both socialized into sport (the active learning sport's rules, codes, values, and norms), and socialized through sports (the lessons that are learned from sport that have some application to the wider society). >socialization is a lifelong process 2. Subcultures: Can build up a mini-culture in those activities, special norms, identities etc. >It is the process through which subcultural groups from their own unique language, belief system, normative structures, and general inner-group identity. Limitations: 1. Identities can overlap in complex ways; people can claim multiple identities at once: Points out to things but life is messier than that 2. Doesn't address how social interactions are influenced by POWER RELATIONS: Doesn't identify hierarchy that forms between subcultures and identities Mead claimed that macro-sociological theory underestimates the role of human thought and volitional action. Particularly, they did not account for the symbolic nature of human thought and the ability of humans to interpret and give meaning to the world around them through language. They also did not justice to the social context or the role of social interaction in determining human behaviour. At the heart of this theory is the manner in which humans develop a sense of self which is a dynamic element (not static). We continually develop a sense of self over time - its an ongoing process Insights and the development of symbolic interactionist perspectives have led to a collection of methods for understanding the meaning that people bring to their own lives and actions, the lives and actions of others around them, and the complex interactions between people's everyday lives and the wider social structure.

Concussions and the sport ethic

How do concussions complicate how we understand the sport ethic? >"Good" Pain and "Bad" Pain >Pain you don't feel and injuries you can't see >Mental Health - Emphasis on mental health changed the way we think of sport ethics Brain injuries and masculinity >Football: What's going on here? >Rowan Stringer/Rowan's Law

Jackie Robinson and the movie 42

Jackie robinson is credited for breaking colour barrier in baseball 42 rests on the classic Hollywood formula: Heroic individual sees obstacle. Obstacle is overcome. The End. Telling a story of individual rather collective achievements Fallacy that racism = in the past What about systemic and institutional racism? What's important is how the story gets told (what details brought forward and which left out ) Work in how we tell stories about historical events Problem: focuses so much on an individual but neglects everything around it. Doesn't talk about social movement and the need for the social movement.

Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism is the defining political-economic paradigm of our time. Neoliberalism is... >An economic philosophy under capitalism >A political project >A guide for organizing social relationships A cultural perspective Neoliberalism is a way of thinking about the organization of society (i.e. neoliberal ideology) that is specific to our current historical moment. Political economists/scientists are obsessed with neoliberalism (one of the most debated discussions in the academy) It is a set of ideas and practices that define the organization of our society and the way we live Manifested in multiple ways: 1. Economic philosophy-the way we understand capitalism, and how we should sell and make things, and how we should consume products. It's a way of describing of how money should change hands between people. 2. Political project- it shapes our understanding about government, size of government, what government is able to do and the power of government. It's a guide for organizing our social relationships-influences our identity, and how we interact with each other, how we think about the world around us (personal level) 3. A cultural perspective - affects culture, language, how we speak about the world we live in, how we make and consume art and popular culture, how we participate in and consume sport. Comes down to our Basic and foundational organization of society It's Specific to our current historical moment Its about the times were currently in right now Neoliberalism is a web of ideas/beliefs that identifies a combination of free markets, political deregulation and privatization, individual self-interest and inequality as the foundation for progress. KEY POINTS: >Focus on individual responsibility: each responsible on our very own well being, don't expect help from people around us, if something goes wrong, you have to pull yourself up. Its up to you to change your life. >Emphasis on competition/rewards: meritocracy - competitive incidents that rewards those who do better than others; rewarded based on performance >Small governments; privatization/pro-corporate culture: governments need to be small, rate of tax should be small as well (the key facets of neoliberal philosophy). Privatize almost everything. Pro-corporate culture. Corporations could have better service than other entities. Private companies are better than others. >Belief that capitalism drives all forms of progress: World will become a better place if free market does its thing. This is because of the outputs of the free market economy. >Acceptance of inequality as a necessary product of this system; gaps in wealth are inevitable/beneficial: Gaps in wealth are beneficial in society. Bound to be in halves, which is beneficial, giving us an incentive to work hard and be a better part of society. (no need to define neoliberalism on the exam) Neoliberalism critiques the dominant philosophy from a critical perspective. BOTTOM LINE: neoliberalism places the interests of private business, making money, and the free market above all else (IMP) A critical theory approach to political economy would critique and seek to denaturalize the dominant logics of neoliberalism. The Neoliberal philosophy is designed to mostly benefit political and economic elites, and doesn't produce conditions that benefit the general population (especially marginalized people) to the same extent. Sport is used as a way to make money - commercialization- and sport sociologists want to think through the imbalances in sports. Sport Mega Events: Sport sociologists are concerned with how these sport mega events are run and the money put into it. >costs, who pays for them, what do we have to give up, who benefits the most. Eg. World Cup/ Olympics in Brazil >Zirin - a "Neoliberal Trojan Horse" >Favelas - a Brazilian low-income settlement of shacks/housing near a major urban centre; a shantytown. > How events affect people in the place they're hosted >Sport was used in this context to allow those projects to go forward (big development projects) >Low income settlements; thousands of people live in these settlements. World cup meant a lot of business for people, but led to evacuation of people out of their homes, giving them compensation money. Those who tried to resist, were pepper sprayed by police, displaced, made problem. World cup in Qatar (2022): >Massive construction and infrastructure projects >Expansion of consumer markets in the Middle East (Eg. coca cola, adidas, sony) >Neoliberalism trojan house (used to facilitate international trade) But what about... Working Conditions? Worker Deaths? Super Bowl 50 in California: San Fransisco's homeless being herded like cattle ahead of the big game. What do we need to know about neoliberalism in KNPE 167? A economic, political and cultural philosophy about how to organize our society. Sport sociologists oppose this philosophy because of concern over... >The hyper-commercialization of sport >How sport is used to further agendas/projects that prioritize making money over other values >Privatization: Transfer of public money into private hands >Acceptance of inequality as inevitable and beneficial

Gender and sexuality

Understandings of sexuality are connected to gender norms >Dominant ideas around masculinity and femininity relate to heterosexuality >Ideas about gender intertwine with sexuality (Work together in our understanding of somebody's identity) Common sense understandings of gender/sexuality >Male body = masculine person = attracted to women >Female body = feminine person = attracted to men Homophobia and Discrimination

Imagined Communities

1983 book Imagined Communities explored the origins of "nationalism" A sense of belonging and identification shared by citizens of a geographical territory or homeland (i.e. Canada). Nations are "imagined" because they are based upon a strong (but abstract) sense of community between distant strangers. Not because they are "fake" or "not real" Nations are based on perceived commonalities between people who do not know each other/will never know each other. Some excluded from canadian narratives Strong ideas of who belongs and who is outsider Social construction of national identity How ideas of race, class, sexuality play a role here less Canadians play hockey cuz of costs and changing demographics, the prominence of hockey as our national sport has not changed imagined communities- tried to make sense of origins of nationalism and national identity Nationalism - sense of belonging shared by citizens of a political/geographic place. Talking about characteristics group of people have in common - tied to a shared history/culture/ and geographic space In canada, we think about being canada as thinking back to a history that we all shared (a shared natural envrionment, culture, climate)... these are thought to shape our language and personality traits Its part of national identity that canadians are so police for Eg. It defines people and a nation, making them distinct from other nations Shared identity- shared sense of belonging This sense of community is "imagined" cuz they're abstract (although they're strong) - shared about people who are dispersed (distant strangers) We never interact with them on a daily basis but we know in our hearts that we have something in common with them (whether we live) Its not so much a community based on everyday interaction - cant do that, too much space- but that these communities are sustained by ideas, myths and stories(rather than intereacting with people on a daily basis) Imagined doesn't mean imaginary - not fake or not real. Idea bout the stories we tell ourselves of what it means to be a part of a nation. Sport is a big part of this - the world cup, national Olympics brings people together around a common goal. When canada plays in olympics, we are unified there. These competitions distinguish us from other countries from other nations (make ourself superior) Have a bond with these players - imagined sense of belonging with these athletes- we identify with them cuz they're meant to be in our community Sport constructs this imaginary community Stories and ideas as opposed to actual interactions

Racism

Any discussion about race necessitates that we talk about racisms (i.e. violence, power, inequality, oppression) Racism will disappear we stop talking about race We have a racially organized society maintaining the racist hierarchies. We need to understand the racist structures and institutions and how those things produce inequalities and disparities.

Commercialization & Lifestyle Sports

Commercialization is the process whereby institutions or phenomena are structured primarily for the purposes of generating profit. Range of specialized equipment and technologies on sale, as well as an ever-expanding array of commodities that includes clothing, videos and magazines. Marketing, competitions and sponsorships Examples: Inclusion of snowboarding in 1998 Nagano Olympics and the X Games

Deviance

Deviance = contested term in sport sociology - how a person or culture might deviate from the norm in society It might deviate from what is seen as right or acceptable in society An assumption that a behaviour or way of life needs to be controlled or corrected in some way, when you hear the word deviance That they're doing something wrong and need to be corrected Deviant behaviour - when talking about things like crime, cheating, breaking rules, etc. deviating from the prescribed norm in society A valued judgement when u imply that someone is deviant - moral undertones to the term deviance. - judging someone, saying that they should live their lives in a different way No identity or behaviour is deviant or wrong Changing rules/norms/values where deviance is seen as a social construction Some people celebrate deviance Theres a line where u go too far, and that when u need to control urself Not set and stone Focus on how these norms come to be and how they change Othering/otherness - making judgements on whats considered normal and whats abnormal or corrupt These ideas are connected to power and social relations Deviance and otherness is related to the fact that dominant groups can control others Makes us question what is normal or abnormal All related to power and social control, that's how deviance works as a social process Think about social construction of disabled bodies as deviant bodies - its not that disabled bodies are deviant but there are a set of norms that make us think that they r different and inferior We want to question those norms Long time ago the idea of deviant disabled ppl was more prominent than it is today - people were hidden from society, and thought they were unclean or un-holy We made progress, we don't think that way today, but the legacy of that history is still embedded in our system of meaning

Sport and the Future

Four thematic areas: 1. Governance 2. Globalization 3. Technology 4. Environment Eleven Predications about the future of sport and sport's relationship to social change >focusing on 1, 3, and 6.

Lifestyle sports: Risk and Masculinity

Lifestyle sports are selling risk and idealized masculinity. Sport acts as proving ground for masculinity - "gendered risk regime" Failing to perform risk-seeking standards raises doubts about manhood; heteronormativity in the waves and on cliffs Example: Increasing the size of the half-pipe walls for viewership Risk conceptualized in neoliberal climate where injuries are personal problems, not structural.

Gender inequities in Sport - structural and cultural

>Differences of opportunity, resources and legitimacy >Naturalize notions of lower status when compared to men both within and beyond sport Gender is not something that exists in isolation. An "intersectional" feminism helps us to think about gender in a more complex way. The historical fear that sport would masculinize certain groups of women remains with us today. Gender and sexism: includes homophobia and racism >Serena William is an example of how sexism and racism and gender are intertwined When you are privileged, you have to check your own privilege Stripping of femininity is significant to women >Figure skating was the epidemic of masculinity, Although now people think it is a girls sport Reasons for increased participation since the mid-1960s >More teams, more leagues and opportunities at all levels >the feminist movement and rights legislation >Health and fitness movement >Increased media coverage of women in sports

Historical perspective of concussions

Concussion "crisis" or "epidemic" > Why are there more concussions now than there used to be? >Has to do with better science / cultural awareness/ openness - not simple of saying theres qualitatively more concussions now than before 1994 - the year of concussion - sport illustrated called it that >Cultural issues - language of sport that was powerful at the time. >Eg. Just got my bell rung when getting hit in the head, seeing stars, etc. >Social construction of pain and injury - memory loss, do u call it a concussion or u call it " just seeing stars" Early 20th C. - Dementia Pugilistica (AKA Punch Drunk Boxer Syndrome) >scientists know that boxers showcase consistent symptoms dealing with the brain as they got older (slurred speech, memory loss, confusion) >Scientists wrote about this and were concerned about what boxing did to brains - jack johnson era Some scientists started to make links to other sports but it wasn't a widespread thing at the time Mid 20th Century research - sport and head/neck injuries >Grey area of how this science gets done Early 1990s - Concussions in high profile men's sport

Critical Theory: Race

Critical Race Theory: Make sense of, deconstruct, and challenge racial inequality in society Not interested in seeking out and getting rid of racism but interested in how racism is in society- How our society privilege certain races over others. Based on systems of white privilege = white people have privileges that radicalized ppl don't Traced back to civil right movements. Racism is engrained in the fabric of society >Historically situated AND and ongoing Challenges institutional racism >Power structures based on white privilege History: >Appears in US law schools ~1980s >Activist roots >Focus on institutional/structural racism Critical race studies emerged in attempt to point out the importance of role race relations and racism have played in shaping sporting traditions in history and how they continue to shape traditions today. Critical race theorists are interested in 3 things: The manner in which sport and physical movement play important roles in the development of ethnic cultural beliefs and heritage, the manner in which certain ethnic traditions in Canada have been privileged at the expense of others, the manner in which ideas about 'race' have been naturalized or reinforced through sport.

Jack Johnson Story

Jack johnson is a boxer. First African american heavy weight champion. Jim Jeffrey didn't fight with jack cuz he thought he was too good Another guy took Jim's title called Tommy Burns, jack kept trying to fight him and tommy lost The great white hope= needed to find a fighter to restore the title to the white hands. Looking for anybody white to take the title back Jim Jeffrey comes out of retirement and fight Jack Johnson. Fight of century takes place in Nevada. Johnson destroys jim jeffery. Caused a stir. This tory tells us the story construction of race Black boxers weren't allowed to fight for heavy weight champion cuz people thought black men were not civilized (primitive) it was a cultural idea that black bodies were good for labour but they didn't possess the endurance and strength to participate in sport as a white athlete. Jack Johnson destroyed all white fighters. Now u cant use that logic anymore that black men cant fight white men. Whites still wanted a way to keep black society down. People with positions of power, politicians, journalists started talking differently about blacks and their bodies and Jack. They said how primitive/uncivilized nature that they were closer to nature than white, give them the natural superiority. Natural athletes cuz closer to nature. The Social Construction of Race An Intersectional Moment? Social Class? Gender? Sexuality? Intersectionality = jack Johnson's story is about race, and social class. Flaunted his wealth to white people. Whites wanted to get rid of jack cuz he was rich. Gender= being heavy weight champion = manliest of men = wasn't seen right for a black man to hold that title. Sexuality = jack Johnson broke a lot of taboos, he slept and went out with white women. Different identities tangled up to understand the story of jack Johnson.

Sex segregation in sport

Separate Events for Men and Women >Sport as providing "evidence" of strict divisions between women and men >Biological determinism - attributing too much weight to physical differences between genders Sport as a site for reaffirming beliefs about differences between women/men & femininity/masculinity >Social Constructionism asks: but what about history, culture and power? Context is everything.

Social Critique:

The underlying goal of sociology should not be simply to understand social phenomena but to improve society.

Whiteness

Whiteness or "being white" is also a product of cultural processes of racialization Whiteness as the norm to which all else is compared >Historical ideas of whiteness as dominant, normal and superior >Comes with power, privilege and control Whitestream Sport: are Sports that have been primarily shaped by individuals of white European Heritage in ways that privilege their traditions, practices, meanings and sport structures.

Sport Typing

"Masculine" sports and "feminine" sports Masculine/manly sports (and the values they promote) tend to be most valorized in our culture Gender "deviance" and sexuality

Political Economy

An analytical approach under the umbrella of Critical Theory/Cultural Studies Political Economy refers to questions generated from the interactions of economic, political and cultural affairs. >Economic aspects of society are intertwined with political and cultural aspects of society > Political Economy effects social issues and vice versa. >double edge sword Using this approach helps us identify powerful economic actors and institutional elites who make decisions and act in ways that advance their own interests. Not just about the "elites" - but also concerned with those who are exploited or alienated by the current economic system "Conflict Theory" Karl Marx (1818 - 1883) Sport is a part of Capitalism. Foundation of capitalism are production, distribution, and consumption. Goal is to make people aware of their exploitation and lack of economic power Social Stratification Giddens/Bourdieu (p. 79) - "rather than viewing class position solely through the ownership of property, capital, or certain commodities, they conceptualize power as the ability to access and employ various capacities." >Economic, social and cultural "capital" It is about Social connections, networks, relationships, what they knew about the world, how they spoke, what activities they engage in, not just money. Social Class - categories of people who share an economic position in society based on a combination of their income/wealth, education, occupation, and social connections. When we think about social class, its not about the amount of money and stuff you own. Its more complex. Intangible attributes that contribute to how social class is understood (Eg. Education, where u went to school, where u live, how long u went to school, who is in your social network,etc.) all of those combine and determine the social class your in. When you think about sports, think about the decisions that should be made. Decisions made by people with power. Key question : who stands to benefit from this decision (financially). Institution elites can be people who own media companies, marketing companies, highest level of administration. Elite class are the ones who make decisions and benefit from the decision. Everybody is effected by the decisions the elites make. Much more people exploited from the economy than those who benefit. Everything gets traced back to Karl Marx and his conflict theory. Marx is concerned with wealth/economic inequalities. Everything boils down to class and economy. Goal of political economy = 1. Make people aware of the fact that they're being exploited. 2. Some are benefited more than others. 3. To draw attention to power imbalance. Its not just about making changes to institutions, but it's thinking about the ideas that are the centre of all of this, ideas that make us think inequality is okay. These symbols that make us think that this is the way society is supposed to be. We can use theories of political economy to understand these effects and advocate for more equitable economic relationships. Social class is combined with others (race, gender, disability) - intersectionality to inclusiveness in sport participation. > Economic, social, cultural barriers are permanent for people with disabilities.

Racial project: culture

Canada as an example Euro-Canadian sports can "civilize" otherwise "primitive" or "uncivilized" cultural practices (e.g. potlatch, sun dance ceremony) Residential schools: training the body to serve economic & military interests Integrating residential school students into public education Euro-canadians racialized sun ceremonies that aboriginals did as primitive and tried to change them with euro-canadian sports and games, which became a regular feature on many reserves. >They were being mandated on reserves > Canadians thought that Aboriginals should be ashamed of these primitive practices and made them practice them in private or not at all >Sport was used to teach aboriginal students to train their bodies. > Sport Is used to introduce an affinity between 1 person and the state >Aboriginal were taught to follow orders and how to respect authorities and how to regulate bodies through prescribed movement through sports > Aboriginal students were made to perform this in front of white people. >Students were integrated into public school. >Thought competitive sport, audience was engaging in racial spectacle of sport. They were meant to feel good that integration would be ok. >Sport was an Eg. Of aboriginal children having become good productive member of canadian society (Structural Functionalism). >Aboriginal practices were radicalized and Euro-Canadians were assimilating them to learn norms.

Hypermasculinity

Celebrating "Hyper-Masculinity": >Physical strength, power, and size >Over flexibility, balance and slenderness Determination, fearlessness and intimidation >Over restraint, vulnerability and compassion >The celebration of "acceptable" forms of violence >Heterosexuality Sport is a social place where men are learn/rewarded for performing traditional/violent forms of masculinity > Hypermasculinity is masculinity at its extreme - code or value system that values physical strength power and size over other things like balance >Emphasizes determination, fearlessness and intimidation >There are carefully scripted codes when men are allowed to show emotions/vulnerability (You should remain emotionless/No compassion) CONSEQUENCES? >Bullying, (on/off-field) violence, sexual violence (not an isolated incident - code of masculinity that's taken to an extreme level connected to these ideas) >Physical/mental health, pain/injury (next week) >Celebrates violence (sexual/physical) >Not back down in the face of Difficulties (like concussions) >Those are things that give men respect >Heterosexuality is a part of this as well - men have to prove their masculinity Biological determinism > Biological Determinism Physical aggression as "natural" for men (reproduces gender binary) >Reproducing the gender binary >TESTOSTERONE! (Testosterone Across genders, more testosterone more violence- biological research doesn't back that up) >Men being inherently evil / slaves to biological makeup but cultural problem that we all participate in - we validate masculine performances over others just by watching these sport shows etc. >Context is Everything >also explanations that demonize men/masculinity

A Reason to be Cautious

Corporate Marketing Campaigns and "Social Change" >Coca Cola and Women's Soccer >Nike Black History Month Sneakers How progressive can these marketing techniques be Are they actually pushing towards cultural change or is it just marketing and Neoliberalism Is it just trying to market to reach more people?? Doesn't get at core issues of inequality "Corporate social responsibilities" Who r these working in the interest for??

What is Race

A population of people who are believed to be naturally or biologically distinct from other populations >Historically, to understand racial disparities, were inclined to think about diff. in skin colour as biological determinants >Each of us have a unique biology which will determine our place in society >Natural differences= race A classification system that divides all human beings into distinct categories Believed to share genetically based physical traits passed from one generation to the next Race is a political category; not a biological one Race invented to naturalize the social order (i.e. social hierarchies & inequalities exist because of biological differences across human beings) History reveals the politics of race e.g. Indian status in Canada critical race theorists reject this idea that race have any biology >They adopt a social constructionist way of thinking about race Race is political not biological = scientific part of race ignored racism >When u ignore social context that give rise to races (biology does), it makes social order of things as through its natural. >Makes society look like nothing happened (residential schools, land taken away, segregation) >Social constructionist understanding is to look to history. Not science Charles Darwin thinking gives rise to racial sciences like phrenology (measures intelligence by measuring skull shapes) and eugenics ( practice of improving genetic quality, to reproduce desired traits and weed out other genetic traits) Phrenology= this type racial science which is called upon by slave owners to justify the enslavement of black people. >On the basis that These were people who's brains were underdeveloped. That this represented a type of human that was underdeveloped on the scale of evolution (primitive form of humanity) justifying racial violence "Race" is socially constructed and emerges out of racial/racist and colonial histories: >Race is a political category, not a biological one >Human Genome Project >But that doesn't mean that race isn't "real" A sport in which a particular race is OVER-represented? A sport in which a particular race is UNDER-represented? Reasons why there is a vast underrepresentation in sport: Historically, segregation or barriers to accessing facilities, resources and social connections were due to racism.

"Our Game" What does it mean and who does it include?

Adams (2006): "In the drive to construct a cohesive representation of the imagined community, not all stories are equal..." "True," "Real" or "Ordinary" Canadians Mythologies of sport influence ideas about citizenship, belonging and difference Key Questions: What does hockey teach us about national identity and who can call themselves "real" Canadians? Where does hockey locate the source of Canadian identity? Relationship between hockey and canadian identity Myths and stories don't all exist on our imaginary unequal terms - not as crucial to our understanding of Canadians Hierarchies - we learn in this country - that some people are more naturally part of our imaginary communities and others not so much How long have you lived here, where did u grow up - not just that type of stuff We are generating ideas about race and gender and social class >the assumptions we make about particular people and their status in the nation Sport like hockey is thought to be representative of who we are as Canadians While other sports like soccer, lacross, curling - they are elevated to this sacred status of hockey. Seen as being less meaningful to our national sense of identity What sports counts as most Canadians - not just bening, it tells us about who's different, who belonging. Lots of different people play hockey, as a country we want every canadian wants to win. When the mens national team losses - that when we have a crisis in our sense of nationality Not just elite mens teams, they're assumed to be heterosexual and white Some of the hierarchies in which national identity is constructed. powerful men who enjoyed hockey and wanted to institutionalize hockey as a canadian thing But other men wanted it to be lacross or cricket, so power struggle Hockey did emerge as a sport associated with canada These were people who made space and resources and asked money to make hockey as a high status in canada The myths of hockey and canadian identity start from the cold. Wilderness and winter.

Racialization

Basically means that race is not biological or a static element, it is rather a socially constructed factor that is constantly changing. Society evolves, were aren't going any closer to finding truth of what race really is. Instead we are constantly constructing new ways of what a race is and construction of these truths have political and economic effects Racial spectacle = most of us wont understand racial differences from scientific textbooks. But these ideas about racist differences are seen in popular culture, where sport is one element in culture. >Cultural space where racisms are produced and lived and imagined and challenged. Sport (i.e. rules, players, fans, coaches, media, governing bodies) as both: racialized racializing >Sport helps to make race make sense and sport then works to reshape race >All racial ideas out of sport bubble permeate the sport circle to structure the way those sports look like and organized. >meanings about race is being shaped in sports. They're being worked with in a way that they extend beyond sports. Racialization: >"Race" is the result of ongoing cultural processes >Changes over time depending on context >Results from interactions with each other- a process

Social Class and Sport Participation

Beamish (1990) conducted a survey of National Team athletes and found that socioeconomic status (SES) is the major factor in determining which Canadians become elite-level athletes. >About 70% of the parents of National Team athletes came from the highest occupational and income categories. >New research from the Centre for Sports Policy Studies (U of T) indicates that his trend persists despite government and corporate funding programs for elite athletes. You need MONEY Pay for registration Pay for physiotherapy Pay for coach Pay for tournaments (travel, hotels, etc.) Need free time Need supplements, protein shakes, etc. Need a long history to compete at the elite level (need years to access those things) High Socioeconomic status is required to play sports because lowest SES are underrepresented. Huge disparity at which who gets to rise to the top. Major SES barriers to who gets to make it to this level. Reality check: Upper Class (3 to 5% of Canadians) Middle Class (40 to 50% of Canadians) >upper-middle and lower-middle Working Class (approx. 33% of Canadians) >Work paycheck to paycheck Lower Class (15-20% of Canadians) >Rely on social assistance programs >The "Working Poor" or un/underemployed >Most often children, racial/ethnic minorities and new immigrants Idea that everybody is in middle class and society is broken up into social classes. Context is everything - each sport has a different context in how social class choses who participates. In spite of class ideologies that construct sport as a meritocracy and a vehicle for social mobility, sports are expensive and exclusive activities. Opportunities to participate in sport (especially at elite levels) are tied to social class and economic resources. Exclusive / inclusive sports- some seem exclusive for you but not for others (same with inclusive). Inequality is a major factor that excludes many young Canadians from participating in sport and rising within the sport pyramid. It was shown that competitors were drawn heavily from families where parents held professional and high level white-collar positions, while those whose parents were involved in blue-collar and primary industrial occupations were significantly under-represented. For lower SES Canadians, school sporting and community recreation programs are often the only physical activity opportunities in which they can take part in. The average Canadians spend $2000 on sport. Hockey, Canada's national winter sport, is growing in popularity among girls and is the most high profile instance of the impact of increased costs, class position, and rates of participation.

Reasons for optimism and GENDER MARKING

Changes to the language of sport >Gender marking: men's and women's sport >Washington professional football team Working to change sport's core values >You Can Play Project >Soccer Anti-Racism Campaigns >UBC Women's Hockey Team Activists giving us reasons to be hopeful Language we use in sport cultures changed over time Gender marking - whether a sport is a mens sport or woman's sport There was "sport" and "womens sport" Feminists were concerned that that type of language emphasizes that men's competitions were the real competitions but female competitions are secondary Gender marking is a thing of the past now Journalists stop using the Washington professional football - they'll just say Washington to show solidarity or dissatisfaction with that name - not going against activists Athletes themselves send messages about culture of sports and changes

Disability and accessibility

Concerned w idea about disability and how it contributes to accessibility accessibility definition: A truly accessible environment is one where all people can freely express their independence, and where any impediment to integration is removed. 3 pillars of accessibility: - Equity: Same experience or level of service, regardless of functional capacity -Dignity: Individual's status and respect maintained -Functionality: Service/Facility meets the needs of all constituent groups.

Medical perspectives

Concussion: an immediate alteration of consciousness or cognitive function resulting from mechanical force or brain trauma. >People r trying to shift the idea of concussion "Concussion" vs (Repetitive) Traumatic Brain Injury Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy : A degenerative disease of the brain caused by repetitive brain trauma >Connection to mental health, depression, suicide >Neuroscientists - its not the big hits that we need to be concerned about but any traumatic brain injury that would cause your head to move or ur brain to move inside your skull >The brain moving could cuz brain trauma - could be caused by small hits >little hits that might not knock you out but they happen enough over tine to affect your brain when u get older - this is a linguistic change that doctors are trying to portray >proteins accumulation in brain - this could affect cognitive functions over time >Concussion symptoms opened up space about convos about mental health suicide and depression >Reason for this = tragic deaths of current active and retired athletes - died in relation to brain injury or committed suicide

Critical Theory: Social Class

Conflict Theory / Marxist Theory: Society is primarily shaped by economic forces: Marxist claimed that economic forms shaped social systems and in turn, people's lives within those systems. (Money = power scenario) The wealthy exploit the poor/working class: Profit off misfortune of poor and middle class people. Powerful can manipulate poor to accept poor economic conditions - The wealthy convince us not to resist this class inequality. Sport was used as an active diversion to keep workers in line so that they would not challenge the authority of bosses and politicians who supported the interests of bosses in turn. Marx claimed that workers do not in fact realize their full potential because their labour is alienated behaviour; labour that ultimately benefits those who profit from it. Wealth and power divided along class lines - -There is a growing divergence between the people at the bottom of the economic structure and the 1% at the top, with the middle layer shrinking in size. -The richest group of Canadians has increased their share of total national income while middle and low class people have lost some of theirs. -The top 1% Canadians have incomes that are 8x larger than all Canadians. Working class people want to overthrow the wealthy, creating a revolution- that is why it is called conflict theory. History: Human history & social progress are the product of class conflict "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles" It is a theory that understood the emerging capitalist world. It also helped create social conditions that would be more egalitarian and democratic Marx first recognized that economic conditioned formed the base of social life. He then expanded his observations regarding the basic economic conditions of social life into a more general theory regarding the nature of social, cultural, and individual life. Lastly, his observations regarding the important role social conflict played in social and cultural life and the history of societies. Marx's central insight is that capitalism, produces 2 separate classes: capitalists who realize the profits and surpluses from the system, and workers who do not.

Context of hyper-masculinity (history)

Context is everything - if masculinity/manliness/violence is attributed to male biology then it would be the same for everybody Masculinity is differenr in different contexts and different places and different historical periods Jackson Hanes - wealthy figure skating champion; we think of figure skating as a non manly sport (as a gay sport) and that has been held true for history In old times figure skating was exclusively a male sport back then Women weren't allowed upper class men participated in it cuz Tied to social class they wanted to differentiate themselves from poor and looked down on sports that were violent/crude/corrupt And looked down at muscular bodies cuz it defines labourers and working class person that time U could learn the gentlemen art through figure skater - those values were valued at the time for upper class people If u wanted to be in elite class you needed to be graceful, fluidity in addition to strength and balance (well rounded image of masculinity) not violent or aggressive Same with cheerleading with men Bare knuckle boxing - wont rise social ladder if u participate in that >Jack Johnsons era- violence and aggression were celebrated cuz ppl payed money for people to beat each other up History has evolved to where buff bodies are favoured Biological determinants around testosterone doesn't explain why transgender people can participate in violent sports Look at historical variation and context then those biological arguments breakdown

Critical theory and cultural studies

Cultural studies corrects the gaps In the 2 theories previously mentioned. Key Questions: How do sports (re)produce cultural ideologies and social inequalities? Key Assumptions: Society is composed of dominant groups (with power) and marginalized groups (without it). Cultural products and activities (e.g., sports) help create and maintain the divisions between these groups Sport and society as social constructions Account for diversity, complexities and contradictions: The ambivalence of sport cultures: IT'S COMPLICATED! Critical theory and cultural studies are the same in sports, however they are not in sociology It corrects the idea that theres a dominant group with power and marginal groups that lack that power. From a cultural studies perspective, you'd say that sport maintains divisions between dominant groups and marginal groups,creating divisions and hierarchies between people. Sport produces stereotypes that we internalize through sporting practices and apply to other areas of life/society. Strength of cultural studies emphasizes that ideas, beliefs, structures could change over time. It recognizes the messiness of social life.

Medical models for defining disability

Defines disability as any lack of ability resulting from an impairment to perform an activity within the range considered normal An individual's "problem" that needs to be "fixed" Limitations: 1. Biological Determinism 2. Responsibility lies primarily with the individual to change/improve their situation 3. Does not sufficiently address societal power dynamics 4. Sport: "empowerment" through hyper-masculinity and the sport ethic. The dominant way and Common sense way of thinking Medicale diagnoses Normal - raises red flags for u - social constructionism radar It points us to ideas about those ideas of normal that could change over time The condition of individuals, that the believe that the individual has an intellectual or physical problem that needs to be fixed in a way Belief that disability is located in the body of the people This is the dominant way we think of disability in society Sociologists pointed out that there are limitations to this way of thinking biological determinism - people's experience reduced to their body and biology - rather than thinking about society and social norms

Social model for defining disability

Disability is produced by social barriers (both structural and ideological), rather than biological impairment Society's "problem" that then affects and constrains the experiences of individuals with different levels of ability/mobility Limitations 1. Idealistic - how do we make changes on such a large scale? 2. Heavy focus on social norms/structures can overshadow accounts of individual experience (both + and -) Flip side - social model instead of disability residing with the individual primarily, it emphasizes the role of society and how society creates barrier that can limit the experience of disabled Not due to biological impairment Build environment - structurally and ideologically We have created a society that assumes a very high level of ability and mobility and the responsibility doesn't like in the individual but its society's problem Its up to all of us to contribute to that Social model Not that the individual that has a problem, but we made a society that's problematic Difference between social and medical models Sociologists favour this model over the biology deterministic model

Structural Functionalism

Emile Durkheim Key Question: How can/does culture and sport support positive social development? Key Assumptions: Structure + Function Society as a system of integrated parts >Share similar goals/desires >Institutions help people >Social rules/norms >Deviance is to be minimized Society made up of interrelated institutions that structure how we live and society (eg. Government, family, legal and education system, religion, economy, sport physical activity) These institutions give us universal values and norms of what it means to be a good citizen: hard work, respect for authority, etc. Function: will be stable, social order will be maintained, power of institutions teach us how to function properly in society Society is organized as a system of related parts, these parts must work together towards a common good. If the system breaks down society breaks down too Structural functionalism is like a car, all the parts work together to move the car. If any part of the system breaks down, the car breaks down and you wont move in the direction you want to go. Structural functionalism: The ability of social institutions to promote universal values to keep social order. Macrosociological "top -> down" Limitations 1.Can overstate the positive effects of sports in society and underestimates the negative ones : all elements of society are viewed as necessary good for the simple fact that they exist to reinforce the overall structure of the system as a whole. But surely not all elements of social system are justified - poverty, violence, crime, sexism and many other social problems cannot be thought as positive elements in social system. -it was necessary to reward those who spend time and effort training and working in jobs that are more important for society as a whole with greater compensation in the form of status/wealth. This by no means justified the often huge inequalities in terms of status or pay. 2. Doesn't acknowledge that sports are social constructions (Sports change over time, structural functionalism approach does not abide by that) 3. Based on the assumption that the needs/experiences of all groups in a society are the same. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution had a strong impact on the theory Emile found that suicide is a social act that operates according to social laws. Emile referred to any human activities of this sort to social facts, by which he meant any phenomena that operated according to social rules or laws independent of any one individual. Levels of social integration across categories of people significantly impact the chances of a particular individual committing suicide or not. Structural functionalism views society as a complex system in which all the different elements of its structure work to promote stability and solidarity within that system. Structure: a stable and persistent pattern of elements, including institutions, patterns or interpersonal behaviour, and values and norms Function: all elements function or contribute to the overall stability of the structure of society.

Fantasy Sports

Fantasy sport industry: outcome of sport is based on individual players in sport. $26 Billion Industry >Over 32 million players in the USA >1.2 billion hours per year Increased TV ratings, advertising revenue, web/social media traffic Turning Athletes in Commodities >Players are given "value," bought/traded/sold in a marketplace >Is it just a game? W. Rhoden: "Fantasy Sports' Real Crime: Dehumanizing the Athletes": The more troubling issue about fantasy football to me, though, is that its increasing popularity is masking something darker: the desensitizing effect it is having on fans, numbing them to the pain and injuries that are the stock in trade of a violent game. Dr. Klein sees a lack of sensitivity 'as part of the spectator experience to see the players more as objects or as figures in the entertainment space, to see them almost as imaginary, to not see them as human beings with jobs and family. Jonathan Stewart, NFL Running Back: "It's not a fantasy, it's real life. These are guys who have actual families. This is a job. It's not fantasy.

Critical Theory: Gender

Feminist theory: Focus on gender equality as the product of context/power relations > How girls and women been excluded from sport Examines the status of men and women in society. Socially constructed norms, roles & ideologies- they aren't natural (it is about culture not biology). >Challenge gender roles as 'normal' or 'natural' Unequal power dynamics that privileged men over women - Interested in how some type of men privileged over other men (masculinity and sexuality). Sport as gendered activities >Reproduce characteristics that become associated with either masculinity or femininity Gender equity "Feminist theories should not be confused with a focus on 'women in sport'" (Birrell, 2000) >Masculinity as a performance History: First Wave 19th & early 20th Century >Focus on equal rights Second Wave mid-20th Century >Focus on discrimination Third Wave late-20th Century >Focus on social norms Feminists have identified the important role that gender relations and ideas about both women and men have played in sporting traditions. Feminist theory inspires studies of various ways in which sex, gender, and sexuality influence sporting experiences. History of gender and sport: Women have been participating informally in sports and have been excluded from most formal athletic competitions 1800's (victorian times) - societal concern about protecting the innocence of women (the fairer sex). Part of that was protecting women's fragile and frail bodies. Those ideas about women come along with ideas that women came in second. Their primary capabilities were seen to take care of family (dedicated to domestic work) and they were restricted to remain indoor. >Women were discouraged from having little involvement in public life >Discouraged in participating in athletic events There was a social ideology that women could be corrupted from the outside world >Context= scientific /religious belief that people had a fixed amount of energy to expend in your lifetime course. Too much physical exertion could be hazardous to health (true for women cuz they were thought of as frail) >Ideas that women lost energy in menstruation When women were allowed to (upper class women especially) leave the house and engage in physical activity (horse back riding, swimming) they were not allowed to get into intense physical activities (no competition). Taboo - women straddling (horses and bikes) People weren't excited about women riding a bike - medical and scientific theories followed that women cant ride a bike >peddling motion would cause damage to a women's uterus cause the sexual organs to move around. They also said women would be exposed to wind cold which cause ill health. >because of women frailty, the vibrations of riding a bike would damage organs and cause them to die, religious figures said that if women straddle a bike, and the bike vibrated it stimulated women) >Bikes gave them mobility to go to places they never went to before (leave their husbands)

Masculinity

Gender inequality shapes out behaviours in one way or another Masculinity to debunk a myth that men are simple (and women are complex social and emotional beings) Men and masculinity are tied to social norms Masculinity as a performance and as a way to gain power in the gender hierarchy being the "real man": Masculinity like gender is a performance (not natural expression of fixed biological traits) Performance to prove to others and urself that you're a man and the "right" kind of man (different ways to do that = clothing, hairstyle, facial hair, how you talk to ppl, language, what u eat, how u sit, etc.) Some people prove their masculinity by joking about feminist theories (to seek approval that you're the type of man you want to be and sport is a big part of this) These are choices that we make but not natural expressions of biology (scripted behaviour) - What sport u like? Football, curling, skating -What exercises u do in the gym, what kind of body u want Consequences - exist lower down the hierarchy than heterosexuals

Gender as a performance

Gender is not "natural" but based on cultural expectations about behaviour, attitudes and physical appearance. >"Doing" or "performing" gender >Conformity and being "out of bounds" >Performances like how we sit and the type of language we use to determine if were masculine or Feminine >When the doctor says it's a boy or girl, Cultural machine works to socialize that child of what it means to be a man or a women (We learn different ideas about bring a man or a women) >different consequences for those who don't fit into that system - uncomfortable, bullied, mental health problems, real experience for a lot of people Sport as a way to do/perform gender >Expectations and "choices" around sport participation, uniforms/appearance etc. >Language: Tomboys, "Throwing like a Girl," and casual sexism >Sport is a vivid way of doing and performing our gender >And there are expectations of what choices men and women should make

Sport as social constructions

Given form and meaning by people as they interact with each other under the social, political, and economic conditions that exist in their society Sport is socially constructed, as all the meanings about social life that shape the world in which we live. Sport has been invented and reinvented by generations of men and women for a wide range of purposes. sport also shapes and is shaped by social world, and because sport is a social construct it can be changed and given different forms and meanings over time and from place to place can be socially reconstructed. There are different ways of looking at social phenomena: 1. Microstructures: Intimate, face to face social interactions with friends, families, coworkers, teachers and how they influence society 2. Macrostructures: Represents social relations that happens outside of a person's inner circle. It focuses on the relationship of sport to institutions such as education, politics, and the media. 3. Global structures: are the relations between nations, cultures, and societies. Connect the study of sports to the study of change and resistance in relations between dominant and subordinate groups in society. Jean Harvey quotes that "sport is not simply a reflection of society, but a world in its own right, with its own life and its own contradictions" Sport is a social practice that is shaped by broader power relations that benefit some individuals and groups more than others, it also enables individuals and groups with varying resources to reproduce current practices or resist them.

Lifestyle sports

Green, K. (2014, July 30). "Belinda Wheaton on the cultural politics of lifestyle sports [podcast]." Didn't fit traditional, competitive, team games. Examples: Parkour, surfing, snowboarding, skateboarding, bicycle motor cross, windsurfing, BASE jumping, sky diving, rock climbing... Also referred to as whizz, new, alternative, extreme, action, risk, post-modern, outdoor, adventure, nature-based sports. Are defined with and in opposition to power and performance model of mainstream sports or "achievement sport." Evolution of terminology points to the social construction of these particular activities. New leisure movement of the 1960's rejected the unexpressive, overly rationalized, technologized world of traditional sport. Sport? Art? Representative of sporting zeitgeist of the 21st century.

"Sport = War Minus the Shooting"

Historical Perspectives >Sport in the British Empire The Language of Sport: "War-Speak" >"Territory," "Warriors," "Battling in the Trenches," "Weapons" etc. Meaning/Identity/Power >Equating the context of hyper-masculine athletes with military personnel and interests (Textbook: Scherer, pg. 247) Aggression in sports Role of british empire in shaping modern day ideas about sports Sports and british empire were closely tied to the military Rugby and soccer and polo were used by british generals to train their men to whip them into shape and allow them to learn particular skills These activities socialized these men into a value system - importance of aggressiveness Being able to follow rules and orders - valued in military system >Valued in sport cultures 2 These sports were being formalized through military and associated in school system We can see these effects in the way we conceptualize sports in modern day society Rules of sports are based upon military strategies also In the language of sports Link between military and sports provides a masculine sense

Sport as a Male Preserve

Historical segregation of women from many organized sports Most sports designed and institutionalized by and for men (and men's bodies) >Strength, aggression, power, and physical dominance become naturalized as defining elements of most sports >British empire put boys into sports to turn them into strong men to protect the empire. > Sport is designed for masculin traits and men As women began to participate in greater numbers, they are slowly provided access to traditionally male-dominated sport environments >Women's sport often marginalized as inherently inferior to men's sport ("men are just better") >Ongoing struggle for legitimacy, resources and recognition

Lifestyle sports: Gender and sexualizing

Lifestyle sports are selling heterosexual femininity. Marginality of women within media, and sexualization of women when they do appear. Practices that privilege male-oriented versions of lifestyle sport limit women's participation. "Girl days" "Masculine sublime" Labels for less-than-core participants are imbricated with gender relations: "skate betties," "snow bunnies," "beach babes," "belay bunnies," and "shred betties". Olive Bowers writes to Australian Tracks magazine about sexism Column in Surfing Life magazine "Objectify Me" Lifestyle sport produces, maintains and transforms gendered power relations. Downplay importance of gender, avoid certain spaces, attempt to blend in by wearing gender neutral colours "Shred Betty" who launches herself off big jumps, carves out space and contests the masculinity of the mountain Women-only backcountry skiing or sky dives

Gender as a socal construction

How do we put the social/cultural in conversation with biological realities of our existence? 'Sex' versus 'Gender' >Biological sex- we talk about male/female - a binary system based on biology >Gender - is all about cultural norms, expectations, how should some one look, act, behave, dress. (Expectation that gender lines up with bio sex) Gender Binary >Male body = masculine traits; female body = feminine traits >genitals and secondary sex characteristic >Biological sex = binary system of male and female >These expectations produce a innate diff between male and female - our bodies make us act a certain way. Not about reproduction. Daily experience that our bodies make us act (gender binary) >Consequences for those to step 2 far out of that gender binary Biological Determinism >Explaining human social behaviour as strictly a product of biology (Adams, p. 117) >The point is not to deny that there are physical differences between men and women but to examine how these differences are defined, interpreted and used to structure our society. >Biological determinism - explain social behaviour as due to our biology - nature vs nurture debate. Nature side of that debate is mostly the reason of behaviours. Reduce complex social phenomenon to a single biological phenomenon >Cause and effect link that underly theories of biological determinism which leads to generalizations. >Theories of social constructionism- critics a counter argument >Variations of how sex is organized in diff areas >How the differences are defined in society - creating hierarchies between men and women Sport often used to provide "evidence" to prove the existence of "natural" differences between men/women and gender hierarchies. >Sport as a "male preserve" >Separate events for men and women >Inclined to look at differences between male and female rather than similarities >No attention given of how men are socialized into society of sports than women are Sex Testing >Sex testing = gender verification testing - women are tested to prove their gender to ensure that they aren't men to pose as women or that female competitors have any physical advantage with male traits. Men aren't subject to sex testing. Only female. No standard that makes a man or women what u should measure. >Semenya - was so good that they thought she was a man from how good she was. Transgender Athletes >Sports is a hard space for transgender athletes to be a part of cuz theres a binary system of female and male

Heteronormativity

How social institutions and cultural norms privilege heterosexuality >More than a simple understanding that heterosexuality is more common, but involves a value judgement that makes heterosexuality appear normal and natural >Other forms of sexual expression are considered different or sometimes deviant - they become discriminated against. Reveals the often unspoken expectations, demands, and constraints produced when heterosexuality is taken as normative within society >Similar to concept of whiteness/othering >Nobody needs to come out as straight- heteronormative works in the way that nobody thinks your gay unless you come out (they assume ur straight) Sport largely functions as a heteronormative space >Many sports encourage/expect/produce narrow ideas about the relationship between masculinity, femininity, and sexuality >Can be problematic for anyone trying to conform to these norms...but especially for those who don't 'fit' >Some consider sport as the last bastion of homophobia >Masculin = heterosexual For LGBTQ athletes, research has revealed that: >Experiences of homophobia and high dropout rates >Athletes remain closeted/cultures of silence >Women: Performances of femininity/"lesbian stigma" >Men: Performances of masculinity/locker room culture > Should prove your femininity to rove your nor a lesbian A lot of athletes conform to these norms >Sport is where homophobia is still tolerated (in the locker rooms)

Internalization

Internalizing/accepting cultural norms and stereotypes as "natural" or "true" One might be inclined to make some choices over others. When one is deciding what sport to participate in they might ask, which feels right, what do I fit in the most? Slow internalization of these ideas over time that lead to people accepting a sport Race is a big part of that. You want to go into an environment where people look like you.

Historical Sensitivity

Its also an awareness that To understand the sporting present, we must also understand the past. Knowing history is important in mapping how sport has changed. It also emphasizes how things are not natural and unchanging (social constructionism). Cultural studies is obsessed with history Historical sensitivity is an awareness that brings even the smallest details of personal experience into the larger frame of history. >The Sociological Imagination By neglecting our history and analysis that stresses the reality of socio-historical change, we also risk accepting present realities and social relations as natural as opposed to social and historical constructs that have been continually made and remade by generations of men and women against the backdrop of a range of cultural and ideological struggles. To understand the sporting present, we must also understand the past. >How did we get here? >Why now? What historical trends/events have led to this current moment? Social Constructionism: CONTEXT IS EVERYTHING

Racial Project: Physicality

Johnson's achievements extend beyond sport: New racial sciences New racial identities New racial anxieties The idea that thought whites are better at sports came apart after Jack Johnson won. >Whites being more physically advances is nor true anymore >Races were categories of identities. >Racial identities formed >Jack Johnson became a source of racial pride >But many middle class black people were embarrassed because of their Disregard of cultural norms. >Middle classed wanted to work with social norms.

Sport, the Military and Marketing

Leibowitz: "The NFL is One Giant Military Recruitment Tool" >Boundaries between marketing and community outreach programs become blurred Presentation of military themes and spectacles are carefully orchestrated to make certain values and ideologies appear "natural" or common sense >Relationship of sport, hyper-masculinity and national identity >Gives the impression of universal support for military policies and operations >No space for debate/resistance Burry boundaries between community initiatives and payed advertising of the military as a political insitution such as the military through these brand Asking qu about this relationship is not meant to devalue the service of men and women in military, but what this is about then, questioning the common sense link between sport and military and the support of people and the broader political context around military policy and projects implemented and sold in the public as something good. We need to support people, but do we always need to support ideas of military operations Respect veterans courage, not necessary supporting all the acts of government Not just football/ NFL/ also seen in baseball, hockey, in the X games. Blurring the boundaries from wanting to help people and marketing Both in textbook and video- relationship of sport, hypermasculinity. Universal support for policies and operations of military These big spectacles don't leave space for debate Muhammed ali - spoke against Vietnam war and got scrutiny for it These policies are debated by politicians and journalists - but in sport context theres no space for these debates

Critical theory

Limitations: 1. Doesn't provide clear guidelines for when sport is productive or restrictive 2. Key focus on resistance; however, no clear guidelines for what resistance 'looks like' >i.e. no straightforward 'solutions' to social issues It tends to favour broad sweeping social structures and institutions, economic ones in particular, instead of the people who exist within those structures and institutions. The ability of people to influence the social world around them- their volition or agency disappears. Applying critical theory: Social class (conflict theory), Gender (feminist theory), Race (critical race theory)

Brian Wilson's Predictions

Prediction #1: Inequalities in access to conventional sport, recreation and physical activity > getting worse; neoliberalism; conventional sports are becoming more exclusive as social economic inequality grows; sports are becoming more hard 4 people to participate in; they're so expensive and exclusive; it will continue 2 happen; non profit governments attempting to make sports inclusive is not enough Prediction #3: Increasing popularity of "alternative" forms of leisure and "lifestyle sports" > lifestyle sports that are outside the traditional sports are becoming more appealing to a lot of people - excluded from traditional sport structures; people who cant afford normal sports or they're not interested in them turn to lifestyle sports to have physical activity; not needing specialized facilities- just going into public spaces. If there sports are becoming more culturally relevant how will that affect the values that are disseminated through traditional sports (authority, touchness, teamwork, leadership) - how will those values be maintained in lifestyle sports - what are cultural consequences of this potential shift in sports. Prediction #6: Ongoing social tensions lead to increasing forms of dissent/social movements related to sport >a social inequality increases and people are being jaded by sport models and delusioned, this will lead to more protests, more dissent and social movements turning their attention to sport. More people will be dissatisfied with sport culture and want it to change - this is where activism comes to play

Patients, Athletes, Freaks

Problematic media emphasis on how the bodies of Paralympians are not "normal" bodies. -Implies that disabled bodies are tragic, lesser or inherently incapable -Drawing on the medical model of disability -Narratives of "overcoming" Rather than focusing on Athletic accomplishments It is always about disabilities first and everything else secondary She finds it belittling and problematic Talking about otherness Implication that disabled bodies should always be seen as less capable or inferior Relies on medical model "overcoming" is very problematic - the idea that somebody needs to overcome their disability Has problematic thing to it Activist and athletes concerned about the disabled people in sports - concerned cuz of medical model

Racial Project: intelligence

Racial stacking: a term used to describe racial segregation of positions in sport Positions related to IQ. >Non-thinking places were given to black people.

Small-town Canada and "Ordinary Canadians"

Small cities, rural communities that exist far away from big canadain metropolis More distinct from chaos and diversities of big cities in canada Pace is slower - people nicer to each other More sense of community than in large cities Craft hockey bill- contest sponsored by kraft, contest to see what little town is the hockiest town in the land You have to show that this town is so into hockey That your town and community embraces canadianess more than others A lot of value and investment in the small town in canada And the role of hockey arena in that small town U wont see toronto or montreal or halifax as winning Hockey is meant to thrive in these smaller communities This idea of who are the ordinary canadians has a lot of investment into it You have to venture into these small towns to know whats canadian argument about social class built into it Race as well- processes of racialization built into why we celebrate these communities Bigger cities are thought to be very diverse Smaller towns are imagined as the throwback before canada was diverse and before the immigration Immigrants who came brought different traditions to canada - like playing another sport The language that canadians speak are coded as whiteness - and othering.

Sociology of pain and injury

Social Constructionism >Good Pain vs. Bad Pain >"Know the difference between being hurt and being injured" >Ur still getting a physiological singal that ur body is in distress when you get pain >But human beigns interpret it as beign a good or bad workout >if ur hurt u can continue to play but if ur injured then you cant- that is the difference "Fitspiraton"/"Fitspo" >"Inspirational" messages (often online) intended to encourage people to attain their fitness goals. >Inspiration fitness - talks about pain in a positive way. >Idea of learning to love pain - social constructionism in action. >Social constructionism is important even in physical beings that the society is making us think differently about how our body is feeling (like pain is a good thing) >Men overconform cuz they want to be tough like men Sport ethic and meritocracy and social class and gender and race (black ppl have to keep proving themselves) are all related its an intersectionality

CAREERS IN SPORT

Social Mobility - changes in wealth, education and occupation over a lifetime. It is the idea that you can use sport to undergo changes in wealth, education, and occupation Sport is often seen a vehicle for social mobility, but career opportunities in sport are few and elusive >Gender/Race? "Hoop Dreams Myth" >documentary from 1994 Physical capital: you need the right body to play sports Careers in sport are few and elusive, and often do not bring the financial windfalls athletes are expecting. Social mobility- sports careers to advance urself in society. Media is good on reporting on success stories (from nothing, through sport you became wealthy). We hear about those stories more often than those who try to make it but can't.

Ambivalence of Sport Cultures

Sport and physical activity cultures can be both enabling and constraining (2 things could be right in sport) and is a site of can be sites of conflict and contradiction - Ambivalence of sport culture These activities are more than sports played for the fun of friendly competition, they're also popular social and cultural events. -Sport regularly makes the headlines for all the wrong reasons: discriminatory practices, exploitation of athletes, labour disputes, drug use, sexual abuse, and assault, gambling and the glorification of violence. -There remains significant and enduring issues of inequality between men, women, rich, poor, and along racial and ethnic lines that continue to structure sports in different ways. We would be naive to believe that the world of sport is devoid of problems, social issues, and unequal power relations present in society. Beyond the actions of individuals but tied to broader societal trends and social issues Participation and interest in sports is related to a number of standard sociological variables (Gender, race, social class, age, geographic location, education levels, etc.), they do little to address the wider sociological significance of these obvious facts.

Cultural studies

Sport through a cultural studies 'lens': Sport is a reflection of society, but is also a site where culture and social divisions are produced, reproduced and changed >Sociological Imagination Emphasis on the social context: CONTEXT IS EVERYTHING - we want to see whats happening around us POWER: Sports produce and reinforce patterns of privilege in society - trying to challenge common sense ideas and shed light on marginalized groups >Goal is to challenge common sense assumptions, offer voices to the marginalized and advocate for social change Sport is a sight where ideas are created and produced; it's a reflection of society. >double edge sword Advocate for social justice/change Cultural studies is a combination, reflection, and development of the conflict theory and symbolic interactionism. Humans actively and often imaginatively interpret and give meaning to the world and in doing so challenge dominant ways of seeing things. Cultural studies encompasses a growing and diverse body of work, certain historical predecessors denote common elements. Sport plays a hegemonic role in reinforcing social and power relations

Concussion science (Context is still everything - context of scientific work)

Struggles over scientific "truth" >Interpreting/manipulating scientific findings >In early 19's struggle to find truth of concussions and its relation to football and violent sports >Playing scientists to conduct studies >Working with scientific journal to suppress evidence of a relation between sports and etc. (Scientific community were keeping these things out of the public eye) > Getting payed by NFL to produce studies that downplayed all the risks >The effects f what we as a public know about diseases and risks Women and brain injury >Higher concussion rates for women >Lack of gender specific research >All studies on men brains alone and then they apply that study on everyone >No studies about women and their brain >Brain bank is 99% men >Women are donating their brain to science

Toronto Raptors - We the north

Successful marketing campaign for the north Rebranding of team Intersectional analysis of this campaign = commercialization, race, racialize spaces (associated with non white people), through basketball, blackness is used to promote a team, gender - masculine image "we the north" - we have this idea of the north.

Concussion and cultural change

Technological/Equipment Solutions Increased/More Sophisticated Research Rules/Policy Changes Increase Numbers of Medical Personnel "Change the Culture" >But it's complicated... Sociological imagination - brain like any cultural objects

Militarization and the Great Sport Myth

The Great Sport Myth (IMP) Belief that sport transcends or should remain free of politics and political concerns Challenging the Great Sport Myth: >Growing dissatisfaction with the status quo >Sport as a high profile, powerful context to promote social change worldwide "If going to war isn't political, then nothing is." Why are military themes/images/spectacles seen to be exempt from the belief that sport should remain free of politics?

Business of Sport

The business of sport is primarily designed to turn: 1. events into commercial spectacles 2. fans into consumers 3. athletes into commodities Blurring the boundaries between advertising and the sporting event: >Branding >Names of Teams/Events >Stadiums Turning events into commercial spectacles: (branding). Every part of a space or activity has a branded name and sponsor. Names of events, names of teams. Places are designed with economic interests in mind. One company can own rights to multiple centres. Turning fans into consumers: Sports fandom as a consumer identity >"real fans" Consumption in a Digital Age >Fans as consumers of images/information >Traditional media and social media >Fantasy Sports Turning athletes into commodities: Athletes becoming entities that are given value and are bought/sold in a marketplace (Sell their work and get their pay from that-They sell themselves and their skills to a company who will pay them by getting their names on things). >Pro Sport: Selling work/labour >Competing for Sponsorships/Endorsements >Athletes as Brands >Fantasy Sports? Athletes become their own brand. They get their own logo which represents values and attitudes. Branding example= air Jordan sneakers.

Othering

The processes/practices by which groups are excluded and marginalized/oppressed in society: >Identified as different or "Others", i.e. not the "Norm" >Can relate to National identity: "Us" and "Them" (People are made to appear different than the norm) >But also gender, sexuality, race, ethnicity (not skin, rather cultural values), religion >Justification for discrimination Relies on and perpetuates stereotypical knowledge about groups of people >Racial ideology of colonialism >Whiteness as "normal"

Sociology

The study of social life, including all forms of interactions and relationships take place between humans, groups and societies. They examine the ways in which social structures, power relations, and institutions enable and constrain individuals and groups; they are concerned with the social rules and ideologies that bind and separate people. Sociological analysis of sport provides us with the opportunity to ask thought provoking questions using concepts, theories, and research methods that emphasize the social as opposed to individual causes and that points toward structural solutions to problems identified in sports. relies on history, social structures and institutions Sociology of sport goes beyond a concern with phenomena in sports. It seeks to demonstrate the significance of sport to some of the central problems of sociology: the explanation of structures of class, gender, and racial inequality as well as the processes through which social change is achieved and circumcised. Sport is shaped by social world around us, so it also shapes the social world (social constructionism). Sociology is a disciplined study of human social behaviours, especially the investigation of origins, classifications, institutions, and development of human society on a global level. Sport sociologists study humans/agents involved in sport (athletes, coaches, fans, team owners) the institutions and social structures that affect their sport experiences (education, media, economics, politics), and the processes that occur in conjunction with sports (violence, deviance, inequality, mobility, social stratification) Sport sociologists need to examine and explain how various social institutions transform sport and how sport can be used to transform broader social structures against the backdrop of a range of cultural struggles, pressing political debates, and social movements.

Social Theories

Tools available to better understand the nature of the social world and people's engagement with that world. Not only do they offer an interpretation of social conditions at present, but they also offer interpretations of history What is a Theory? >Answering questions about how society works >Question, challenge, or explore "taken-for-granted" or common sense aspects of social life >A LENS: A way of interpreting social life or looking at a social phenomenon Sociological theories must be accountable and contain researches to refine/justify ideas (back up)- in science you have the scientific method to do that. (they must prove themselves through a process of verification with the facts of the social world.) Recognition of the social construction of society Recognition of different theories provides you with different perspectives of the world Theories should not be thought of as static, but instead in a constant dynamic state in which debate and refinement have led and will continue to lead to their change and evolution. Theoretical approaches: 1. Structural functionalist theory 2. Symbolic interactionist theory 3. Critical theory/ Cultural studies >Feminist theory >Marxist/Conflict theory >Critical race theory All approaches all build off of each other, all related. Sociological theories all have a political motivation to understand the nature of the social world around us and make it better for everyone

Politics of Stadium Building

Who pays for the construction of new sports stadiums? (Answer: we do!) Stadiums are privately owned facilities, often built using public money Once its built, owners take it over and take all the revenues. Arguments for publicly-funded sports stadiums: 1.Threat of team relocation 2.Civic Pride - Arenas built elevate the status of city. 3.Economic Revitalization >"Economic Impact Studies" New >Increased Jobs, Businesses, tourism But sports economists almost unanimously dismiss these arguments as greatly overstating the benefits of sports stadiums: 1,2. Civic Pride/Team Relocation >Often used as leverage to persuade politicians/general public 3. Economic Growth >Studies show that increases in entertainment revenue as a result of new sports stadiums are very much exaggerated - Its not necessary that a new arena will lead people into spending more money. Money gets shuffled around one facility - no influx in economic growth but it's centralized. Economic Revitalization >Short-term construction jobs >Mostly minimum wage jobs >Creates HUGE public debt: We find near unanimity in the conclusion that stadiums, arenas and sports franchises have no consistent, positive impact on jobs, income, and tax revenues. STADIUM FINANCING AND NEOLIBERALISM: Pro-corporate culture/privatization Transfer of public money into private hands

The sociological imagination

Wright mills coined the phrase sociological imagination It is the ability to go beyond a person's immediate life issues and troubles and connect them to society's broader characteristics, including macro and global structures. In other words, what seems to be a personal concern, upon social analysis, is actually a broader social and public issue. Social imagination must be developed to understand how personal problems link to broader public issues that arise from power imbalances and in our social structure. "What would an ideal sporting world look like?" (Wilson, p. 338) Resistance, hope and social change Wilson wants us to crush the arguments of "that's just the way it is" or "it cant be changed" 3 kinds of sensitive are associated with sociological imagination: 1. Historical sensitivity 2. Comparative sensitivity: is learning about how sport has been socially constructed according to different meanings and forms in various cultures. As a result of comparing sensitivity we come to appreciate and respect diversity and the range of ways that sport have been institutionalized and socially constructed around the world. 3. Critical sensitivity: is a willingness to think and act critically. Certainly there is much to celebrate about sports, however our job as sport sociologists is to examine sport from a critical and analytic perspective so that improvement is realized and social relations are transformed.

Meritocracy

Your hard work will be rewarded- one's success is based exclusively on your performance/abilities Meritocracy - A hierarchical ranking and reward system in which an individual's demonstrated performance determines where she or he will be situated in the existing hierarchy (pg. 65). >A "level playing field" >Hard work, perseverance, determination But what about... >Barriers to participation? >inequality of opportunity and inequality of condition? >Does everybody have the chance to participate? Is everybody participating under the same conditions (do they have access to the same type of facilities, coaches)? It assumes that everybody started at the same place which is not true in sports or otherwise It gives us the Idea that sports can transcend Socioeconomic status/inequality, resource, status, network, wealth. the main problem with meritocracy is that we cant isolate it from sport. It can be very extended to other parts of life. Sport is used as a metaphor for how meritocracy works in society. If we relate wining sports to hard work then we would blame the loser for not working hard enough. Myth of meritocracy: sports is central to producing the idea that society is a meritocracy Conclusion of Meritocracy: People don't always get rewarded equally. We have to think about opportunities, and where they started from and how people are rewarded differently based on social class. >Hard work might get you to a different place unlike others who didn't have these opportunities you had. Social Stratification - the hierarchies. Sport is often viewed as the most genuine form of meritocracy because all competitors face the same rules and compete on a level playing field. However this is not true: >Equality of opportunity: Every potential participant must have the opportunity to take part; this chance to take part must be equally available for everyone. If barriers impede one's opportunity to take part in the competition- whether it be due to one's class, sex, gender, sexuality, race, ethnicity, physical or cognitive ability, etc. then the system cannot be a genuine meritocracy. >Equality of condition: every person taking part in a competition event does so under the same conditions. Everyone has the same starting line and the same distance to run. Meritocracy of race a biological understanding of race closely related to the understanding that we begin in same position in life

The sport ethic

a set of unspoken norms accepted as the dominant criteria for defining what it means to be defined as an athlete in power and performance sports. The "normative core" of high performance sport - i.e. "what it takes" to succeed Athletes at the highest level internalize this - becomes a part of their identity and who they r Four key norms of sport ethics: 1. Dedication to "the game" above all else >Unwavering commitment/personal sacrifices to advance your status and to be better at your sport 2. Striving for distinction >Push limits to achieve victory; strive for perfection >relentless to be better, know more about ur sport, pushing body beyond its limits to achieve victory. >The idea is If u push urself harder then u will have a better chance to win. 3. Accept no obstacles in the pursuit of success >Dreams are achievable if an athlete refuses to give in to obstacles >Push through adversity. Never want to stop, keep going no matter what ur faced w 4. The Pain Principle >Accept risk and play through pain Sabo article >some people think that's a true sign of a true athlete. >Commitment to sport and teammates. >Willing to sacrifice ur body for the sake of victory. >Risk injury (long and short term) but ur willing to accept those risks. >Reaching goal is more important than what happens to ur body. >Not only what athletes think, it's a widespread social phenomena. >Athletes pain and treatment to fix athletes pain is a taboo in society. >Short term injuries - denial of chronic pain that accumulated over time (Eg. bad back cuz of a sport career is normalized in athletes) >Sabo says that it's a sign that were so willing to accept certain types of pain in society The sport ethic is our guide on celebrating what an athlete should do These ideas get recycles over and over again Commonly believed that certain sports are more in line with sport ethics than others (Eg. comparison of hockey and basketball platers- basketball players are more fragile) Consequences of sport ethics: >Over-training (push urself past ur limit - body breaks down - athletes are blamed for this) >Ignoring the dangers of pain/injury (get hurt more if u didn't stop and take urself out of the game) >Performance-enhancing or illegal substances (mismanagement of those substances, leads to problems for some athletes) >Hazing or Bullying (normalization of getting on-top of ur teammates in a violent way. Miami dolphins article is an Eg. He thought it would make his teammate better. Fuzzy topic cuz athletes don't know if enough is enough cuz they themselves are always pushed beyond limits)