Sports Psych Test 4
Prevalence of Eating Disorders
- U.S. lifetime prevalence of binge eating disorder is around 3.5% in women and 2% in men - Prevalence of BED in obese people 6.5-8% - U.S. lifetime prevalence of anorexia nervosa is around .9% in women and .3% in men - U.S. lifetime prevalence of bulimia is around 1.5% in women and .5% in men -The most common eating disorder in the US is disordered eating -In sport, it is difficult to achieve accurate assessment
Addiction to Exercise
-A psychological or physiological dependence on a regular regimen of exercise that is characterized by withdrawal symptoms after 24 to 36 hours without exercise -For those with this condition, life becomes structured around exercise to such an extent that home and work responsibilities suffer
Acute Effects of Exercise
-Aerobic exercise is associated with lower state anxiety and higher tranquility scores. -Postexercise reductions in state anxiety return to pre-exercise anxiety levels within 24 hours. -Exercise is associated with reductions in muscle tension. -The anxiety reduction after exercise occurs regardless of intensity, duration, or type. -Aerobic exercise can produce anxiety reductions similar in magnitude to those with other commonly employed anxiety treatments. -Anxiety reduction after exercise occurs in all types of participants (e.g., male or female, fit or unfit, active or inactive, anxious or non-anxious, healthy or nonhealthy, younger or older, patients with or without anxiety disorders).
Differences Between Anorexics and Bulimics
-Anorexics are unaware that they have an eating disorder. -Anorexics have extreme control (in a negative way) over their eating. -Bulimics are aware that they have an eating disorder. -Bulimics have little to no control over their eating
Children and Stress in Sports
-Are young athletes placed under too much stress?... No. The majority of young athletes are not under excessive stress (less than 10% are). -Defeat versus victory: Children experience more state anxiety after losing than after winning. -Event importance: The more importance is placed on a contest, the more state anxiety is experienced by participants. -Sport type: Children in individual sports experience more state anxiety than children in team sports.
Research on Eating Disorder in Sport
-Athletes appear to have a greater occurrence of eating-related problems (disordered eating) than does the general population. -Female athletes, in general, report higher rates of eating disorders than male athletes, which is similar to rates for the general population. -Athletes and nonathletes have similar eating-related symptoms. -A significant percentage of athletes engage in pathogenic eating or weight loss behaviors (e.g., bingeing, fasting), although subclinical in intensity. (Don't rise to the level of anorexia or bulimia) -Eating disorders and pathogenic weight loss techniques tend to have a sport-specific prevalence (e.g., among wrestlers versus archers). -Eating disorders are sport specific -Up to 66% of female athletes may be amenorrheic as compared to 2% to 5% of nonathletes. -Although anorexia and bulimia are of special concern in sports emphasizing form (e.g., gymnastics, diving, and figure skating) or weight (e.g., wrestling), athletes with eating disorders have been found in a wide array of sports.
Motives for participating in sports
-Children have different reasons for participating in sport than adults (have fun, improve skills, get exercise, be with and make new friends, compete)...Basically, fun and companionship -Boys and girls have similar motives for involvement, but these may vary in importance -Most of the motives children have are intrinsic (e.g., to have fun, to learn skills). Winning clearly is neither the only nor the most common motive for participation. -Most young athletes have multiple reasons for participation, not a single motive.
Positive Role of Friends in Sport
-Companionship: spending time together -Pleasant play association: enjoying being around one's friends -Enhancement of self-esteem: Having friends say things or take actions that boost one's self-esteem -Help and guidance: Providing assistance in learning sport skills as well as general assistance, such as in school -Prosocial behavior: Saying and doing things that conform to social convention, such as sharing or not saying negative things (Kids say things as they see them) -Intimacy: Mutual feelings of close, personal bonds -Emotional support: Expressing feelings of concern for one another; absence of conflicts (some friends do not argue, fight, or disagree) -Conflict resolution: Ability of friends to resolve conflicts -Attractive personal qualities: Positive characteristics such as personality or physical features
Compulsive Gambling
-Compulsive gambling, despite its long history in competitive sport, is only now getting public attention. -Gambling on sporting events is widespread. -72% of NCAA Division I football and basketball athletes engage in some form of gambling. -12% of male and 3% of female college athletes have problematic or pathological gambling problems. -6% to 8% of college students are compulsive gamblers. -A 2003 NCAA study showed that 35% of male athletes and 10% of female athletes bet on college sports, and approximately 60% of NCAA Division I and 40% of Division III athletes did not know the NCAA rules about gambling. -Gambling by high school students is thought to be widespread.
Negative Role of Friends in Sport
-Conflict (e.g., insults, arguments) -Unattractive personal qualities (e.g., self-centered) -Betrayal -Inaccessibility (lack of opportunity to interact)
Drug Addiction
-Drug addiction is a state in which either discontinuing or continual use of a drug create an overwhelming desire, need, and craving for more of the substance -Physically and mentally dependent on a substance -Every drug addict is also a substance abuser; substance abusers are not necessarily addicts
Psychological Explanation
-Enhanced feeling of control (as opposed to just taking a pill, YOU did it) -Feeling of competency and self-efficacy -Positive social interactions -Improved self-concept and self-esteem -Opportunities for fun and enjoyment
Exercise in severe diseases: hiv, ms, cancer
-Exercise appears to be one therapeutic modality capable of enhancing components of subjective well-being in patients with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). -Exercise is beneficial in enhancing the quality of life in cancer survivors. -Exercise appears to play a positive role in those with MS (multiple sclerosis). -If exercise helps severe diseases, it will help anything under that
Exercise and Psychological Well-Being
-Exercise positively influences feelings of well-being and decreases anxiety and depression -Epidemiological data show that physical activity is positively associated with good mental health in the US and Canadian populations -Exercise increases: Self-esteem, feeling of enjoyment, self-confidence, and mood states -Exercise decreases: Physical and psychological stress as well as anxiety and depression
Exercise and Sleep/Quality of Life
-Exercise produces negligible increases in total sleep time, but increases sleep quality substantially -Quality of life: A person's behavioral functioning ability—being able to do everyday stuff and living long enough to do it...Physically active people report a better quality of life.
Exercise and Cognitive Functioning cont.
-Exercise programs conducted over long periods are associated with moderate gains in cognitive functioning. -Acute exercise increased cognitive functioning in the form of working memory only for people low in working memory. -Fitness training has beneficial effects on the cognitive functioning of older adults. -These effects were largest for those tasks involving executive control (e.g., planning scheduling, working memory, task coordination). -Fitness training combined with strength and flexibility programs have a greater positive effect on cognition than fitness training having only an aerobic component. -Effects appear to occur more in females than in males. -Effects on cognition were largest when exercise training exceeded 30 minutes per session. -From a physiological perspective, cardiovascular exercise appears to protect the brain against the normal effects of aging and help repair or restore the aged brain.
Increased Muscle Tension
-High stress can cause muscle tension and coordination interference as well as generalized fatigue, muscle inefficiency, reduced flexibility, and motor coordination problems. -Makes muscles less elastic
Physiological Explanation
-Increases in cerebral blood flow -Changes in brain neurotransmitters (e.g., norepinephrine, endorphins, serotonin) -Increase in maximum oxygen consumption and delivery of oxygen to cerebral tissue -Reductions in muscle tension -Structural changes in the brain
Peak Participation
-Participation peaks at a critical developmental period in the child's life (~age 12) -Between 10-13
Social Reasons for Taking Drugs
-Peer pressure -emulating athletic heroes
Chronic Effects of Exercise
-Physical fitness is positively associated with mental health and well-being. -Exercise is associated with the reduction of stress emotions such as state anxiety. -Anxiety and depression are common symptoms of failure to cope with mental stress, and exercise has been associated with a decreased level of mild to moderate depression and anxiety. -Long-term exercise is usually associated with reductions in traits such as neuroticism and anxiety. -Appropriate exercise results in reductions in various stress indicators, such as neuromuscular tension, resting heart rate, and some stress hormones. -Current clinical opinion holds that exercise has beneficial emotional effects across ages and sexes. -Physically healthy people who require psychotropic (mood-altering) medication may safely exercise under close medical supervision.
Guidelines for Social Support
-Provide social support to athletes (sources of support include coaches, significant others, and medical personnel). -Generally, coaches and medical professionals provide informational support. -Friends and family provide social and emotional support -Friends and family should not provide informational support.
Reasons why Stress Delays Injury Recovery
-Psychological stress increases catecholamines and glucocorticoids, which impair the movement of healing immune cells to the site of the injury and interfere with the removal of damaged tissue -Prolonged stress may also decrease the actions of insulin-like growth hormones that are critical during the rebuilding process -Stress also causes sleep disturbance, another factor identified in interfering with physiologic recovery
Characteristics of Bulimia
-Recurrent binge eating -A sense of lacking control overeating behavior during the binges -Engaging in regular self-induced vomiting, use of laxatives or diuretics, strict dieting or fasting, or vigorous exercise in order to prevent weight gain -Average minimum of two binge-eating episodes a week for three months -Persistent overconcern with body shape and weight (APA, 1994) -Bulimics can hide it
Prevalence of Children in Sport
-So many children are involved (an estimated 45 million in the US) -Children are intensely involved in youth sport -Organized sport is not automatically beneficial; qualified, competent adult leadership is needed
General vs. Sport Specific Withdrawal
-Sport-specific dropouts withdraw from a particular program but enter other sports. (Ex. Switch from basketball to baseball) -Sport-general dropouts withdraw from all sport participation. -Sport-general dropouts are a special concern.
Negative Addiction to Exercise
-Stereotyped pattern of exercise with a regular schedule of once or more daily -Repeatedly do the same exercise which leads way to injury -Giving increased priority, over other activities, to maintaining the pattern of exercise -Increased tolerance to the amount of exercise performed -Withdrawal symptoms related to mood disorder after cessation of the exercise -Relief of withdrawal symptoms by further exercise -Subjective awareness of a compulsion to exercise -Rapid reinstatement of the previous pattern of exercise and withdrawal symptoms after a period of abstinence
Attentional Disruption
-Stress disrupts an athlete's attention by reducing peripheral attention and causing distraction and task-irrelevant thoughts. -The more things the brain is processing the less well it can process each individual thing
Prevalence of Substance Abuse
-Substance abuse is very prevalent in the US -Two most abused substances in the US are alcohol and tobacco -98% of elite athletes said they would take a banned performance-enhancing substance with two guarantees—they would not be caught and they would win. -60% said they would do so even if it meant they would die from the side effects.
Girl Steroid Use
-Traditionally, the use of performance-enhancing drugs such as steroids has been predominantly a male domain. -However, recent research has revealed that young girls (some as young as 9 years old) are using bodybuilding steroids—not necessarily to get an edge on the playing field but to get the toned, sculpted look of models and movie stars. -There are steroids that are engineered and designed for women now -Pill that shreds your fat, get toned legs, etc... appealing for aesthetic uses -About 5% of high school girls and 7% of middle school girls admit to trying anabolic steroids at least once; use of the drugs has risen steadily since 1991. -In teenage girls, the side effects from taking male sex hormones can include severe acne, smaller breasts, deeper voice, excessive facial and body hair, irregular periods, depression, paranoia, and fits of anger dubbed "'roid rage." Steroids also carry higher risks of heart attack, stroke, and some forms of cancer.
Substance Abuse
-Use a substance even when it's causing you damage -Substance abuse is a maladaptive pattern of psychoactive substance use indicated by one of two patterns of use: 1. Continued use despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurring social, occupational, psychological, or physical problem that is caused or exacerbated by use of the psychoactive substance. 2. Recurrent use in situations in which the use is physically hazardous. Some symptoms of the disturbance have persisted for at least one month or have occurred repeatedly over a longer period.
Characteristics of Anorexia
-Weight loss to 15% below normal -Intense fear of gaining weight or being fat, despite being underweight -Disturbance in one's experience of body weight, size, and shape -Females: Absence of at least three consecutive expected menstrual cycles (APA, 1994)
Predisposing Factors of Eating Disorders
-Weight restrictions and standards -Coach and peer pressure -Sociocultural factors -Performance demands -Judging criteria -Critical comments about body shape and weight -Genetic and biological factors -Mediating factors
Physical Reasons for Taking Drugs
-enhance performance, -rehabilitate injury, -look better, and -control appetite and lose weight.
Psychological Reasons for Taking Drugs
-escape from unpleasant emotions or stress, -build confidence or enhance self-esteem, and -seek thrills.
5 Stages of Emotional Reaction to Injury
1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance -If trauma is small, move through the stages quickly... if trauma is big, move slowly and maybe even get stuck
Stages of Talent Development
1. Entry (initial) phase... Introduced to sport 2. Investment phase... Put in all the hours 3. Elite performance excellence phase... Reach peak elite performance 4. Excellence maintenance phase... Then, you have to maintain that elite performance Most champion athletes did not start out with champion aspirations in mind. -Most champion athletes were exposed to active lifestyles and played multiple sports as children. -Champions must fall in love with the sport before pursuing intense involvement. (before investment phase) -To optimize talent, young athletes should not specialize in a single sport too early, and parents and coaches should emphasize fun and development.
Three Phase Process of Recovery
1. Injury or illness phase 2. Rehabilitation and recovery phase 3. Return to full activity phase -Each phase dictates different approaches to the psychology of recovery. -Injury or illness phase focuses on helping the athlete understand the injury...People need to stay in their lane (professionals should provide the information i.e. doctors, coaches, etc.) ... family and friends should provide the social support -Rehabilitation or recovery phase focuses attention on helping sustain motivation and adherence to rehabilitation protocols through goal setting and maintaining a positive attitude. (Do all the re-learning) -Return to full activity phase—although an athlete is physically cleared for participation, complete recovery does not happen until normal competitive functioning occurs. (Even if an athlete is cleared for full participation, they're not recovered... they're only recovered if they go back to normal competitive functioning. Physical recovery is not sufficient - have to be recovered physically and psychologically)
Six Categories of Performance Enhancing Drugs
1.Stimulants -Increase Endurance -Caffeine on low end, cocaine on high end 2.Narcotic analgesics -Pain killers, allow you to perform even if you're "banged up" 3.Anabolic steroids -Used to bulk up 4.Beta-blockers -Tune your body down in your autonomous nervous system -Don't let your heart rate go above a certain point, so you don't get as nervous, excited, etc. 5. Diuretics -Make you pee -Water is heavy, so by eliminating water you can lose a lot of weight very quickly -Ex. Trying to make a certain weight category very quickly 6. Peptide hormones and analogues -Growth hormones
2 main causes of stress related injuries
Attentional Disruption and Increased Muscle Tension
Exercise and Cognitive Functioning (development of self)
Development of the self -Exercise is related to participants' self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy (Fox, 1997). -Regular exercise is related to increased self-esteem. -Esteem-enhancement effects of exercise are especially pronounced in people with low self-esteem. -Positive changes in self-concept and self-esteem were associated with participation in physical education and directed play (Gruber, 1986). -Exercise programs designed to enhance self-esteem should emphasize experiences of success, feeling of increased physical competence, and attainment of goals.
Motives for Withdrawal
Motives for withdrawal -Major reason: Other things to do -Some negative reasons (e.g., not as good as they wanted to be, boredom, didn't like the pressure) cited by some children -The importance of perceived competence: Children with low perceptions of their athletic abilities drop out or do not participate in sport, whereas children with high perceptions of their competence participate and persist -Although most children withdraw because of change of interests, a significant minority discontinue for negative reasons (e.g., pressure) -Underlying the descriptive motive (e.g., fun) is the child's need to feel worthy.
Injury and Personality
No relationship
Identity Loss
When athletes can no longer participate because of an injury, they may have a loss of personal identity. That is, an important part of themselves is lost, seriously affecting self-concept
