Sports Psychology Quiz #2
Why does arousal influence performance?
Increased arousal and state anxiety cause muscle tension, fatigue, and coordination difficulties (physical) Change in attention, concentration, and visual search: when anxious - Narrowing of attention - Decreased environmental scanning - Shift to dominant style - Attending to inappropriate cues - Performance worries and situation-irrelevant thoughts - Difference in identification and processing of visual cues
How does it feel to be in flow? According to Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, "Chicky"
1. Completeley involved in what you are doing- focused and concentrated 2. A sense of ecstasy- of being outside of everyday reality 3. Great inner clarity- knowing what needs to be done and how well we are doing it 4. Knowing that the activity is doable- that our skills are adequate to the task 5. A sense of serenity- no worries about oneself and a feeling of going beyond the boundaries of the ego 6. Timelessness- thoroughly focused on the present, hours seem to pass by in minutes 7. Intrinsic motivation- whatever produced flow becomes its own reward
Stress
A substantial imbalance between physical and psychological demands placed on an individual and their response capability under conditions in which failure to meet demands has important consequences. When abilities don't match expectations
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
A subtheory of the more general self-determination theory, it focuses on identifying and explaining the factors that facilitate or undermine the development of intrinsic motivation Basic Premise: How rewards are perceived is critical in determining whether intrinsic motivation increases or decreases. Controlling Aspects: Rewards perceived to control a person decrease intrinsic motivation, whereas rewards that contribute to an internal locus of causality increase intrinsic motivation Informational Aspects: Rewards that provide information and positive feedback about competence increase intrinsic motivation, whereas rewards that suggest the person is not competent decrease intrinsic motivation.
Psychophysiology
A term to describe the body's physiological reaction to perceived stressors suggesting that the stress response is a mind-body phenomenon the relationship between physiological signals and mental processes anxiety is physiological response
What does SAS-2 stand for?
Sport Anxiety Scale-2
What does SCAT stand for?
Sports Competition Anxiety Test
How does the dopamine schedule work?
You must occasionally remove rewards. As you are stair casing towards your goal, blunt your reward response for some of the intermediate goals. A.K.A. Trick yourself into thinking you will be rewarded, but sometimes hold off. Why gambling Is really addicting, anticipation of reward
What are the two types state anxiety can be?
cognitive state anxiety somatic state anxiety
Ego goal orientation (or competitive goal orientation)
comparing performance with and defeating others - focus on outperforming others - tned to choose relatively easy tasks - prefer to compete against those they can beat
Somatic State Anxiety
concerns the moment-to-moment changes in perceived physiological activation What is body doing? - butterflies in stomach higher heart-rate
What are the two underlying achievement motives
to achieve success and to avoid failure achieve success is defined "as the capacity to experience pride in accomplishments," whereas the motive to avoid failure is "the capacity to experience shame in failure"
What are the three views of motivation?
trait-centered view situation-centered view interactional view
What are the principles of positive reinforcement?
- Choose effective reinforcers (e.g., social, material, activity, special outings, intrinsic, and extrinsic) - Choose the timing or schedule (dopamine schedule) of reinforcement - Early learning: continuous and immediate reinforcement desirable - Learned skill: intermittent and immediate reinforcement desirable - Reward appropriate behaviors - choose the proper behavior to reward - With difficult skills, shape the behavior of the learner by reinforcing close approximations of the desired behavior - Reward performance as well as outcome - Reward effort - Reward emotional and social skill
Attributions
- ascribe success to stable and internal factors within their control - ascribe failure to unstable and external factors outside their control
Motivational orientation
- high motivational orientation to achieve success - low motivation orientation to avoid failure - focus on the pride of success
Competence Motivation Theory
- people are motivated to feel worthy or competent - athletes' perceptions of competence and control are critical determinants of whether they will strive toward achievement -enhancing perceived competence and control should be the primary goals of professionals in exercise and sport science
What motivates you to participate in sport and physical activity?
- people participate for more than one reason - people have competing motives for involvement - people have both shared and unique motives - gender differences in motivation - cultural emphasis affects motives
goals adopted
- usually adopts incremental or task goals - typically adopts approach goals
How to make punishment effective?
-be consistent by giving everyone the same type of punishment for breaking similar rules -punish the behavior, not the person-convey to the person that it's his or her behavior that needs to change -allow the athletes input in making up punishments for breaking rules -do not use physical activity or conditioning as a punishment -make sure the punishment is not perceived as a reward or simply as attention -impose punishment impersonally- do not berate the person or yell. Simply inform the person of the punishment -do not punish athletes for making errors while playing -do not embarrass individuals in front of teammates or classmates -use punishment sparingly, but enforce it when you use it -do not punish other teammates for an individuals mistake -make sure punishment is age- appropriate -make certain athletes understand the reason for the punishment
What are the influences of achievement motivation?
-choice of activities (e.g., seeking out opponents of equal ability to compete against or looking for players of greater or lesser ability to play with) -effort to pursue goals (e.g., how often you practice) -intensity of effort in the pursuit of goals (e.g., how consistently hard you try during a workout) -persistence in the face of failure and adversity (e.g., when the going gets tough, do you work harder or take it easier?)
Five guidelines for building motivation
1. Consider both situations and traits in motivating people 2. Understand people's multiple motives for involvement 3. Change the environment to enhance motivation - provide both competitive and recreational opportunities - provide multiple motives and opportunities - adjust to individuals in groups 4. influence motivation - leader actions and inactions influence participant motivation - infuse variety in programming - use technology to enhance motivation 5. Use behavior modification to change undesirable participant motives
What are the triggers of flow?
1. Intense concentration (not dividing your mind between tasks, absorbed one action) 2. Challenge/ Skills balance (the challenge of the task slightly exceeds your skills set; pushed out of comfort zone) 3. Clear goals (small, immediately achievable goals) 4. Immediate feedback (closing the gap between cause and effect; you can course correct mid-flight)
What is the brains response to fear?
1. Trigger (anything that causes fear or alarm) 2. Brain Stem (fight, flight, freeze, faint) 3. Diencephalon (sensory motor) 4. Limbic (emotions) 5. Neocortex (cognitive thinking, rational, planning) Patterned + Repetitive + Rhythmic = Regulated
What are the 5 signs to indicate the state of flow?
1. You lose awareness of time 2. You aren't thinking about yourself (No "my thoughts," "my feelings") 3. You aren't interrupted by extraneous thoughts ("Razor sharp" attention) 4. You are active (Behaviors are focused, deliberate, intentional) 5. You are effortlessly (Things just "click" even if work is very complex)
What are the essential elements of flow?
Balance of challenge and skills Complete absorption in the activity Clear goals Merging of action and awareness Total concentration of the task of hand Loss of self-consciousness A sense of control No goals or rewards external to the activity Transformation of time Effortless movement
What are the 4 laws for building/breaking habits
Building Good Habits: - Make it obvious - Make it attractive - Make it easy - Make it satisfying Breaking Bad Habits - Make it invisible - Make it unattractive - Make it hard - Make it unsatisfying
How do we alter our perception?
CNS: brain and spinal cord ANS: circulation regulation of temp., and more sympathetic + parasympathetic amygdala has nuclei in it that communicate to decide the output fear is conditioned can create a stronger association differentiate fear vs. anxiety vs arousal
Multidimensional Anxiety Theory
Cognitive anxiety: negatively related to performance Somatic anxiety: is related to performance in an inverted- U pattern There is little support for its predictions Issue with the theory and graph: Why is there a difference between cognitive and somatic activity on the graph, with a negative linear line(cognitive) and then an inverted U(somatic)
What does CSAI-2 stand for?
Competitive Sport Anxiety Index
The Inverted- U Hypothesis
Does something poke a hole in theory? - Some people can perform better with low or high arousal levels (not all or nothing) medium arousal where performance is peak
How arousal and anxiety affect performance?
Drive theory Inverted- U hypothesis individualized zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) multidimensional anxiety theory catastrophe model reversal theory anxiety direction and intensity significance of all these views
Why is this with how Olympic athletes can process stimuli faster and earlier?
Elite performers have practiced over and over again, allowing their brains to engage in their skill "automatically." and engage in less top-down thinking, potentially increasing time in flow
Reversal Theory
How arousal affects performance depends on an individual's interpretation of his or her arousal level Arousal can be interpreted as pleasant (excitement) or as unpleasant (anxiety) - Arousal interpreted as pleasant facilitates better performance - Arousal interpreted as unpleasant hurts performance Bottom line: this view is interesting, but too few studies have been conducted to draw firm conclusions
Motivational feedback
Influences performance by -enhancing confidence, inspiring greater effort and creating a positive mood -providing valuable reinforcement to the performer -establishing goal-setting programs
NO Error (reward prediction error)
It was just what we expected (STILL, DOPAMINE RELEASE)
Catastrophe Theory
Low cognitive anxiety (worry): bad self-talk, the graph is a inverted-U pattern high cognitive anxiety (worry): chocking, can have a meltdown and can come back, so its not all or nothing
What is motivation?
Motivation is simply defined as the direction and intensity of one's efforts. Its the DIRECTION and INTENSITY of effort, and they are closely related
What are the benefits of feedback?
Motivational feedback instruction feedback
Negative Error (reward prediction error)
Our prediction was wrong and the reward did not live up to what we expected. (DOPAMINE ACTUALLY INHIBITED)
Which part of ANS would slow down heart rate?
Parasympathetic
The Autonomic Nervous System
Parasympathetic: rest and digest, maintains homeostasis Sympathetic: fear "fight or flight"
Task choice
seek out challenges, able competitors, and demanding tasks
Stress Management Skills and Preventative Strategies
Prepare in Advance: - Gather info - Plan - Until it becomes automatic, prep for mistakes - Practice in similar settings - routines are good to help with being in right state of arousal Seek social support and advice Limit sugarm caffeine, alcohol Mental imagery- ahead of time Mind to muscle (meditation) Muscle to mind (progressive relaxation, breathing) Restructuring (reframing) (imagery, self-talk, goal setting) Confidence management Goal setting
What are strategies for increasing intrinsic motivation?
Provide for successful experiences Give rewards contingent on performance Use verbal and nonverbal praise Vary content and sequence of practice drills Involve participants in decisions Set realistic performance goals
Criticisms of punishment
Punishment can be degrading or shame-producing Punishment can arouse fear of failure Punishment can act as a reinforcer Punishment can create an unpleasant learning environment
Support of punishment
Punishment can serve an educational purpose (i.e., maintain stability, order, mastery). Punishment can deter future cheating or wrongdoing.
Do extrinsic rewards undermind intrinsic motivation?
Research shows that being paid for working on an intrinsically interesting activity can decrease a person's intrinsic motivation for the activity. Classic studies - Deci (1971,1972): SOMA Puzzles - Lepper and Greene (1975): Nursery school, expected and unexpected rewards General psychological studies have concluded that external rewards undermine intrinsic motivation under certain select circumstances Cognitive evaluation theory identifies the conditions under which external rewards undermine intrinsic motivation.
Is flow controllable?
Research with athletes indicates that they cannot control flow Athletes do report that they can increase the probability of flow occurring
What is the 4-stage stress process?
Stage 1: Environmental Demand: physical and psychological Stage 2: Individuals' perception of the environmental demand (amount of psychological or physical "threat" perceived) Stage 3: Stress response (physical and psychological) - arousal (stress) - state anxiety (cognitive and somative) - muscle tension - attention changes (stress) - stress causes fluctuation in arousal Stage 4: Behavioral consequences (performance or outcome)
What is Jones model of facilitative and debilitative anxiety?
Stressor --> Yes you can control (amount you can control determines if its facilitative/ debilitative and self-confidence control the controllable viewing anxiety as a good thing) --> View anxiety as facilitative Stressor --> No, can't control --> View anxiety as debilitative
Why do we care about the reward prediction error, and how do we apply this to real life?
The Reward Prediction Error helps you learn when and where you get your rewards. It can help you create habits. Make sure the predictions you're making, or expectations you have, will match or exceed the outcome you'll get
What are the principles for the effective use of external rewards?
The best type of extrinsic rewards are novel, creative and simple; the meaning is more important than their monetary value Extrinsic rewards should be given to enable athletes, not control them Extrinsic rewards can help when individuals are not motivated to participate Extrinsic rewards should be contingent on behavior Use extrinsic rewards sparingly
What is the Challenge/Skills balance?
The emotional midpoint between boredom and anxiety, a.k.a. the "flow channel" the spot where the task is hard enough to make us stretch, but not hard enough to make us snap How hard is it?- 4% - That's it. If you want to trigger flow, the challenge should be 4% greater than the skills.
Positive Error (reward prediction error)
The outcome was better than our expectation/prediction (BIG DOPAMINE RELEASE) A dopamine reward occurs that helps us learn= If the reward is better than predicted, the prediction becomes better and we will do more of the behavior that resulted in that reward.
The reward prediction error
The reward prediction error is the theory that dopamine neurons signal a prediction error, the error between what reward you expected and what you got. Essentially, dopamine neurons fire to unexpectedly good things. And people are deeply upset by their routines being violated/expectations not being met. Your expectation of something releases dopamine, and the actual event releases dopamine. If the event-related dopamine does not exceed or match the expectation, there is a much higher tendency that you will not pursue that thing again.
Competiveness
a disposition to strive for satisfaction when making comparisons with some standard of excellence in the presence of evaluative others
locus of control
a factor either is or is not under the individuals control
locus of causality
a factor is either external or internal to the individual
Stability within the attribution theory
a factor to which one attributes success of failure is either fairly permanent or unstable
What is Flow?
a state in which an athlete performs to the best of his or her ability. It is a magical and special place where performance is exceptional and consistent, automatic and flowing. An athlete is able to ignore all the pressures and let his or her body deliver the performance that has been learned so well. Competition is fun and exciting.
Achievement Goal Theory
according to the achievement goal theory, one is motivated by one's "interpretation" of what it takes to achieve success However, success for one person may not be success for another person Success may be achieved by beating others in competition, or success may be achieved by learning or mastering a task ego and task oriented
What are the three key factors in the achievement goal approach
achievement goals interpretation of environmental demands level of perceived ability
What is the difference between achievement motivation and competitiveness
achievement motivation: self-comparison of achievement (competing against yourself) competitiveness: social evaluating or comparison (comparing against others)
incremental focus
adopting a task goal perspective and believing that one can change his or her ability through hard work and effort growth mindset
entity view
adopting an outcome foal focus where one sees one's ability as fixed and unable to be changed through effect fixed mindset
Dopamine Schedule
allows us to stay in pursuit of things, but also enjoy things after we accomplish them or even enroute
Predictions of Drive Theory
an individuals arousal or state of anxiety increases; so does performance Note: also used as the basis for social facilitation theory (the presence of others enhances performance on simple or well-learned skills and inhibits performance on complex or unlearned skills) Issues with the theory: not always true because can choke and it be all consuming and hinder performance
self-determination theory and what are the three general needs
contends that people are motivated to satisfy three general needs 1. competence (e.g., "I am a good runner") 2. Autonomy (e.g., A pitcher loves to decide what pitches to throw and to have the fate of the game in his or her hands.) control of what is going on 3. Social connectedness or belonging (e.g., A soccer player loves to be part of the team.)
What are the keys of achievement goal theory?
focus extra attention on task-oriented goals foster mastery or task motivational climates encourage approach goals
Achievement Motivation
focus on mastering a task, achieving at a high level, persisting even when confronted by obstacles often described as competitiveness, however big differences a person's orientation to strive for task success, persist in the face of failure, and experience pride in accomplishments
Attribution theory
focuses on how people explain their successes and failures. Examples: Stability Locus of causality Locus of control
negative approach for influencing behavior
focuses on punishing undesirable behaviors, which should lead to future redirection of these inappropriate behaviors
Positive approach for influencing behavior
focuses on rewarding appropriate behavior, which increases the likelihood of desirable responses occurring in the future
approach goal orientation
focusing on achieving competence
avoidance goal orientation
focusing on avoiding incompetence
perceived competence and control
have high perceived competence and feel that achievement is within their control
The Goldilocks Rule
humans experience peak motivation when working on tasks that are just right on the edge of their current abilities. Not too hard. Not too easy. Just right. - The general rule of thumb is that you should be failing on something you are working towards about 15% of the time and succeeding 85% of the time. Structure your challenges with that in mind. - If you want to hit the sweet spot, we usually say the challenge should be 4% greater than the skills. Get incrementally better every day by 4%.
Stress process
implications of the stress process for practice (intervene at any of the stress process stages)
Task (mastery) goal orientation
improving relative to one's own past performances - focus on improving skills and ability over time - tend to choose challenging tasks - prefer competing against high quality opponents
Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation
intrinsic: because of the interest and enjoyment in the task itself - enjoyment, purpose, growth, curiosity, fun extrinsic: because of the outcome that will result by doing the task. - promotions, pay raises, prizes, winning - research shows that intrinsic motivation tends to push people more forcefully, and the accomplishments are more fulfilling - higher levels of enjoyment (intrinsic) and commitment to their sport - better predictor of participation in a particular sport (leads to better performance) - more likely to experience flow - more likely to practice
Arousal
is a blend (no positive or negative connotations) of physiological and psychological activation, varying in intensity along a continuum
Anxiety
is a negative emotional state with feelings of worry, nervousness, and apprehension associated with activation or arousal of the body (doesnt have to be bad)
Trait anxiety
is a personality disposition that is stable over time. it is an acquired disposition that predisposes a person to perceive a wide range of objectively non-dangerous circumstances as threatening and to respond to these with disproportionate state anxiety levels. High-versus low- trait anxious people usually have more state anxiety in highly evaluative situations.
Need achievement theory
is an interactional view that considers both personal and situational factors as important predictors of behavior. Five components make up this theory: personality factors or motives, situational factors, resultant tendencies, emotional reactions, and achievement-related behaviors.
Perceived control state anxiety
is the degree to which one believes one has the resources and ability to meet challenges
Cognitive State Anxiety
is the degree to which one worries or has negative thoughts self-talk
Reinforcement
is the use of rewards and punishment, which increase or decrease the likelihood of a similar response occurring in the future
Social goal orientation
judging competence in terms of affiliation with the groups and recognition of being liked by others team cohesion
How is flow measured in the brain?
measure brain waves called Event Related Potentials (ERP) ERPs measure how fast the brain processes stimuli When elite athletes were engaged in performance-related tasks or activities, the olympic caliber athletes processed stimuli faster and earlier -> allowing them to experience time as moving slower compared to non-athlete controls
Measuring arousal and anxiety
measure physiological signs (heart rate, respiration, skin conductance, biochemistry) Global and multidimensional self-report scales (CSAI-2, SCAT, SAS-2)
Individualized Zones of Optimum Functioning (IZOF)
most accepted current theory graph
Trait-centered view
motivated behavior is primarily a function of individual characteristics The personality, needs, and goals of a student, athlete, or exerciser are the primary determinants of motivated behavior. Some people have personal attributes that seem to predispose them to success and high levels of motivation, whereas others seem to lack motivation, personal goals, and desire.
interactional view
motivated behavior results from the interaction of participant factors and situational factors trait+situation most widely accepted Interactionists contend that motivation results in neither solely from participant factors nor solely from situational factors
Situation-centered view
motivation level is determined primarily by situation
What achievement motivation says about high achievers?
motivational orientation attributions goals adopted perceived competence and control task choice performance
What are the theories of achievement motivation?
need achievement theory attribution theory achievement goal theory competence motivation theory
How to identify participant motives?
observe participants talk informally to others ask participants directly
performance
perform well in evaluative conditions
What are the approaches to influencing behavior?
positive approach negative approach most coaches and instructor combine positive and negative approaches sport psychologists agree that the predominant approach with physical activity and sport participants should be positive because the negative approach often instills fear in participants.
Instruction feedback
provides information about -specific behaviors to be performed -levels of proficiency that should be achieved -the performer's current level of proficiency
Punishment
punishment can control and change behavior, but 80% to 90% of reinforcement should be positive
State anxiety
refers to an emotional state characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of apprehension and tension, accompanied by or associated with activation or arousal of the autonomic nervous system. It is a right-now feeling of nervousness and apprehension that can change from moment to moment.
What is the intensity of effort?
refers to how much effort an individual puts forth in a situations For example, a student may attend physical education class (approach a situation) but not put forth much effort during class. On the other hand, a golfer may want to make a winning putt so badly that he becomes overly motivated, tightens up, and performs poorly.
What is the direction of effort
refers to whether an individual seeks out, approaches, or is attracted to situations. For example, a high school student may be motivated to go out for the tennis team, a coach to attend a coaching clinic, a businesswoman to join an aerobics class, or an injured athlete to seek medical treatment.
