states of consciousness

Hypersomnia

The person experiences excessive daytime sleepiness and has extreme difficulty in awakening. The person feels drowsy during the day no matter how many hours the person has slept. This may be caused by other sleep disorders such as insomnia, narcolepsy or sleep apnea.

problems with sleep restoration theory

-inactive people such as the disabled, do not necessarily sleep less than more active people; -it is not clear what, if anything, is restored and repaired during sleep; -during sleep we experience a fall in body temperature and metabolic rate which indicates that the body is conserving energy rather than restoring or rejuvenating itself.

electroencephalograph (EEG)

A state of consciousness cannot be observed or measured directly so psychologists use this to measure the electrical activity of the brain. Changes in brain wave patterns provide psychologists with information about a person's level of consciousness. The EEG has proven most useful in the identification of the different stages of sleep.

Measurement of physiological responses which can indicate different states of consciousness

electrical activity of the brain and other physiological responses, including heart rate, body temperature and galvanic skin response.

ways to study sleep

electroencephalograph (EEG), electromyograph (EMG), electro-oculargram (eye movements) and sleep laboratories.

Normal waking consciousness

refers to the state of consciousness in which we are awake, alert and aware of our thoughts, feelings, sensations and our environment. It is characterised by the following: Attention, memory, content and time limitations. In normal waking consciousness our attention can shift from our internal thoughts and feelings to external stimuli, i.e. what is happening around us. These shifts of attention can be deliberate or they can occur without us being aware of it. For example, if you were sitting on a train in a state of normal waking consciousness, your attention may be on your internal thoughts and feelings, thinking how tired you feel. Your attention might then shift to external stimuli, the person entering the carriage. You might then focus on their appearance and where they choose to sit. We cannot attend to everything that enters our senses. The amount of information that we attend to in normal waking consciousness at any one time is limited. We select only certain information and shift our focus and attention to information that interests or is meaningful to us. we have an awareness of our memories. We are conscious of past and present and can clearly differentiate between memories and what is happening to us at the present moment. We have a familiar sense of time and place.

controlled processes

require alert awareness, full attention and they interfere with other ongoing activities. For example, when you are first learning how to drive a car, your full concentration and attention are required. You would probably be so focused on changing gears, indicating correctly and watching your rearview mirror that you would not be able to pay much attention to the song playing on the radio. This focused attention is an example of controlled processes within normal waking consciousness.

William James' streams of consciousness

saw consciousness as a stream that was continuous and ever flowing, not disjointed. James believed that our thoughts, sensations, images and feelings are continually blending into each other, always changing and, like a stream, never ending.

Purpose of sleep: survival

suggests that sleep serves as a protective behaviour where the organism is inactive at the most dangerous time of the day. Sleep is therefore an adaptive process, evolved from our ancestors who needed to remain hidden at night to minimise attracting attention from predators at their most vulnerable time. Also, this theory proposes that sleep serves to preserve energy, or reduce heat loss at night by a lowered physical activity level.

consciousness

the level of awareness of our internal state and of our external environment. It consists of the sensations, perceptions, memories and feelings that we are aware of at any given moment. Consciousness exists at different levels, from being in a coma (unconscious) to being fully alert and in a state of hyperactivity. consciousness can be highly focused or more passive. During a typical day, we experience many different states of consciousness from being very alert in an exam to feeling drowsy while travelling home on the train.

altered state of consciousness causing perceptual and cognitive distortions

An altered state of consciousness can change the way we experience sensations. It can cause distortions in the meanings a person attributes to information entering the senses. This can result in distorted perceptions of external stimuli. Thoughts can become disorganised, often illogical and lacking in sequence, as a result of an altered state of consciousness. A person in an altered state may also experience difficulties in solving problems, as information processing is often impaired. The person's memory of events is not as efficient as in normal waking consciousness and they may be unable to recall certain events that took place while they were in an altered state.

sleep laboratory

As a person's sleep is affected by their surroundings, a sleep laboratory attempts to mimic a home. It contains one or more small bedrooms and furnishings and decorations are as homelike and comfortable as possible. A subject may spend a couple of nights in the sleep laboratory before data is recorded from them, as it is expected that they may be unsettled for the first night or two because of the new environment. However, by the third night, sleep is essentially normal and from this point on, observations can be considered useful.

pain as altered form of consciousness

Extreme pain can cause a person to enter an altered state of consciousness where the individual's thoughts, feelings and sensations are different in some way to when they are in normal waking consciousness. In order to deal with and control pain, some people use treatments which deliberately induce an altered state of consciousness such as meditation and biofeedback.

Narcolepsy

The person has sudden uncontrollable sleep attacks where they go from being wide awake straight into REM sleep. The usual muscle paralysis of REM sleep occurs called cataplexy. This disorder can be very dangerous, especially if a sleep attack happens when the person is driving or working with machinery.

stage two of sleep

In this stage sleep spindles begin to occur. These are sharply pointed waves recorded by the EEG. The EEG also shows rapid bursts of electrical activity with irregular brain waves.

REM sleep

Once the sleeper reaches stage four (about an hour after sleep begins) they then travel back up through stages three, two and one. When stage one is reached for the second time, REM sleep begins and the sleeper engages in about ten minutes of dreaming. Most dreams occur during this REM stage. The EEG reveals brain wave patterns that are very similar to beta waves when a person is awake, active and alert. For this reason, REM sleep has been called 'paradoxical sleep'. It is also characterised by jerky movements of the eyes beneath the eyelids, hence the label, rapid eye movement. The person's heart rate also increases, their blood pressure rises and their breathing becomes faster and more irregular. Luckily for others, our muscles are paralysed, preventing us from acting out our dreams. As the night progresses, the time spent in stages three and four decreases while REM sleep increases. The last stages or REM sleep can last up to one hour or so. The entire cycle of stages one through to four occurs approximately four to six times during an average eight hour period of sleep.

altered state of consciousness causing changes in emotional feeling and self-control

Some altered states, such as those brought on by certain drugs and alcohol, can cause a person to feel low, depressed or more emotional. Many people find that they express their emotions more openly while under an altered state of consciousness compared to when they are in normal waking consciousness. They may also be more open to suggestibility and find that they behave without self control, acting in a way that they would not ordinarily act in normal waking consciousness.

disturbed time sense in alteration of consciousness

Some people experience the feeling that the time has dragged on while others may feel that the time has zipped by.

Night terrors

These occur during NREM sleep (stage 4) and, because the muscles are not paralysed, involve violent body movements such as thrashing about or running. The person often wakes up in a sweat and in extreme stress, unable to recall the night terror. Night terrors occur less frequently than nightmares and usually occur earlier in the night than nightmares.

Nightmares

These occur during REM sleep and are frightening REM dreams. They can usually be remembered and usually occur during a REM episode toward the end of the night or early morning.

Sleep apnea

This is a temporary cessation of breathing during the night (can be 20 seconds or more) which deprives the person of oxygen. It is associated with snoring where the person gulps for air then settles back to sleep. This may happen hundreds of times throughout the night and can be very dangerous to the person's health.

Insomnia

This is when a person has problems getting adequate sleep. This can be a temporary or chronic problem. It may be caused by stress, depression or changes in biological rhythms.

Automatic processes

This is when you are awake but on 'automatic pilot'. Automatic processes occur with little awareness, require minimal attention and do not interfere with many other activities. For example, after some experience driving a car, you would probably change gears or lanes without much effort or little awareness. You could then cope with changing radio stations while continuing to drive. Sometimes you may even wonder how you got to your destination as you weren't paying much attention to your driving.

Sleep walking

This occurs during the deep NREM sleep (stage 4) and hence it is difficult to wake the sleepwalker. It appears to be an inherited trait.

Sleep talking

This often accompanies sleep walking and also occurs during the deep stages of NREM sleep (stage 4). It is also thought to have a hereditary link.

stage four of sleep

This stage consists of pure delta waves and it is extremely difficult to rouse the sleeper. This is the stage when sleep walking, sleep talking and night terrors occur.

stage one of sleep

This stage is characterised by small, irregular waves which are a combination of alpha and theta waves. During this stage the individual is drowsy and is drifting off into a light sleep from which they can be easily awoken. The person's heart rate slows down and their muscles relax. Apart from the very first time the person enters stage one sleep, this stage is known as REM sleep.

stage three of sleep

This stage is characterised by the onset of slower delta waves.These brain waves are high in amplitude and low in frequency. At this stage, the person becomes harder to awaken, their breathing and pulse rate slow down and their temperature drops.

mediation

a deliberate attempt to bring on an altered state of consciousness in order to experience deep relaxation. Meditation can take many forms, from concentrating one's attention on an external object or repeating a mantra to allowing the mind to be open and receptive to the surrounding environment. Whichever technique is used, the aim is to modify physiological functions in order to control pain.

Levels of awareness within normal waking consciousness vary

along a continuum between being alert, focused awareness and the minimal awareness characteristic of sleep. For example, at the alert end of the continuum are activities that demand high concentration, such as sitting an exam or playing a video game.

Some physiological changes resulting from meditation are:

an alteration in brain wave patterns showing more alpha waves less oxygen consumption less carbon dioxide exhaled less muscle tension lowered heart rate, blood pressure and respiration rate These physiological changes help the person achieve a sense of calm and well being. Meditation helps the person to focus on something else other than the pain and it helps to reduce the stress in the body. It serves as a beneficial non-medicinal pain reliever.

daydream

an altered state of consciousness where there is a change in brain wave patterns. The person is awake and experiences thoughts, images and sensations that are usually positive and pleasant in nature. Although awake, the person experiences a reduced awareness of external stimuli. Daydreaming usually occurs while the person is engaged in automatic processes where minimal attention to the task is required.The person has some control over daydreams and they have some positive effects: a way of relieving anxiety helping to keep mentally alert helping to solve problems increasing creativity

measurement of heart rate/body temperature/breathing rate

an altered state of consciousness would reveal a decrease in heart rate and body temperature.

night dream

an altered state of consciousness. They may be positive or negative and usually people have little control over their contents. Dreams in REM sleep tend to be more emotional and story-like in quality compared to dreaming in NREM sleep. NREM dreaming is more like thinking.

polygraph

apparatus used in a sleep laboratory, a machine which records on paper the output of various devices that can be attached to the person being studied

electroencephalograph when a person is relaxed and drowsy

brain wave patterns are a higher amplitude and have a lower frequency rhythm (8-12 cycles per second). These brain waves are called alpha waves. These waves are characteristic of someone falling asleep, entering stage 1 of sleep. (Try to remember alpha = almost asleep.)

electroencephalograph when a person is awake and alert

brain wave patterns are high in frequency (15-30 cycles per second) and low in amplitude. These small, irregular waves are called beta waves. (Try to remember beta = busy, as the person is active and alert.)

electroencephalograph as sleep progresses and becomes deeper and deeper

brain waves are slower in frequency and higher in amplitude. Stages three and four of sleep reveal these slow waves which are called delta waves.(3-5 cycles per second). (Try to remember delta = deep sleep.)

galvanic skin response (GSR)

can be used to make inferences about the changes in an individual's state of consciousness. The GSR measures changes in electrical conductivity in the skin by using two electrodes placed on the skin and passing a weak current between them. These changes indicate arousal of the autonomic nervous system, as arousal causes sweating and the consequent damp skin increases its electrical conductivity.

effects of sleep deprivation

irritability, tiredness, confusion, lack of concentration, headaches, hallucinations and lack of energy. Research has found that individuals who have been deprived of sleep are more able to concentrate on complex tasks than on simple tasks. People do not need to sleep the same number of hours which they lost to recover from sleep deprivation. When research subjects are constantly awoken when in REM sleep and are deprived of REM sleep over successive nights, they appear more tense, irritable and more anxious than subjects deprived of the same amount of sleep but not REM sleep. Lack of REM sleep appears to affect our ability to concentrate and remember. When allowed to sleep uninterrupted, subjects experience REM rebound. That is, they spend twice as much time in REM sleep as normal to make up for the REM sleep lost. This indicates that REM sleep is vital for our survival.

electro-oculargram (EOG, eye movements)

is used to measure eye movements by attaching electrodes to the skin around the eyes. It also assists in the recognition of REM sleep, as the EOG shows high activity due to rapid eye movements in REM sleep.

Altered states of consciousness

there are significant changes to the way people experience thoughts, feelings and sensations. People are more likely to experience the extremes of sensations and emotions while in an altered state of consciousness. An altered state of consciousness may occur naturally, such as sleeping, or it may be intentionally induced, such as meditation.

Purpose of sleep: restoration

we need sleep for physical growth and repair of the body. Sleep allows damaged cells to be repaired and muscles to rid themselves of waste products. This theory also maintains that sleep assists with brain growth and restoration. Most of this restoration takes place during stages 3 and 4 of sleep. This theory is supported by research which shows that people engaged in vigorous physical activity sleep longer.

lucid dreaming

when a person is aware that they are dreaming and is able to direct the action in the dream; the person has control over the sequence of events in the dream. This has been used as a therapeutic technique where the dreamer attempts to change the negative ending of the dream to overcome a traumatic event.

problems with sleep survival theory

when asleep, an animal is less alert and potentially more vulnerable to attack by predators.

Biofeedback

where an individual is given external feedback about bodily functions such as blood pressure, pulse rate and muscle tension to bring an automatic physiological function under voluntary control. The individual is wired to a machine which displays immediate feedback about physiological activity. The individual then learns how to change and control these physiological responses by using mental or physical means in response to the biofeedback. Subjects can become so skilled at controlling bodily functions that they eventually do away with the biofeedback device and focus on the technique alone. Biofeedback can be successfully used to treat migraines, asthma and other stress related illnesses. It gives the person some control over their bodily functions and, like meditation, helps the person to focus on something else other than the pain.