STS Quiz #2
How did "Iron-Mad" Wilkinson's and James Watts' collaboration affect the Industrial Revolution?
"Iron-Mad" Wilkinson's and James Watts' collaboration affected the Industrial Revolution because they created the key to the interchangeability of parts.
What did Robert Bakewell contribute?
"The best of the breeders," creating the New Leicseter sheep breed, which grew rapidly, producing mutton.
The World Economic Forum describes four revolutions occurring approximately:
1. 1760s-1840s: The steam engine ushers in factory production and railroads. 2. 1870s-1960s: Electricity and oil enable internal combustion engines, electric motors, utilities. 3. 1970s-1980s: Digital technology like mainframe computers, semiconductors, internet. 4. 2000s-now: Internet, smart factories, artificial intelligence, machine learning, cloud computing.
What is demographic transition, which is characteristic of industrial societies?
1. A period of high birth rates and death rates. (Common in preindustrial societies.) 2. A continuing high birth rate but falling death rate boosts population. (People are living longer.) 3. Birth rate slows, but a new, larger population equilibrium is now established. (Common in industrial societies.)
Possible changesin your lifetime
1. Extending digital technologies 2. reforming the physical world 3. altering human beings 4. integrating the environment
The first Industrial Revolution Five social factors of Britain:
1. Political stability 2. Flexible financial institutions 3. Strong social system 4. Surplus population 5. Hard work, self-discipline
He lists five factors at the end that made Britain conducive to the Industrial Revolution. His list is slightly different than his opening.
1. Political stability 2. Sound financial institutions. 3. Population growth. 4. A government sympathetic to commercial and colonial trade ventures. 5. Adaptable population.
Societal transitions
1. Populations shift from rural to urban 2. Factory work introduced 3. Agriculture becomes commercial 4. Industries, work lives upended
Economic transitions
1. Product quantity improved rapidly. 2. Product quality improved rapidly. 3. Prices kept coming down. 4. Workers gathered together to work under close supervision. 5. Machines could do the work much faster with fewer "hands." 6. Energy was water power and later steam.
What were four reasons that England was able to break out of that "iron circle" that killed off populations?
1. innovations in agriculture 2. an enviornmental warming trend 3. edward jenner's smallpox inoculations 4. bubonic plague began to disapear
Historians say the factors that caused England to be first with the Industrial Revolution included:
1. political stability 2. development of flexible financial institutions 3. strong social system 4. surplus population available to work 5. habits of hard work and self-discipline
Work lives changing: Fourth Industrial Revolution, For Employers
20-30% of Fortune 100 company employees now part-time/contract. 50% predicted by 2025. WHY? • Cut cost No benefits for part-timers. No paid vacation. Quickly off payroll. • Counter market disrupters • Compete globally
From 1780 to 1820, England's textile factory output rose by
2200 oercent
Foundtional difference between 3rd and 4th Industrial Revolution
A foundational difference13While the third industrial relied on steel becoming cheap enough to be a primary building material, the fourth industrial revolution is using a new tech: carbon nanofibers.A foundational difference13
Work lives changing: Fourth Industrial Revolution, For Workers
AGE 18-2469% of jobs last less than one year. 93% last less than 5 years. AGE 35-4436% percent of jobs lasted less than a year. 75% lasted less than 5 years. PART-TIME/'FREE AGENTS'53 million in 2018.60 million predicted 2020.
Manufacturing reversal (4th)
Additive manufacturing builds objects by adding layers of material. Subtractive manufacturing sculpts finished parts out of a larger piece of material.
How did the British Navy's dominance of the seas emerge, and how did it fit in?
After winning wars with France, Great Britain dominated the seas and could protect its merchant marine (or cargo ships). The Royal Navy actively supported the merchant marine.
Who was Thomas William Coke?
An aristocrat, member of Parliament who owned several estates. At his model Park Farm he hosted the first agricultural shows annually for 40 years. Farmers from across England, as well as scientists and leading Enlightenment thinkers liked to attend. Farming innovations were a cool topic and fashionable!
What is an example of a slow application?
An example of a slow application is Mendel's discoveries regarding genetics and the laws of hereditary which went relatively ignored until they were picked up again much later.
How were Enlightenment ideals apparent in the Agricultural Revolution?
Arthur Young's attitude is an example. God—"Divine Providence"—had created a universal abundance that just needs human energy to be realized. Allitt says, "It is an idea that comes up constantly in 18th century literature from people like Voltaire: 'God is reasonable. He created a perfect world, and we need to work out rationally and reasonably how to put it to our best possible use."
What were three other innovations were placed by act of Parliament or the Bank of England that led to financial stability in England?
Bank notes (paper money); limits on investors' liability if a venture failed; insurance institutions. Stock market.
"England before the Industrial Revolution was a 'face-to-face' world.'"
Bankers knew the people to whom they were lending. "A reputation for probity [honesty, uprightness, high ideals] was absolutely essential." Also, bankers could keep a sharp eye on their loans.
Fourth Industrial Revolution Science
Biotechnology enables manipulation of life forms, from plants to people (genetic modifications).• Xenobots, or living, programmable machines, introduced in 2020.• New, clean energy sources developing• List goes on an on: quantum computing, high-energy batteries ... • Most influential science of this era: biology.
King James II (1633-1701):
Brother of Charles II and did not rule as circumspectly, eventually alienating those whose support he needed. He finally fled England.
King Charles II
Charles I's son, brought back from exile in France and crowned king. He restored the traditions of the monarchy but did not forget his father's fate.
Which new crops were dedicated to animal feed? Why was this beneficial?
Clover and turnips. This put nutrients back into the earth so fields weren't worked to death. Also meant more animals and more manure ... fertilizer. "A benevolent cycle."
Titus Salt
Created Saltaire, a state-of the art factory producing an alpaca wool/cotton blend. He built a workers' village right next door. No alcohol. Saltaire had a hospital, chapel, school, retirement home, library.
Charles 1
Declared war on Parliament in 1642. Lost and was eventually executed.
Who were among the bank's best customers?
Dutch merchants
Parliament (1215-present)
England's legislative assembly, consisting of the House of Lords, House of Commons, and the monarch. Parliament makes the laws of the land.
What are "Malthusian checks"?
Famine, pestilence, malnutrition that kill off surplus population.
What is "Fatalism"? How did it fit in? What were key names we've heard that fit in here?
Fatalism is a powerful source of inertia that can stall human advancement. Industrialization defies the idea that the future cannot be different and better. Key names are Robert Boyle (considered the father of modern chemistry), John Locke (considered one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, even influencing the U.S. Constitution; leaders rule by consent of the people) Isaac Newton (the top name of the Scientific Revolution).
What nation took the lead in chemistry and (briefly) how?
Germany took the lead due to its systematic, formal technological and mechanical ways. Though Britain was equally equipped, Germany had the mindset needed to help them succeed in this area.
How was Charles "Turnip" Townshend a pioneer of agricultural research?
He championed crop rotation instead of leaving a field "fallow," or unplanted to recover fertility. His four-crop rotation was wheatturnipsbarleyclover. His estate was Raynham Hall.
How did Charles Darwin use "domestic selection" in the first few chapters of On the Origin of Species to make his argument?
He used it as an example of his theory on natural selection. Farmers had used their own selection process in the agricultural revolution to modify animals and make them more useful to people. So they had seen animals change and got the concept; British cows and sheep in 1850 were completely different animals—more useful—than they were in 1700.
Who was Thomas Malthus? What was his theory? His book?
He was the author of An Essay on the Principle of Population (1791), which said population increases geometrically (2-4-8-16), but food supplies increase arithmetically (2-3-4-5). So population always outstrips the ability of the land to feed it. Some people would always be on the brink of starvation.
Who was Arthur Young?
He wrote 25 books on farming and took on risky experiments that made him not such a great farmer. George Washington and he corresponded. He saw farming in an Enlightenment perspective--Nature is meant for the good of mankind but needs man's rational thinking and hard work to produce.
Who was Henry Bessemer and what was the Bessemer converter?
Henry Bessemer was the inventor and engineer who created a process that made manufacturing steel inexpensive and more efficient with the use of the Bessemer converter. Originally created as a way to improve upon the functionality of cannons, the Bessemer converter became a machine manned by unskilled workers to quickly and efficiently manufacture steel.
Industrial Revolution Society
Huge changes. The economy shifts from cottage to industrial societies. Migration from country to city. From small farms to much larger, commercially based farms. Jarring transitions.
What are the three aspects of the Second Industrial Revolution Mokyr stresses?
I: The idea of a feedback cycle between science and technology after 1870 where the relationship between these two things gets much closer. II: The nature of the organization of production changed. As a result economies of scale became much more important. New industries arose and so did new, big problems. III: As a result of changing production, new technological systems came to be. Each system required a new technological system, causing the government to have to step in and take control when industries fell short.
What does Rosenberg say in his conclusion about the work of the "industrial labs" that were arising?
In his conclusion about the work of the "industrial labs" that were arising, Rosenberg says that these were the "day-to-day" work of the scientist, not the research that would further the advancements of science, but it still should not be overlooked for it had great economic value.
What was the inflection point in human history advancement?
Industrialization
4. Work ethic and self-discipline
Industrialization is characterized by attitudes that had been promoted by the Protestant Reformation: Successful hard work was a virtue.
How did insurance institutions fit into the needed financial stability?
Investors could hedge their risks.
What was the Glorious Revolution?
It established the principle that the king ruled at the sufferance of Parliament. It was a bloodless revolution; King James II fled the country.
What was the "Navigation Act"? How did it nurture a British merchant marine?
It was a law that required that all trade from the colonies use British ships (merchant marine) and pass through British ports. This was a business boom for British shipping and trade.
The Royal Society began in _1660__. What was it?
It was a scientific organization dedicated to scientific knowledge and systematically advancing it.
Who was James Joule, and what was the everyday problem he was trying to solve that contributed to thermodynamics?
James Joule was a brewer, but he was very interested in science and the relationship between heat and mechanical work and is considered to be the one who developed the Law of Conservation of Energy. He was trying to figure out how much work could be extracted from a single source.
Which of the six scientists Rosenberg highlighted, which one is associated with modern surgery?
Joseph Lister.
Characteristics of the open land system:
Land was communally farmed in strips, and different farmers worked different strips. Farmers moved from field to filed. Very inefficient. Diligent farmers were hampered by lazy ones. After harvest, animals turned loose to graze on the stubble. The "common land" or "Commons" was available to all for use (grazing, firewood).
Oliver Cromwell
Led Parliament's army against Charles 1. After having Charles 1 beheaded, he became "Lord Protector of England" for several years of English Commonwealth before he died.
What practical problems was Louis Pasteur trying to solve that contributed to his work?
Louis Pasteur was trying to figure out how to stop the spread of germs and diseases and he ended up making many discoveries regarding vaccinations.
How did a community go about switching to enclosure?
Major local landowners introduced a bill to Parliament to enclose village. 2. The land was surveyed and split among those with a legal title to it.
Notes on England's Constitutional monarchy. Who could vote? Who had access to power?
Male property owners, about 5% of the men. Nevertheless, this was a step toward power sharing, providing local leaders and commercial leaders access to power.
From Mokyr's conclusion, what was a pro and what was a con of the Second Industrial Revolution?
Mokyr noted how the Second Industrial Revolution had a positive impact on wages and standards of living as well as set the groundwork for even more monumental revolutions and advancements in the future. However, it also changed the way technological change itself occurs.
Key changes made possible England's Agricultural Revolution, which enabled food production to more than keep pace with the growing population of England and allow the Industrial Revolution:
New forms of land tenure New crops Improved animal husbandry New farm machinery
Who were the majority of industrial leaders and why
Nonconformists were not members of the state Church of England. These included Quakers, Presbyterians, Baptists, Congregationalists, Unitarians. The reason: they were barred from other professional pursuits. Dr. Allitt: "A strikingly large number of the great industrial entrepreneurs of the late 18th century were nonconformists."
What is an example of a rapid application of an innovation?
One example of a rapid application of an innovation is the x-ray which was rapidly applied to all areas of medicine because the technology was incredibly useful and could help in many different ways.
How was this better than the banking previous monarchies had had or the French had at that time?
Other systems were chaotic and charged too much interest. This had been true in England and was still true of France at the time.
What was "human capital?"
People with capacity. People with an interest in science, tech, and innovation and who have a willingness to experiment. In this era, it was the exciting idea that the future might be different—and better—than the past.
1. political stability
Political stability is the first step to a nation's financial stability. Investors won't "bank on" nations they think might collapse. England's government stabilized in 1668, but earlier in the 1600s its political system was in turmoil. It was fraught with civil war.
3. Surplus Population
Population rose rapidly. Population was about _5 million__ in 1700 and about _5.5 million__ in 1750. It was about _8.3 million__ in 1801. It was _16.8 million in 1851.
2. New crops
Potatoes / turnips / swedes / mangel-wurzels / clover.
First Industrial Revolution
Roughly 1760s. Steam engines power new machinery of massive scales. People harness more energy than ever before. Society shifts from agricultural to industrial. The first industry to adopt the factory system: textiles. • Science's role: Little to none.
Third Industrial Revolution
Roughly 1950s/1960s. Nuclear energy is tapped. Digital technology develops, ushering in computing, space flight, biotechnology, robotics in manufacturing. • The most influential science of this era is physics and learning about nuclear energy.
Fourth Industrial Revolution
Roughly 1990s to now.• Introduction of the Internet revolutionizes workplace, economics, society. People across world can be individually connected instantly, making Boston and Bangalore "next-door neighbors."• Artificial intelligence emerges.
Second Industrial Revolution Science
Science begins to play a huge role in improvement, especially chemistry (artificial fertilizers, explosives, textile dyes, oil refining).
2. Financial Institutions
So with political stability resolved, the next step was developing sophisticated banking and insurance institutions. The Bank of England stabilized the nation's finances. It could lend at the low interest rate of _8%.
how did the shift to steel impact global transportation
Steel was used in ships as seen in hulls. They became much bigger and faster. This led to a focus on making the ship even better and altering the engine and the way it ran. It immensely impacted global transportation and made it more efficient.
T/F Question: Nonconformists were barred from university education, political and military careers, but not economic activity.
TRUE
Regarding electricity, which system do we use today?
Tesla's and Westinghouse's AC (alternating current) system.
What were the "captains of industry" recognizing as having great economic value? Give one example:
The "captains of industry" were recognizing that having scientific knowledge had great economic value. They were using science in order to gain an edge in the marketplace.
What was the "curious side effect" of precision engineering and machine tools?
The "curious side effect" of precision of engineering and machine tools was the fact that with their innovation, they put skilled craftsmen out of work in significantly large numbers.
What was the "second unlooked-for consequence" of machine tools?
The "second unlooked-for consequence" of machine tools was the added benefit of making the process of assembly simpler and more predictable along with the benefit of simple battlefield repair.
How was the aristocracy of England getting interested and involved in the growth of lucrative Industrial Revolution? How did this contrast to the attitudes of other aristocrats in Europe?
The British aristocrats felt they should be politically sympathetic to the idea of economic growth. They also were looking for opportunities too, such as mining their land or boosting profits on their farms. In contrast, in Spain, to work was a dishonor for a don, and in Prussia, war as the focus and business pursuits contemptible.
What did John Ellman contribute?
The Southdown sheep, which grew wool that was easy to card and spin. This was valuable as the textile industry took off.
How the textile trade worked before industrialization
The clothiers used the "putting out" method, which involved taking wool to families to entirely process it into cloth. From carding to weaving, a family in a cottage did it all. As cotton became more popular in 1700, the workers got Parliament to ban the import of calico cotton from India because it threatened the wool workers. Note how Parliament is on the side of the workers at the start of the century. By 1774 we see a dramatic shift in Parliament's sympathies when they lift the imports. By then, the textile industry had been centralized and mechanized.
How would you paraphrase what historian Eric Hobsbawm (1917-2012) said?
The early Industrial Revolution was technically primitive because applying simple ideas and machines could produce dramatic results. Often these ideas had been around for centuries (such as waterwheels)
What product did the first "truly mechanically produced production line" in the U.S. make?
The first "truly mechanically produced production line" in the U.S. made guns, "lock, stock, and barrel" just as Blanc had intended.
Divine Right of Kingship
The idea that monarchs were chosen by God. Kings answer only to God, not Parliament or the people.
Third Industrial Revolution Science
The most influential science of this era is physics and learning about nuclear energy.
What was the pairing that would grow more sophisticated in the 20th century?
The pairing that would grow more sophisticated in the 20th century was science and industry. The innovation process required scientific input in order to make notable advancements.
What was the response of Honore Blanc's professional colleagues to his flintlock musket?
The response of Honore Blanc's professional colleagues to his flintlock musket was general uneasiness. Though there were those who found the machine very innovative, Blanc's colleagues found many faults in the mucket and could not find the advantage of having this particular weapon.
What was the role of machine tools?
The role of machine tools was to allow for the mass production of complicated devices rather than having to use tools in a long strenuous process.
Trustworthiness and the Bank of England
The saying "As safe as the Bank of England" became a catchphrase we still hear today. This trustworthiness attracted investment from _abroad._
1. New forms of land tenure
The shift from the open field system and common land to enclosure (or enclosed fields)
King William III (1650-1702) and Queen Mary II (1662-1694):
These monarchs, installed by Parliament, created the conditions of political stability that have endured until today. They made Britain a constitutional monarchy, one of the most durable in the world.
Characteristics of enclosure:
These strips were consolidated into fields and fenced off. One farmer would farm an enclosed field. Process started in 1500s, picked up speed in 1600s and concluded in 1700s (so it's a transition slowly rolled out over hundreds of years). The land would be surveyed (a profession that developed) and land shared out to all who had a legal title to it. The rationale was that farms would become more efficient and productive. Wealthy landowners gained from this process, but commoners lost their ancient "commons" rights. If they could not document their use of common land or perhaps their right to have a hut on the commons, they might have to move. They became the first generation of factory workers or stayed and became landless farm laborers.
How did hard-steel plows change agriculture?
They boosted productivity by needing less sharpening, reducing maintenance time that slowed plowing jobs.
How did Jethro Tull's seed drill improve agriculture?
They improved the regularity of plant distribution in fields. You got higher yields and cut losses to birds.
How much of the U.S. population supplies its agriculture?
Today about 2% of U.S. population are farrmers.
What happened to the amount of acreage under cultivation?
Total acreage being farmed increased—21 million in 1700 to 29 million in 1800. Also, each farm on average got bigger (65 acres in 1700 to 150 acres south of River Trent [around London]. North of RiverTrent, grew to about 100).
What were two other industries that relied on this "American system" of manufacturing?
Two other industries that relied on this "American system" of manufacturing were Issac Singer's sewing machines, and Cyrus McCormick's reapers and harvesters. About a century later, it was Henry Ford's Model T.
Briefly, what became of Honore Blanc?
Unfortunately, during the French Revolution of 1789 Blanc's workshop was sacked by a mob and his political support was immediately depleted. He was in immense debt and was never able to see his own ideas take shape.
Who ended up in control of the land? How was it decided who would control the land?
Wealthy landowners who could document their right to the land. The decision rested on who could prove in court a right to the land. Commoners could not.
What are two examples that Hobsbawm referenced?
Windmills, waterwheels
Macroinvention
a groundbreaking invention that led to the start of somethingmonumental.
microinvention
a smaller invention that may have been seemingly insignificant butwas actually a small image in a bigger picture.
Stock Market
begins in the 1690s, the surplus money was available for reinvestment
Second Industrial Revolution
bout 1870. Electricity is harnessed as an energy source. Internal combustion engines cause shift from steam to oil and gasoline (cars, planes, ships, diesel locomotives). Steel becomes a primary building material because metalworkers figure out how to mass produce it (and lower its price), enabling skyscrapers, machinery like cars and metal ships. Another huge improvement: machine tools, making interchangeable parts truly interchangeable and with very precise fits.
Wealthiest merchants began investing their profits in government bonds. This national debt through bond purchases shows
confidence in the future of the state and its ability to keep paying interest. So investors wanted government stability to persist.
James Hargreaves's "spinning jenny" in 1764
eased the bottleneck. The spinning jenny took the traditional spinning wheel from one spindle to eight. Hargreaves, by the way, was a tinkerer and woodworker. The machine was named after his wife.
Bank of England
established by act og prliament in 1694, motivated by a need to rebuild navy after five wars with france, and it was modeled after the swedish national bank
Industrial Revolution Technology
huge role. New machines, not very complex by our standards but reapplying existing technology in inventive/ingenious ways made big differences in productivity.
Richard Arkwright's "water frame"
improved on the spinning jenny. Arkwright's spinning machine for cotton yarn made him one of the biggest names in the textile revolution. Arkwright built a factory on a river so he could put in overshot waterwheels, which are far more efficient than undershot.
As steam power replaced water wheels...
industrialists came to prefer hiring women and children. The 1825 Power Mule did all the hard work, and the "hands" were needed to repair threads and tend the machines from inside the running machines. Women had more dexterity, and children were small and could fit into the tight spots. Since the Napoleonic wars sent men to war, it meant more women and children were hired. Orphans also were sent to work in mills to get them off public support.
Industrial Revolution Science
little role. discoveries at this time were laying a groundwork that would not really enhance productivity until the late 1800s
Samuel Crompton's "spinning mule"
machine could make an amazing 300 hanks to the pound. One mule could hold 1,000 spindles. It was tended by 2 or 3 people to do the job that dozens or even hundreds of people once did on individual spinning wheels.
How did the bank make money?
making loans and recieving interest
Agriculture shifted from subsistence farming to
market-oriented business
Robert Owen
pioneered the idea of model communities that were better for workers. He was horrified by the homes, the work conditions, alcoholism, illiteracy.
Rather than horde their wealth or spend it on luxuries, what did successful businessmen tend to do?
reinvest, Many businessmen were members of puritanical Protestant denominations. They valued reinvestment, sobriety, sound business practices.
Colonial ventures that Allitt noted produced wealth (capital) seeking reinvestment
sugar, spices, slaves, tabacco
What was the first British industry to be changed by industrialization
textiles
What did Mokyr say about the use of steel after 1880 in comparison to previous "spring and dagger demand?"
that it became the primary material that most things were made including machines, weapons, and tools.
Industrialization
the building and running of factories
From where and when did this idea come to revitalize the land's nitrogen with crop rotation?
the netherlands
True or false: Every industrial society has to be an agricultural society as well.
true
Cotton Gin
was invented in 1793. It enabled US planters to grow cotton in bulk and ship it to England. Cotton was the US's top export crop from the Revolutionary War to the Civil War.
John Kay's "flying shuttle" (1733)
was the first attempt at a weaving machine. It worked at twice the speed of a conventional loom. Now weaving was much faster, making spinning the bottleneck of the entire cloth making process.
The Lombe Brothers' silk mill in Derby
was the world's first water-driven factory. It was built in 1721 and employed 300 workers. The factory spun silk thread to be sold to weavers. This may be the first case of industrial espionage—Thomas Lombe went to Italy and got a job in such a silk mill, then brought the simple machine's design back to England. The Lombe Brothers got a patent and 14 years of exclusive use of the technology in England.
Allitt refers to "painful gender reversals"...
when men would not be hired and women earned the income. However, women and children were paid less. Industrialists also realized they were less likely to strike.
Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)
wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1845 and said the stress of unreliable work was worse than the slum conditions or bad food.
