Study ch: 1,2,3
________ is the second step in the scientific method.
"Collect data"
amnion
(part of embryonic period ) * prenatal life-support system that is a bag or envelope containing a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats
umbilical cord
(part of embryonic period ) *A life-support system containing two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the placenta.
placenta
(part of embryonic period ) *The structure that provides an exchange of nutrients and wastes between the fetus and mother and secretes the hormones necessary to maintain the pregnancy *An organ that connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply, fight against internal infection and produce hormones to support pregnancy.
organogenesis
(part of embryonic period ) Organ formation that takes place during the first two months of prenatal development.
blastocyst
(part of germinal period ) The inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period. These cells later develop into the embryo.
trophoblast
(part of germinal period ) The outer layer of cells that develops in the germinal period. These cells provide nutrition and support for the embryo.
nature (vs nurture)
* refers to an organisms biological inheritance
Vygotsky's sociocultural cognitive theory
**empshasizes how cultral and social interaction guide cognitive dev. *zone of proximal development: range of tasks a child cannot yet perform without help of adult *Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition Vygotsky. He believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning."
fetal period
*9 weeks - birth *the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child *The stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the fetus gains about 7 pounds (more than 3,000 grams) and organs become more mature, gradually able to function on their own. *After fertilization, the process of embryogenesis, (the early stages of prenatal development) begins. By the end of the tenth week of gestational age the embryo has acquired its basic form and the next period is that of fetal development where the organs become fully developed.
x-linked inheritance
*A pattern of inheritance in which a recessive gene is carried on the X chromosome, so that males are more likely to be affected *almost always associated with the X (female) chromosome and the inheritance pattern is predominantly recessive; female heterozygotes rarely experience the effects of a defective gene, whereas all males who receive the gene are typically affected *pattern of inheritance in which a recessive characteristic is expressed because it is carried on the male's X chromosome *The problem gene is found on the X chromosome. This condition is more likely to affect men
Longitudinal Research
*A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed. *For example, I may start with 100 3 yr. Olds and then tests these participants when they are 5 and then again at age 7. *This is an elegant method for studying developmental change. *A drawback is that participants may drop out of the study. This is called subject drop out (or attrition).
fetal MRI
*A strong magnet. More accurate than ultrasound sonography to find abnormalities in the central nervous system.
Independent Variables
*A variable that a scientist changes to find out how this change affects other variables in the experiment. -->For example, if I wanted to test whether lighting condition affects a child's attention in a classroom, the independent variable would be lighting condition (bright lights vs. dim lights). If is important that the independent variable has at least two levels to it. For example, the independent variable of lighting condition has the levels of bright lights vs. dim lights.
conception
*Conception-Every 28 days an ovum is released from a woman's ovary and remains viable for approximately 24 hours. Conception takes place in the fallopian tube where sperm and ovum unite to form the zygote (fertilized ovum). *Period of the Zygote
Sickle-cell anemia
*Condition where red blood cells assume an abnormal sickle shape *****A genetic disorder that affects the red blood cells and occurs most often in people of African descent.
early-later experience
*Controversy regarding the degree to which early experiences (especially during infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of children's development. *if infants experience harmful circumstances, can those expreinces be overcome by later, positive one? *early-
chromosomes
*Formed from chromatin; 23 pairs of these in humans *A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins. *A threadlike structure within a cell's nucleus that contains DNA that is passed from one generation to the next.
1) microsystem
*In the bioecological model, the immediate environment that an individual personally experiences (parents and siblings, doctors office, day-care)
discontinuity
*Lack of stability in development. *developing with some stages of rapid growth and some of relatively little change *people change abruptly
Home Delivery
*Many mothers who choose home delivery want to avoid unnecessary medical procedures and to exercise control over their own care and that of their babies. *Many home deliveries are handled by nursemidwives who have degrees in nursing and training in childbirth management.
survival of the fittest
*Natural selection *Process by which individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully; also called natural selection
Assessing the Newborn's Physical Condition: The Apgar Scale
*The Apgar Scale is used to assess the infant's physical condition on 5 criteria, each of which is rated from 0 to 2. --->Two Apgar ratings are given, at 1 and 5 minutes after birth, since some babies have trouble adjusting at first but do quite well after a few minutes. ---> A normal healthy baby will score somewhere between 7 and 10 on the Apgar Scale.
Birth of the Placenta
*The final stage lasts about 5 to 10 minutes. --->The final contractions and pushes cause the placenta to separate from the uterine wall and be delivered.
germinal period
*The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation. *first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation *A period of rapid cell division during prenatal development that lasts approximately 2 weeks, and ends with the implantation of the cellular mass into the uterine wall.
gene x environment (GxE) interaction
*The interaction of a specific measured variation in the DNA and a specific measured aspect of the environment (ex. one study found that people suffered parental loss as a young child were more likely to have unresolved attachment as adults only when they had the short version of a particular gene *The interaction of a specific measured variation in the gene and a specific measured aspect of environment
Dependent Variables
*The outcome factor -- the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable --->In the lighting condition experiment, for example, the measure of children's attentiveness would be the dependent variable. -->The dependent variable may depend on the independent variable
prenatal period
*The period from conception to birth, usually encompassing nine months of pregnancy *single cell turns into an organism
Canalization
*The tendency of heredity to restrict the development of some characteristics to just one or a few outcomes. *a narrow developmental course of certain characteristics that are not malleable by the environment. --> A strongly canalized trait is one that is heavily influenced by hereditary factors. For example, height is mostly determined by genetics. --->A weakly canalized trait is more susceptible to environmental influences. For example, weight is determined somewhat by hereditary factors but the environment can influence a person's weight.
social cognitive theory
*The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development. *Theory that holds that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences (Bandura).
Psychoanalytic Theories
*Theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents extensively shape development
Dilation and Effacement of the Cervix
*This is the longest stage of labor--lasting, on average, 12 to 14 hours with a first baby and 4 to 6 hours with later births. --> Dilation and effacement of the cervix is the widening and thinning of the cervix resulting in a clear pathway from the uterus into the birth canal. --->Uterine contractions start out at 10 to 20 minutes apart and last about 15 to 20 seconds. Gradually, they grow closer together and more forceful-occurring every 2 to 3 minutes and lasting as long as 60 seconds. --->Transition is the climax of the first stage in which the frequency and strength of contractions are at their peak and the cervix opens completely.
Delivery of the Baby
*This stage lasts approximately 50 minutes for the first baby and 20 minutes in subsequent births. -->The mother squezzes and pushes with her abdominal muscles and forces the baby down and out. -->An episiotomy is a small incision that increases the size of the vaginal opening and permits the baby to pass without damaging the mother's tissues. -->The baby's head crowns (begins to show) when the vaginal opening stretches around the entire head and with additional pushing from the mother, the baby is born.
down syndrome
*Trisomy 21 *chronically transmitted form of intellectual disability, caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21 --> This disorder occurs when the twenty-first pair of chromosomes contains an extra chromosome. -->Some symptoms of children with Down Syndrome include folds in the eyelids, a flattened face, protruding tongue, speech problems, some level of mental retardation, and slow motor development. --->Maternal age is correlated with the frequency of Down Syndrome in children. In about 20 percent of the cases however, originates from the father. -->There are other trisomy abnormalities that may occur as well (e.g., trisomy-18). --->Trisomy 18 is a relatively common syndrome affecting approximately 1 out of 3,000 live births, and affecting girls more than three times as often as boys. It is caused by the presence of an extra number 18 chromosome, which leads to multiple abnormalities. Many of these abnormalities make it hard for infants to live longer than a few months, some not beyond the first week.
pavlov's classical conditioning
*a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone. *Conditioning process in which an originally neutral stimulus, by repeated pairing with a stimulus that normally elicits a response, comes to elicit a similar or even identical response; aka Pavlovian conditioning albert exaple: *Neutral Stimulus: The white rat Unconditioned Stimulus: The loud noise Unconditioned Response: Fear Conditioned Stimulus: The white rat Conditioned Response: Fear
Structured Observation
*a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each child and recording the child's behavior -->I may want to observe sibling interactions. Therefore, I could bring a game to children's houses and see how the siblings interact with each other as they play the game. --->So, in structured observation, the researcher has a little more control, compared to naturalistic observation, and may record specific types of behaviors.
Cross-Sectional Research
*a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics -->For example, I may want to select 3 yr. Olds, 5 yr. Olds, and 7 yr. Olds to test at one time. This method is advantageous because data may be collected over time, but one problem is that this method uses different participants.
teratogen
*a teratogen is any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period -->Larger doses of teratogens over long periods of time usually have more negative effects. --->The genetic make-up of the mother and developing organism may enable or hinder their ability to withstand harmful environments. -->The presence of several negative factors at once can worsen the impact of a single harmful agent. -->The effects of teratogens vary with the organism's age at the time of exposure. For instance, a part of the body is in a sensitive period when it is undergoing rapid development. --->The embryonic period is the time when serious defects are most likely to occur, since the foundations for all body parts are being laid down. --->The effects of teratogens may have consequences for the physical and psychological development of the newborn after birth.
skinners operant conditioning
*accounts for the dev. of other types of behavior * Learning to repeat or stop behavior because of their consequences *reward and punishment *depending on the consequence, you will be more or less likely to repeat an action later
Freud's Theory
*adults problems are a result of experiences early in life * as children grow up, their focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually the genitals *as a result psychosexual development (we go through 5 stages): 1) oral 2) anal 3) phallic 4)latency 5) genital
continuity- discontinuity issue
*attempt to explain how people change through the course of their lives: -->continuity - developing steadily from birth to death -->discontinuity - Lack of stability in development., developing with some stages of rapid growth and some of relatively little change
3) concrete operational
*between ages 7 and 11 where children can better understand mental operations such as thinking logically *Piaget's thrid stage of cognitive development (lasting from approximately age 6 or 7 to age 11 or 12), during which the child develops the ability to understand constant factors in the environment, rules, and higher-order symbolic systems
infancy period
*birth- 18-24 months *many psychological activities are beginning - speak, physical actions, immitate
XYY syndrome
*characteristics include above-average height, large teeth, and sometimes severe acne. Intelligence, development of male sexual characteristics, and fertility are normal.
piagets cognitive development theory
*children activity construct their understanding of their world and go through 4 stages of cognitive development 1) sensorimotor 2) preoperational 3) concrete operational 4)formal operational
polygenic inheritance
*combined effect of two or more genes on a single character *process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait; responsible for most important traits
Sequential Designs
*conduct several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies at varying time *For instance, at time 1, different aged participants are studied. Then these same individuals are followed over time.
continuity
*developing steadily from birth to death *someone changes throughout their life along a smooth course
evolutionary psychology
*emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction,and "survival of the fittest" in shaping behavior *the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
early childhood period
*end of infancy-between 5 or 6 years of age *"preschool years" *children learn to become more self sufficient and to care for themselves *develop school readiness skills
adolescence period
*end of middle childhood - 18 - 19 years of age *rapid physical change *deepening of voice *pursuit of independence
nurture (vs nature)
*environmental experiences are the most important influence
1) sensorimotor
*from age of birth to two years old children are limited to sensory motor skills
2) preoperational
*in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
information-processing theory
*individuals manipulate info. monitor it, and strategize about it *model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages
genetic imprinting
*maternal and paternal differences in expression *is when expression of genetic traits is determined by weather the trait is inherited from the mother or the father. *genes are chemically marked in such a way that one member of the pair is activated, regardless of its makeup
Naturalistic Observation
*observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation --->This research design studies children's behaviors in a natural environment. For example, children may be studied at home, in school, on the playground, etc. --->The benefit of Naturalistic Observation is that researchers are able to study real-life behaviors. It is important, however, that measures are unobtrusive. -->Sometimes, as a researcher, I may want to observe somewhat more specific behaviors instead of general observations that may take place during naturalistic observation. --->For example, if I want to observe sibling interactions using naturalistic observation, I may not see these behaviors if siblings are playing in different rooms, etc. -Naturalistic Observation provides a general format for observing children's behaviors. --->However, a researcher may want to study something more specific. --->Therefore the next method—Structured Observation—may be used.
Clinical Interview
*researchers use a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant's point of view -->Interviews with children also provide a way that a researcher may obtain data or information about development. --->A clinical interview is a very flexible method for collecting data. For example, a one-to-one interview is used whereby the researcher asks a question of children and, depending on their answer, they might receive different follow up questions. -->So, with a clinical interview, a researcher is able to obtain a lot of information about development. -->However, the researcher may not analyze for variables because the follow-up questions are different for each child, depending on how they answered the previous question. -->For example, if I want to study sibling interactions, I may ask a first question, "Do you have brothers and sisters?" Answers will vary. Some children have both brothers and sisters, some only sisters, some only brothers, and some children may be only children. Therefore, the follow-up questions will differ from child to child.
chronosystem
*role of the passage of time in the person's life, events in life that impact in ways depending on circumstances and developmental stage (the immediate and long term effects of a change in the family structure or socioeconomic status *parents get divorced
behavior genetics
*seeks to discover the influence of hereditary and environment on individual diff. in human traits and development *study of relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior **Behavior genetics is the study of the degree and nature of behavior's hereditary basis. -->Twin studies are used to compare behavioral similarity of identical (monozygotic) and fraternal twins (dizygotic) to determine the heritability of a behavioral trait. -->Adoption studies are used to answer the question about whether adopted children are more similar to biol
Ethnographic Research
*the researcher is interested in investigating cross-cultural research. In cross-cultural research, the researcher examines similarities and differences between cultures. --->In Ethnographic Research, the researcher actually becomes part of the culture or society. The researcher interacts with members of the society in order to gain first-hand knowledge of children's development. -->The drawback to this method is that the researcher may actually bias the responses of individuals in the culture simply by being there.
non shared environmental experiences
*unique aspects of a person environment and experience that are not share with family members *Different environments. Differences in two siblings that are in different environments. different schools, different friends, hobbies
5) macrosystem
*values, laws, customs/cultural "norms" *the cultural and subcultural context in which the other systems are embedded. e.g. racism, socioeconomic conditions, cultural ideals re: child-rearing--all things that affect the child's development, outermost level of bronfenbernner's model that is not a specific context but consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources (political systems, laws, religion, values, lifestyles)
Unobtrusive Measures
*ways of observing people so they do not know they are being studied -->It is important for researchers to step back from the setting where children are being observed and simply record behaviors, preferably without the children being aware of the fact that they are being observed. ---->If I were to videotape a child as he/she is behaving at home, for example, I would not follow closely behind the child as the child is likely to act differently in this situation.
Primitive Reflexes
--->Babinski reflex: when the bottom of the foot is stroked, the toes fan outward --->Moro or startle reflex: in response to a loud noise or feeling of loss of support, the arms fling outward and then back to the body stepping reflex: in response to the bottom of the foot touching a flat surface, the neonate moves the feet as if to make stepping movements
Pollution
--->Mercury exposure is linked to mental retardation, abnormal speech, difficulty in chewing and swallowing, and uncoordinated movements. --->High levels of lead exposure (from car exhaust or old paint) are linked to pre-maturity, low birth weight, brain damage, and a wide variety of physical defects. --->Exposure to PCB's (a product to insulate electrical equipment) may lead to memory problems and follow-up research shows that these children had lower verbal intelligence scores compared to children not exposed to the PCB.
Illegal drugs
--->Mothers who use cocaine, heroin, or methadone during pregnancy have babies who are born drug-addicted. -->Babies prenatally exposed to cocaine may have genital, urinary tract, kidney, and heart deformities, as well as brain seizures. --->Fathers may contribute to these negative effects as cocaine may attach itself to sperm and cause birth defects.
Correlational Research
--->One important point to be remembered about Correlational Research is that "Correlation does not imply causation". What that means is that we can see if two variables are related or associated with one another, but we can't determine if one variable causes the other to happen. -->There are three types of correlations that we can talk about. They consist of Positive, Negative, and Zero (or no) Correlations.
Maternal disease
--->Rubella (German measles) can cause a wide variety of abnormalities, especially when it occurs during the embryonic period. These include heart defects, eye cataracts, deafness, genital, urinary, and intestinal abnormalities, and mental retardation. Infection during the fetal period is less harmful. --->Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)- in about 20 to 30 percent of the time, mothers with AIDS will pass the deaadly virus to the developing organism. --->Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by eating undercooked or raw meat or contact with the feces of infected cats. If contracted during the first trimester, it may lead to eye and brain damage in the developing organism.
Clinical Method
--->The Clinical Method is a type of research method whereby the researcher investigates the development of one child or a small group of children. --->This method is typically used in rare or unusual situations. For example, in this class we will review the condition called "developmental dwarfism". Since this is a rare condition, a clinical method may be used. --->Using the Clinical Method, researchers are able to assess present behaviors and development as well as past behaviors. So, this method is an in-depth method. -->The Clinical Method is sometimes called the "case study" method.
The Baby's Adaptation to Labor and Delivery
--->The force of the contractions causes the infant to produce higher levels of stress hormones. ---> Stress hormones send extra blood to the brain and heart, help prepare the lungs to breathe, and arouse the infant into alertness at birth.
Structured Interview
--->When a researcher uses a structured interview, all of the participants are asked the same questions in the same order. --->The Structured Interview is not as flexible as the clinical interview; however, the researcher may compare the data because of the fact that
Ethics and Research
--->it is extremely important to up-hold ethical standards when conducting research with human participants (and animals also, for that manner). The rights of the participants outweigh any motivations of the researcher to collect data. --->Children are allowed to stop participating in a research project without penalty, for example. -->Discuss informed consent, debriefing, confidentiality, and special concerns for using children's as participants in a research project.
Negative Correlations
-->A negative correlation is defined as the following: As one variable increases, the second variable decreases. -->For example, as the amount of time that children watch television increases, their test scores decrease
Positive Correlations
-->A positive correlation is defined as the following: As one variable increases, the other variable also increases. -->For example, as the amount of time that students study for an exam increases, their test scores also increase.
Alcohol
-->Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is the set of defects that results when women consume large amounts of alcohol during most or all of the pregnancy; characteristics of the offspring include mental retardation, slow physical growth, and facial abnormalities. -->Fetal alcohol effects (FAE) is the condition of children who display some, but no all, of the defects of FAS. Usually these mothers drank alcohol in smaller quantities during pregnancy. -->Alcohol requires large quantities of oxygen to metabolize, which draws oxygen away from the developing embryo or fetus.
Experimental Research
-->In experimental research, the researcher is able to assess cause and effect relationships. --->The researcher has more control over the situation as most experimental research is conducted in a laboratory setting. -->In experimental research a researcher tests an independent variable, a dependent variable, and may assess a subject variable.
maternal factors
-->In physically healthy women, regular exercise is related to increased birth weight in the offspring. Exercises that strenghten the back, abdominal, pelvic, and thigh muscles are particularly helpful to women during pregnancy. -->Inadequate diets in mothers may lead to prematurity and underweight offspring, and may have physical defects. Prenatal malnutrition can damage the central nervous system, immune systems, the pancreas, the liver, and blood vessels. -->Intense stress during pregnancy may lead to a higher miscarriage rate, prematurity, low birth weight, respiratory illness, and physical defects. -->When a mother experiences fear and anxiety, blood supply increases to the brain, heart, and limbs resulting in decreased blood supply to the uterus. --->The Rh factor is a protein that, when present in the fetus's blood but not in the mother's, can cause the mother to build up antibodies which can return to the fetus's system and destroy red blood cells. --->Rh blood incompatibility can result in mental retardation, heart muscle damage, and infant death. --->Maternal age may contribute to a greater risk of miscarriage, and babies born with chromosomal defects. Keep in mind that many mothers in their thirties and forties have very healthy newborns. Also, teens' bodies are able to support a pregnancy, however, adolescents may not have access to medical care or are afraid to seek it. -->No relationship hs been found between the number of previous births and prenatal problems.
Subject (or Organismic) Variables
-->Subject variables consist of the characteristics of participants. For example, gender, race, age, personality type consist of subject variables. --->We don't control or make someone a particular age, but we can select ages to study in a research project.
Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs
-->Thalidomide (a sedative that was used in the 1960's) caused severe limb deformations in embryos when taken by the mothers between the fourth to sixth week after conception. -->Many repeated uses of aspirin is linked (correlated) to low birth weight, infant death around the time of birth, poorer motor development, and lower intelligence scores in early childhood. --->Heavy caffeine intake is associated with pre-maturity, miscarriage, and newborn withdrawal symptoms, such as irritability and vomiting.
The Newborn's Appearance
-->The average newborn is 20 inches long and 7 1/2 pounds in weight; boys tend to be slightly longer and heavier than girls. -->The head is large in comparison to the trunk and legs, which are short and bowed. -->Newborn babies have round faces, chubby cheeks, large foreheads, and big eyes. --->Although the skin is smooth and soft, temporary rashes may appear on the face
Smoking
-->The effects of smoking during pregnancy include low birth weight and increased chances of pre-maturity, miscarriage, and infant death. --->The nicotine in cigarettes causes the placenta to grow abnormally-the transfer of nutrients is reduced and the fetus may not gain enough weight. --->Smoking raises the concentration of carbon monoxide in the bloodstreams of both mother and fetus-carbon monoxide displaces oxygen from red blood cells.
The Period of the Fetus
-->The fetal stage is when rapid growth and refinement of body parts occur. For instance, in the third month organs, muscles, and the nervous system become more developed. -->By the 12th week of pregnancy the external genitals are developed and the gender of the fetus may be determined. -->This is the end of the 1st trimester of pregnancy. Each trimester lasts approximately three months. -->The Second Trimester (week 13 to 24) the fetus grows large enough for the mother to feel its movements. -->Vernix develops to cover the fetus and protect its skin from becoming chapped. Lanugo is white hair that covers the fetus and helps the vernix to stick to the skin. -->At the end of the second trimester, all of the brain's neurons are produced. Neurons are individual nerve cells that release neurotransmitters. --->The Third Trimester The age of viability is between 22 and 26 weeks and this is the age that the fetus can survive on its own if born early. The cerebral cortex (part of the brain where higher processing and problem solving take place) enlarges and continues to develop. The fetus is more responsive to external stimulation. --->A layer of fat develops under the skin to help with temperature regulation.
The Period of the Embryo
-->The period of the embryo lasts from implantation through the eighth week of pregnancy. -->During the third week, the embryonic disk folds over to form three cell layers: -->Ectoderm- becomes the nervous system and skin (the outer layer of cells) -->Mesoderm (the middle layer of cells) develops into the muscles, skeleton, circulatory system, and other internal organs. -->Endoderm (the inner layer of cells)- becomes the digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and glands. -->The structure called the neural tube will become the spinal cord--it develops when the ectoderm folds over. -->In the second month of pregnancy the embryo can move, respond to touch, and body parts continue to develop.
Apgar scale
-A quick assessment of a newborn's body functioning. The baby's heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, color, and reflexes are given a score of 0, 1, or 2 twice-at one minute and five minutes after birth- and each time the total of all five scores is compared with the ideal score of 10 (which is rarely attained.) -A standard measurement system that looks for a variety of indications of good health in newborns. -->This scale identified five areas of functioning after birth. These include: 1. heart rate 2. breathing 3. reflexes 4. muscle tone 5. color of the skin
Stages of Childbirth
1) Dilation and Effacement of the 2) Delivery of the Baby 3) Birth of the Placenta *There are several indications of the impending birth of the baby. -->A series of hormones initiates the labor process. --->Prelabor occurs when the uterus sporadically contracts for several weeks before the actual birth. --> About 2 weeks before birth, the cervix thins and begins to open and the baby's head drops into the uterus. --->The bloody show is the reddish, discharge released with the cervix widens.
scientific method
1) conceptualize a process or a problem to be studied 2) collect research information (data0 3) analyze data 4) draw conclusions
Survival Reflexes
1. Breathing 2. Eye-blink: in response to an object coming close to the eye, the eye blink is elicited. 3. Pupilary reflex: in response to bright light, the pupil of the eye constricts and in response to dim light, the pupil of the eye dilates. 4. rooting reflex: in response to stroking the cheek of the newborn, the head turn in that direction. This helps to prepare the baby for feeding. 5. sucking and swallowing reflexes: occurs so that the baby is able to meet his/her nutritional needs.
Keira is pregnant and has just started to feel movement from her baby inside her womb. Keira is likely to be how far along in her pregnancy?
4 months
The developing human weighs about 1/30 of an ounce and is just over 1 inch long at _____ weeks.
8
doula
A caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional, and educational support for the mother before, during, and after childbirth.
turner syndrome
A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted.
xyy syndrome
A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra Y chromosome.
DNA
A complex molecule containing the genetic information
klinefelter syndrome
A condition in which males receive an extra X chromosome, resulting in a combination of XXY instead of XY. This disorder results in men having small testicles, which may result in low levels of testosterone during puberty. *phenotype characeristics include impaired verbal intelligence, these boys are usually tall, have body fat distribution resembling females, and show incomplete development of sex characteristics at puberty. These boys are usually sterile.
neuron
A nerve cell that is specialized to receive and conduct electrical impulses
natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
cross-sectional approach
A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time.
longitudinal approach
A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more.
fertilization
A stage in reproduction whereby an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote.
Neutral Stimulus
A stimulus eliciting no response. ex;The white rat
unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning ex: The loud noise
twin study
A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.
4) ecosystem
A system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their physical environment
amniocentesis
A technique of prenatal diagnosis in which amniotic fluid, obtained by aspiration from a needle inserted into the uterus, is analyzed to detect certain genetic and congenital defects in the fetus.
standardized test
A test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person's performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals.
What is a doula?
A woman who assists another woman before, during, and just after childbirth
Zero (or no) Correlation
A zero correlations is defined as the following: The two variables are not related to one another. As one variable increases, for example, nothing happens to the second variable.
Genetic expression is affected by: (all that apply) *other genes. *non-genetic factors inside the body (e.g., hormones). *the outside environment.
All of these statements are true.
Turner syndrome (X0)
All or part of the second X chromosome is missing. Phenotype characteristics include impaired spatial intelligence, incomplete sex characteristics at puberty and a webbed neck.
culture
All the beliefs, assumptions, objects, behaviors, and processes that make up a shared way of life. its passed down from generation to generation
prenatal diagnostic tests
Amniocentesis, U/S, fetal MRI, chorionic villus sampling, maternal blood screening
neonatal intensive care unit network neurobehavioral scale NNNS
An "offspring" of the NBAS, this scale provides an assessment of the newborn's behavior, neurological and stress responses, and regulatory capacities.
informed consent
An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
case study
An in-depth examination of a single individual
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
An inherited disease characterized by the inability to break down the amino acid phenylalnine. Requires elimination of phenylalnice from diet, otherwise serious mental retardation will result.
genotype
An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.
phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.
Cognitive processes
Changes in an individual's thought, intelligence, and language. ex: putting together a two-word sentence, memorizing a poem, solving math problems
Which of the following statements is true about adopted children?: *Children who are adopted very early in their lives are more likely to have positive outcomes than children adopted later in life. *Adopted children show many more behavioral problems than non-adoptees. *Infant adoptees tend to have more issues than children adopted later in life.
Children who are adopted very early in their lives are more likely to have positive outcomes than children adopted later in life.
cross-cultural studies
Comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures. These provide information about the degree to which development is simila
Which of the following research concepts serves as a baseline against which the effects of the independent variable can be compared?
Control group
active genotype environment correlation
Correlations that exist when children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating.
confidentiality
Describes a situation of trust insofar as any information regarding a person receiving or having received services may not be discussed with or otherwise made available to another person or group, unless that person has provided explicit authorization for release of such information.
prepared childbirth
Developed by French obstetrician Ferdinand Lamaze (the Lamaze method), this childbirth strategy is similar to natural childbirth but includes a special breathing technique to control pushing in the final stages of labor and a more detailed anatomy and physiology course.
Hormones
Dietyistilbestrol (DES) is a hormone that was used between 1945 and 1970 to prevent miscarriages. Daughters of mothers who used DES are at a higher risk of vaginal cancer and uterine malformations. Sons of mothers who took DES have an increased risk of genital abnormalities and cancer of the testes.
The course of prenatal development
Divided into three periods: *Germinal *Embryonic *Fetal
In which period of childhood development does a child learn self-care and develop school readiness skills?
Early childhood
2) autonomy vs shame and doubt
Erikson's Theory *1-3 years *Development of motor skills leads to independence. Either a feeling of independence or frustration that others still have more control over you, feeling that you don't have control over yourself.
5) Identity vs role confusion
Erikson's Theory *12-20 *When they reach the teenage years, children start to care about how they look to others. They start forming their own identity by experimenting with who they are. If a teenager is unable to properly develop an identity at this age, his or her role confusion will probably continue on into adulthood.
3) initiative vs guilt
Erikson's Theory *3-6 years *good: sense of purpose, ability to initiate activities, ability to enjoy accomplishment *bad: fear of punishment, restrict himself, show off
4) industry vs inferiority
Erikson's Theory *6-12 years *children must learn to the productive skills their culture requires or else face inferiority
1) trust vs mistrust
Erikson's Theory *birth - 1st year infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner
6) Intimacy vs isolation
Erikson's Theory *early adulthood *During early adulthood most people fall in love, get married and start building their own family. If a person is unable to develop intimacy with others at this age (whether through marriage or close friendships), they will probably develop feelings of isolation.
8) integrity vs despair
Erikson's Theory *late adulthood *As senior citizens, people tend to look back on their lives and think about what they have or have not accomplished. If a person has led a productive life, they will develop a feeling of integrity. If not, they might fall into despair.
7) Generatively vs stagnation
Erikson's Theory *mid adult *middle adulthood; transmitting something positive to the next generation. usefulness
early experience
Extremely negative experiences that occur early in life can lead to mental illness.
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
FASD Condition characterized by abnormal physical and intellectual development that affects newborns of women who consumed alcohol during pregnancy
t or f: By the end of mitosis, each egg or sperm has 23 unpaired chromosomes.
False
noninvasive prenatal diagnosis (NIPD)
Fetal cell sorting techniques applied to obtain fetal cells circulating in the maternal blood; cultured + used for genetic testing
Field Experiments
Field experiments are similar to experimental research designs except they are conducted outside of a laboratory setting.
oral stage
Freud's first stage of personality development, from birth to about age 2, during which the instincts of infants are focused on the mouth as the primary pleasure center.
genital stage
Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence).
anal stage
Freud's second stage of personality development, from about age 2 to about age 3, during which children learn to control the immediate gratification they obtain through defecation and to become responsive to the demands of society.
phallic stage
Freud's third stage of personality development, from about age 4 through age 7, during which children obtain gratification primarily from the genitals.
Which of the following statements would be advocated by a theorist who believes in the epigenetic view?: *The environment that parents provide is more influential than the child's genetics. *Genetics and the environment work together to influence a child's development. *Parents do not matter as much as peers do in the development of a child's personality.
Genetics and the environment work together to influence a child's development.
maternal blood screening
Identifies risky pregnancies in which the child may have spina bifida or Down syndrome.
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
Socioemotional processes
Involves changes in the individual relationship with other people ex: changes in emotion personality (infant smile in response to parents touch, a toddler aggressively attacking a playmate)
2) mesosystem
Is made up of the interrelationships between the major settings in which the person participates in (eg. between family members and between family members and school personnel)
Which theorist is associated with the study of cognitive development in children?
Jean Piaget
tabula rasa
John Locke's concept of the mind as a blank sheet ultimately bombarded by sense impressions that, aided by human reasoning, formulate ideas
Tabula rasa is to _____ as innate goodness is to _____.
John Locke; Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The historical impact of divorce on children is an example of which environmental system, according to Bronfenbrenner?
Microsystem
Chromosomal Abnormalities
Most chromosomal defects occur during the process of meiosis (when the ovum becomes fertilized by the sperm cell).
ultrasound sonography
Noninvasive. High-frequency sound waves. Detects abnormalities in the fetus and brain. No risk.
Biological Processes
Produce changes in an individual's physical growht and development. These changes are a result of genetic inheritance that interacts with external influences such as nutrition, exercise, stress, culture and even climate ex: height, weight, puberty
in vitro fertilization (IVF)
Putting an egg and sperm in a test tube and then placing the fertile egg in the woman's uterus
Radiation
Radiation exposure may cause miscarriage, slow physical growth, an underdeveloped brain, malformations of the skeleton and eyes, and risk of childhood cancer.
postpartum depression
Sad feelings experienced by some women after having a baby, often as result of fatigue or changing hormone levels. These feelings usually remit within a few days of weeks. Other women display clinical symptoms of depression that last for months. When the symptoms had a onset within four weeks of delivery and include extreme and labile moods; feeling of guilt, inadequacy, and worthlessness, irritability; fatigue; sleep and appetite disturbances; anxiety and panic; disinterest in the baby; and/or fears of harming oneself or the baby; the DSM classified this as a disorder.
heredity environment correlations
Scarr's heredity-environment correlation view, heredity may influence the type of environments the children experience. Three genotype environment correlations: positive, evocative, and active
Within Janice's genome is an abnormal X chromosome that would normally result in Fragile X syndrome. Janice, however, is merely a carrier while her son was just diagnosed with the disorder. Which genetic principle explains how Janice does not have the disorder but her son does?
Sex-linked
small for date infants
Small for ___ infant. Also called small for gestational age infant, these infants' birth weights are below normal when the length of pregnancy is considered. Preterm or full term.
bonding
Special process of emotional attachment that may occur between parents and babies in the minutes and hours immediately after birth The formation of a close connection, especially a physical bond, between parents and their newborn in the period shortly after birth.
cesarean delivery
Surgical procedure in which the baby is removed from the mother's uterus through an incision made in her abdomen.
breech position
The baby's position in the uterus that causes the buttocks to be the first part to emerge from the vagina.
adaptive behavior
The effectiveness or degree to which individuals meet the standards expected of their age and social group.
cohort
The effects of being born and raised in a particular time or situation where all other members of your group has similar experiences that make your group unique from other groups ex: adults who grew up in great depression are diff. then those who grew up in this generation
embryonic period
The period of prenatal development that occurs two to eight weeks after conception. During the embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and organs appear.
Period of the Zygote
The period of the zygote lasts about 2 weeks, from fertilization until implantation onto the uterine wall. (show transparency of the developing zygote) -->By the fourth day, 60-70 cells exist and form a hollow ball of cells called the blastocyst. -->The embryonic disk consists of the cells on the inside of the blastocyst- this will become the new organism. The outer layer of cells will become structures that protect the developing zygote. -->Between the 7th and 9th day after conception, the blastocyst will become attached to the lining of the uterus. This process is called implantation. --> Several structures develop to protect the developing zygote. -->The amnion is a membrane that encloses the developing organism in amniotic fluid. This fluid cushions the zygote and regulated the temperature. The yolk sac produces blood cells. Eventually, the liver, spleen, and bone marrow will perform this function. -->The chorion is a protective membrane that surrounds the amnion and develops by the end of the second week. The placenta is a special organ that allows food and oxygen to reach the zygote and waste products to be carried away. -->The umbilical cord connects the placenta to the developing organism.
dominant-recessive genes principle
The principle that if one gene of a pair is dominant and the other is recessive, the dominant gene exerts it's effect, overriding the potential influence of the recessive gene. A recessive gene exerts its influence only if both genes in the pair are recessive
afterbirth
The third stage of birth, when the placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled.
natural childbirth
This method attempts to reduce the mother's pain by decreasing her fear through education about childbirth and relaxation techniques during delivery.
preterm infants
Those born before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation (the time between fertilization and birth).
kangaroo care
Treatment for preterm infants that involves skin-to-skin contact.
fragile x syndrome
Tristan has a genetic disorder that results from an abnormality in the X chromosome, which becomes constricted and often breaks. His doctor told Tristan's mother that he has:
Which of the following consists of a mass of cells that will eventually provide nutrition and support for the embryo?
Trophoblast
Which of the following disorders would result if a girl was born missing one of her X chromosomes (e.g., XO)?
Turner syndrome
unconditioned response
Unlearned or involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus ex: fear
ethnic gloss
Using an ethnic label such as African American or Latino in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it really is.
laboratory
a controlled setting from which many of the complex factors of the "real world" have been removed
Braselton neonatal behavioral assessment scale NBAS
a measure that is used in the first month of life to assess the newborns neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people and objects
correlation coefficient
a number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables
genetic expression
a persons genetic makeup determines genetic expression, which is what the offspring looks like
zygote
a single cell formed through fertilization
meiosis
a specialized form of cell division that forms eggs and sperm (also known as gametes)
All of the following are typical for postpartum women EXCEPT *the lack of a menstrual flow. *a feeling of exhaustion. *an increased sex drive. *lower levels of estrogen.
an increased sex drive.
theory
an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and make predictions
electic theoretical orientation
an orientation that does not follow anyone theoretical approach but rather selects from each theory, whatever is considered its best aspects
naturalistic observation
behavioral observation that takes place in real-world settings
mitosis
cellular reproduction in which the cell's nucleus duplicates itself with two new cells being formed. each containing the same DNA as the parent cell, arranged in the same 23 pairs of chromosomes
evocative genotype environment correlation
correlations that exist when the child'sgenotype elicits certain types of physical and social environment
passive genotype environment correlation
correlations that exist when the natural parents, who are genetically related to child, provide a rearing environment for the child
Nature vs Nurture
debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or by nurture *Nature--> refers to an organisms biological inheritance *nurture --> environmental experiences are the most important influence
Erikson's Theory
description of 8 stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved 1.Trust-mistrust(birth-1) 2.Autonomy-shame&doubt(1-3) 3.Initiative-guilt(3-6) 4.Industry-inferiority(6-12) 5.Identity-role confusion(12-20) 6.Intimacy-isolation(early adult) 7.Generatively-stagnation(mid adult) 8. integrity-despair(late adulthood)
A physician orders an amniocentesis to be performed to determine whether a fetus is genetically normal. This procedure will involve
drawing a sample of the fluid that surrounds the baby in the womb.
cohort effect
due to a persons time of birth, era, or generation BUT NOT TO ACTUAL AGE
middle childhood period
end of early childhood - between 6-11 years of age *"elementary school" *master skills of reading, writing, math
next generation sequence
entire genomes sequenced using multiple parallel reactions to analyze short segments of DNA and compare the results to known sequences.
shared environmental experiences
experiences that make individuals within the same family more alike such as parents personalities or intellectual orientation
t or f: At the time of birth, the baby is covered with anoxia (a protective skin grease).
f
t or f: Down syndrome is more likely in births to women who are 16 to 34 years old than in younger or older women.
f
t or f: During the fetal period, life-support systems develop and organ systems form.
f
t or f: The social cognitive perspective emphasizes the ways that individuals manipulate, monitor, and strategize information.
f
t or f: The second stage of birth is usually the longest.
f
latency stage
fourth stage occurring during the school years, in which the sexual feelings of the child are repressed while the child develops in other ways
4) formal operational
from age 11 or 12 and beyond, when the individual begins to think more rationally and systematically about abstract concepts and hypothetical events.
millennials
generation born after 1980's - the first to come of age and emerging adulthood in the knew millenium *many millennial's are more tolerant and open-minded than other counterparts in previous generations
debriefing
giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response ex: The white rat
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus ex: Fear
ethical research
informed consent confidentiality debriefing deception
adoption study
investigator seeks to discover, whether in behavior and psychological characteristic, adopted children are more like their adoptive parents, who provided a home environment or more like the biological parents who constructed their heredity. Also compares biological and adoptive siblings.
observational learning
learning by observing others
low birth weight infant
one that weighs less than 2,500 grams or 5.5 pounds at birth
Reinforcement and punishment are terms used in
operant conditioning.
Triple X syndrome (XXX)
phenotype characteristics include impaired verbal intelligence. There is also a greater tendency toward developing into a tall individual, however no other developmental abnormalities occurs in these girls.
periods of development
prenatal infancy early childhood middle childhood adolescence
psychoanalytic theory vs cognitive theories
psychoanalytic- stress the importance of unconsciousness cognitive - emphasize conscious thoughts
correlation research
research in which the goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or charachtiristics
descriptive research
research that involves observing and recording behavior
chorionic villus sampling
sampling of placental tissues for prenatal diagnosis of potential genetic defects
An infant's smile in response to her mother's touch is an example of a _____ process.
socioemotional
hypothesis
specific assumption and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy
ethology
stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods
linkage analysis
study aimed at establishing linkage between genes. Today linkage analysis serves as a way of gene-hunting and genetic testing. Linkage is the tendency for genes and other genetic markers to be inherited together because of their location near one another on the same chromosome.
t or f: Longitudinal research involves studying the same individuals over a long period of time, usually several years or more.
t
t or f: Prenatal development is divided into three periods: germinal, embryonic, and fetal.
t
t or f: Ultrasound sonography, chorionic villi sampling, amniocentesis, and maternal blood screening are all prenatal diagnostic tests.
t
t or f: Evolutionary psychology emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and "fit" in shaping behavior.
t
t or f: The placenta consists of small, intertwined (but not joined) blood vessels from the mother and the baby that support the life system of the baby.
t
deception
the act of leading others to believe something the speaker knows to be untrue
bronfenbrenner's ecological theory
the dev. reflects the influence of several environmental systems 1) microsystem 2) mesosystem 3) ecosystem 4) macrosystem 5) chronosystem
development
the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through life span
context
the setting in which development occurs
epigenetic view
theory that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment
genes
units of hereditary info composed of DNA. genes help cells to reproduce themselves and manufacture the proteins that maintain life
psychosexual development
we go through 5 stages: 1) oral 2) anal 3) phallic 4)latency 5) genital
epigenetic approach
we humans are not destined to by our biology to act in specific ways, however our biology predisposes us to behave in certain ways
