Sustainability in the 21st Century Midterm

Garrett Hardin

(1968) published "The Tragedy of the Commons" in the journal Science in 1968; argued that rational people will exploit shared resources

Bill Mckibben

(1989) A journalist who wrote The End of Nature, which was a bestseller that has been called the first book on global warming written for a general audience. "There is nowhere on the earth unaffected by humans." He describes climate change not just as an environmental justice issue, but as "the greatest social justice issue of all time." He argues that more than any other issue in history, climate change has the most inequitable distribution of benefits and risks. o Bill McKibben: "Nature has died and we are responsible for killing it."

Kyoto Protocol

(1997) An international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the premise that (a) global warming exists and (b) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it. It gave individual targets to countries. US never ratified Kyoto protocol because there had been a resolution adopted saying we will never pass another environmental thing until developing countries also work on climate change. Byrd-Hagel amendment says that the US won't approve anything until the developing nations start making cuts too.

Environmental Racism

-A form of institutional racism wherein the structure of society results in minority communities bearing burden of environmental harm. idea that certain racial minorities are subjected to disproportionate exposure to pollutants due to implicit biases -Environmental problems disproportionately affect minority groups with less economic and political power. complicates environmental justice -Often times companies and governments target poorer, non-white communities for LULUs where there is a need for economic stimulation • issues include informed consent and community consideration • Example: o Campo Indians - developer offers money to build a landfill on the edge of the reservation o Cancer Alley - area along Mississippi River that contains 125 petrochemical facilities and has been associated with a large number of cancer cases o Flint Water Crisis

Open Access vs. Excludable Resources

-A service/good is excludable when customers who've not paid for it cannot have access to it -An open access good/service is a non-excludable resource • Non-excludable: a good for which it is not possible to prevent some consumers who have not paid for it from having access to it • Examples: common goods (fish stocks, timber, coal) and public goods (air, national defense) • Excludable: a good for which it is possible to prevent consumers who have not paid for it from having access to it • Examples: private goods (food, clothes, cars) and club goods (cinemas, private parks, satellite tv)

"Land Ethic"

-Aldo Leopold -Nature has an intrinsic value and should be respected by humanity -First to suggest a system of ethics governing human interactions with nature -Humans are members of the environment, not conquerors -Sustainability has moral/ethical underpinnings

Deep Ecology (Arne Naess)

-An environmental belief that everything in nature has values, regardless of its utility (a more holistic view of the world) -Humans are just one part of the story, not necessarily a more important part • Definition: An environmental movement and philosophy that regards human life as just one of many equal components of a global ecosystem. • Impact: rejects humans in the environment • Significance: opposite of anthropocentrism --> biospheric egalitarianism suggests that we shouldn't prioritize humans over other species • Example: Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) dam vs. snail darter --> court's first decision interpreting the Endangered Species Act (prohibited TVA from finishing dam because it would destroy snail darter's only known habitat)

Montreal Protocol

-An international agreement signed in 1987 by 105 countries and the European Community (now European Union) example of globalization -Called for a reduction in the production and consumption of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) of 50 percent by 2000 to protect the stratospheric ozone layer. -A worldwide complete ban has been in effect since 1996 • Impact: clear evidence of decrease in burden of ozone-depleting substances • Significance: example of a global environmental effort that actually worked • Example: placed an escalating tax on CFCs

First Earth Day

-April 1970, marks the beginning of the modern environmental movement The first ever Earth Day was launched by Gaylord Nelson (US Senator) and Denis Hayes (Harvard student) in 1970 and was characterized by teach-ins, speeches and demonstrations that spotlighted such problems as thermal pollution, dying lakes, oil spills, and dwindling resources -20 million Americans mobilized to demand environmental change • a decade of strong and influential environmental policy as well as individual choices such as vegetarianism, recycling and birth control -signal that environmentalism had gelled. U.S. became serious about cracking down on pollution; environmental advocacy groups formed and used Civil Rights Movement strategies to initiate change. Nixon realized this was deep concern for many US citizens

Institutionalists

-Believe in the power of economic system to resolve environmental issues, but pay more attention to market failures; support structures to support collective action and overcome market failures (UN, large organizations, incentives to guide behavior) -Prime Minister Bruntland, Lauren Young, Bill Clinton, Jeff Sachs

Market Liberals

-Believe that the free market and trade will solve environmental issues as GDPs grows and technology improves; promote globalization -Issues: richer countries don't actually reduce greenhouse gas emissions -Julian Simon (The Bet), Nordhaus, and Jeff Sachs

Benchmarking

-Comparing industrial processes and performance metrics to either past performances or bests from other companies/countries

James "Gus" Speth

-Currently an Environmentalist/Social Green -Previously an institutionalist when he founded the NRDC (Natural Resources Defense Council) -Learned from Civil Rights Movement and called for a grassroots, political movement about climate change

1970 Clean Air Act

-Definition: a 1970 act that set technology and air shed requirements. Reduction of smog and air pollution in general -Impact: set emission standards for cars and limits for release of air pollutants. Legislation forced the country to enforce clean air standards to improve health and showed that American was moving towards certain environmentalist measures -The final vote was 89 to 11 (Yes v. No in the senate) • Significance: authorized EPA to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to protect public health and public welfare and to regulate emissions of hazardous air pollutants • Example: 1990 Amendments to CAA was a watershed moment that produced significant positive impacts on mobile sources, air toxins and especially acid rain (cap and trade, stack gas monitoring --> innovation)

Biodiversity

-Definition: the variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem. literally "biological diversity" - the diversity of living organisms per unit area, which encompasses species diversity, habitat diversity, and genetic diversity. biodiversity loss is considered one of the 9 planetary boundaries --> human impact is causing severe amounts of biodiversity loss -Elizabeth Kolbert (journalist and author of The Sixth Extinction) argues that loss of biodiversity is happening because of inattentively managed human activities :o nature is a system --> we must be careful about letting some pieces fall apart. Protect biodiversity by preserving it, nurturing species under stress, addressing the root of biodiversity issues, and implementing domestic and international laws with good governing techniques o need to maintain ecosystem integrity through management --> focus on stability, resilience, diversity, productivity • Example: o Jeff Sachs: planetary boundaries o Elizabeth Kolbert: sixth extinction o Biodiversity Convention: need adaptive management, price signals, collaboration between countries, data and metrics to protect species

Dominion vs Stewardship of Nature

-Dominion: humans should be extracting value/taking advantage of nature -Stewardship: humans should take care of nature • Definition: In Christian faith, nature is considered as providing for human purposes and thus humans have the right to take command and dominion over nature. However, at the same time there is a stewardship and obligation owed to nature in order to provide continued bounty for future generations. • Impact: message to the people is that nature is meant to be tamed • Significance: ambiguous approach to nature - simultaneously exert dominion and stewardship • Example: "Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it."

Clean Water Act of 1972

-EPA sets maximum amounts of water pollutants (by industry and pollutant) that can be discharged into waterways 1972 -Aims to make surface waters swimmable and fishable because water quality was observably inadequate nationwide

Herman Daly

-Economist worried about "full world" - in other words, an Earth that had reached and/or exceeded its carrying capacity

Ecosystem Services

-Ecosystem Services - nature does a lot of work that benefits humanity and humanity DOES NOT pay for said work (forests are carbon sinks that may hold cures for countless diseases; humans breathe for free) -If we put a price on nature we may respect/use it more sustainably • types of ecosystem services include provisioning, regulating, structural, and cultural • Impact: can use ecosystem services to assign value to certain species --> who should we aim our efforts towards? • Significance: putting a price on nature reaches an audience that doesn't see an intrinsic value in nature • Example:o Gretchen Daily: Nature's Services - discusses the $300 billion value of soil (rain absorption, plant support, breakdown of organic waste, fertility, regulates weather cycles) o Robert Costanza: Global Valuation Assessment - $16-54 trillion in natural capital per year

Intergenerational Ethics

-Encourages people to think about what they owe future generations with regard to the environment -Meeting current needs of humanity without jeopardizing future of humanity • Impact: the goal of sustainability is to handle the problem before the threshold is reached (before the future generation)• Significance:o threshold effects --> often you don't see the consequences at a low level but once you reach a certain threshold they become visibleo lack of short-term impacts but existence of long-term consequenceso it is difficult to get people to worry about what they can't see• Example: possible solutions --> good substitutes, don't give people the option (make cars that pollute less)

Market Failures

-Happens when markets do not produce socially optimal or desirable outcomes Example: failing to consider or account for externalities • Definition: The economic situation defined by an inefficient distribution of goods and services in the free market. • Impact: Each individual makes the correct decision for him/herself, but those may prove to be the wrong decisions for the group • Significance: wedge exists between what a private person does given market prices and what society might want him or her to do to protect the environment • Example: externalities are a common form of market failure

Measurement, Indicators and Metrics

-Having accurate measurements and reliable indicators is CRITICAL for sustainability Current Technology that allows us to measure the costs of harm we can and that industries cause Examples: world population, GDP, emissions, energy usage o Biodiversity Convention: need adaptive management, price signals, collaboration between countries, data and metrics to protect species

IPAT Formula

-Human IMPACT on the environment is a function of POPULATION, AFFLUENCE and TECHNOLOGY -I (impact of harm) = P(population) x A(affluence) x T(technology) • Impact: we have seen an increased scale and pace of growth more recently --> more consumption • Significance: as long as impact is under the maximum sustainable impact (carrying capacity) the associated population, affluence and technology are sustainable • Example: we are much more technology driven today - key is to create technologies that help us reduce the problems

Peak Oil ("Hubbard's Peak")

-Idea that humanity can reach maximum extraction rate for oil; once reached, oil reserves start to diminish (was incorrect because innovation and technological advances have enabled us to grow oil reserves) Fracking (hydraulic fracturing) - breaking rock to release natural gas and oil called shale gas/tight oil Horizontal drilling - drill down once, then drill outward from a SINGLE well head • Definition: peak oil is when production peaks at some maximum amount of oil and then declines indefinitely beyond that peak • Impact: it is thought that when reserves are 50% depleted we will face a crisis • Significance: peak oil theory thought to be true for any finite resource • Example: in 1956 Hubbard predicted peak in US production would occur in 1970 (Hubbard's Peak) but he did not account for the possibility of new technological innovations such as horizontal drilling

Intrinsic Value of Nature

-Idea that nature is valuable in and of itself (supported by Pope Francis, Thoreau, and Emerson) • Definition: Value that exists in the structures and processes of nature itself, without consideration of its use for human purposes. • Impact: implies a moral obligation to the environment • Significance: nature doesn't need humans but humans need nature • Example: Aldo Leopold land ethic

Incremental vs. Radical Change

-Incremental: change happening slowly/over time (oftentimes more practical, especially with politics and business) -Radical: change happening quickly/all at once

Planetary Boundaries

-Jeff Sachs lists nine natural boundaries that define a "safe operating space for humanity" -Crossing them would yield detrimental consequences • Definition: An idea developed in the recent past by a group of environmental scientists led by Johan Rockström. It defines a "safe operating space for humans" as a precondition for sustainable development. • Significance: It suggests that our planet is reaching its tipping point in certain areas which may have catastrophic outcomes. • Example: o Climate change o Ocean acidification o Ozone depletion o Interference with Phosphorus and Nitrogen Cycles o Biodiversity loss o Freshwater use o Land-use o Aerosol loading o Chemical pollution Example: 450 ppm of CO2 is a boundary that we don't want to cross

Resource Scarcity

-Many resources exist in limited in amount but are desired by innumerable people and institutional/economic entities -Exacerbated by population growth, inequity, and environmental destruction -Forces consideration and implementation of sustainable practices

Reagan Revolution

-Marks a shift in the republican party towards neoliberal/market liberal politics -Emphasis on economic growth, military spending, deregulation, pure markets. Played off a culture divide that emerged about that time -Rise of identity politics

Carbon Footprint

-Measure of the impact human activities have on the environment in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases produced, measured in units of carbon dioxide • Definition: the total carbon dioxide emissions produced by an individual, group, or location • Impact: China carbon footprint is the largest in the entire world, followed by the US • Significance: unequal footprints across countries --> larger more developed nations produce a bigger carbon footprint

Bioenvironmentalists

-Motivated by overarching concerns about Planet Earth as an ecosystem -Attune to assimilative capacities of world and thinking about planetary boundaries -Adherents to "limits to growth" theories -Focused on collapse of basic environmental systems that support the earth -Man are deep ecologists care about humans as just ONE of the many species on Earth

Wildness

-Nature undisturbed by humans - "In wildness is the preservation of the world," (Thoreau) • Definition: Lifts up nature as something sacred, not something to be tamed - a source of awe and joy instead of fear • Impact: foundation of modern environmentalism, idea that one can gain self-knowledge through a connection to the natural world • Significance: identifies wilderness as a human creation nature does not have to be pristine to be natural • Example: ideas outlined in William Cronon's The Trouble with Wilderness

Elinor Ostrom

-Nobel-winning economist - Focused on ability of small communities to work together to resolve tragedies of the commons, even in the absence of government control -Free-riding is not always the outcome

Tipping Points

-Once a tipping point has been passed, an entity leaves a stable state and enters transitional phase before moving into another stable state -Can be discussed in relation to climate change

NIMBYism (Not In My Backyard)

-Organizing your community to push back against a LULU or other environmentally undesirable buildings/practices -Wealthier communities with political power are more likely to have a successful NIMBYism campaign. concern that this ideology shifts the locale of undesirable developments from affluent communities (who may have a stronger voice) to less affluent neighborhoods • Significance: relates to environmental justice • Example: tall buildings, wind turbines, incinerators, power plants, telephone network masts, roads, railways, highways

"The Bet" (Resource Depletion vs. Technological Innovation)

-Paul Ehrlich (author of "The Population Bomb" in 1968) warns of the dangers of overpopulation and overuse of resources --> mass starvation + scarcity of resources; argues that we're reaching the limits of population growth -Ehrlich makes a bet with Julian Simon (conservative think tank) that the price of 5 minerals that are being depleted would be more expensive 10 years later. Simon believes the prices of said minerals would be less expensive in the future because human innovation would lead us to create substitutes for depleted resources. o Ehrlich argued that prices would increase because population was growing which would lead to a higher demand o Simon argued that prices would decrease due to innovation and substitution -Simon wins the bet --> all 5 minerals are cheaper 10 years later Importance: innovation on extracting minerals led to an increase in supply, which outpaced demand • Significance: backlash against 1980s doom and gloom outlook suggested that the limits to growth were not actually so severe

Encyclical Letter, Pope Francis

-Pope Francis emphasizes stewardship, rejects antagonism between science and spiritual values, promotes a systematic approach to caring for Earth, and expresses concern over the connection between Earth and capitalism - first papal encyclical on the environment -Put a moral/ethical/spiritual foundation to sustainability efforts - Results in Latin American countries (history of Catholicism) being some of the leaders in finalizing the Paris Climate Agreement and a higher percentage of Catholics recognizing the importance of environmental sustainability

Population Growth

-Population growth has plateaued worldwide and is actually trending downward in some places -Consumption PER PERSON is increasing

Brundtland Report ("Our Common Future")

-Produced by the Brundtland Commission in 1987 • Impact: It discusses sustainable development and the triple bottom line (social, environmental & financial dimensions of performance) for the first time. • Significance: suggests that we can't achieve a consensus on sustainability if others perceive it as an obstacle must meet the needs of current and future generations -Emphasized connection between environment and industry environmental health is linked to industry/economic choices -Emphasized an intergenerational approach: encourages people to think about what they owe future generations with regard to the environment • Example:- #1 goal of UN Sustainable Development Goals is ending poverty --> economics and environment go hand in hand -Gro Harlem Brundtland (former PM of Norway) appointed by UN as chair of commission

Rivalrous vs. Non-Rivalrous Resources

-Rivalrous: consumption of a resource by one person DOES prevent anyone else from consuming said resource • Examples: private (food, clothing, cars) and common goods (fish stocks, timber, coal) -Non-rivalrous: consumption of a resource by one does not prevent anyone else from consuming said resource • Examples: public (air, national defense) and club goods (cinemas, private parks, satellite tv)

Social Greens

-See the environmental and social issues being completely intertwined -Will discuss overconsumption by the rich -Unhappy about resource inequality -Hostile to globalization and political elites Worried about the environment, but much more human-centric Concerned about the economic limits of capitalism (Marxists, socialists, neo-Marxists) -Andana Shiva, Bernie Sanders, Van Jones (author of The Green Color Economy), Jeff Sachs, Gus Speth

Anthropocene

-Since 18th century, human activities have begun to impact the global climate and ecosystem --> human decisions frame our world in profound and important ways • Definition: relating to or denoting the current geological age, viewed as the period during which human activity has been the dominant influence on climate and the environment • Impact: anthropogenic climate change closing in on the planetary boundaries • Significance: humans have become such strong geological agents that their impacts are unescapable by the natural world • Example: o Jedediah Purdy's After Nature establishes politics for the Anthropocene and tries to get people to take responsibility and claim ownership for the impacts they have produced o Bill McKibben: "Nature has died and we are responsible for killing it."

2015 Paris Climate Change Agreement

-The agreement sets out a global action plan to put the world on track to avoid dangerous climate change by limiting global warming to well below 2°C • Definition: most recent global agreement on climate change that came as a result of COP21 (2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference) in Paris -An attempt at international collaboration to solve a global issue -Asks each country to determine its own target for bringing down greenhouse emissions -United States agreed to bring emissions down by 26-28% (from the 2005 baseline) before Trump administration backed out • Impact: redefined collective action requiring that each country have its own NDC (Nationally Determined Contribution) • Significance: the major goal of the agreement is to maintain a global temperature that is below (at most) 2 deg C from industrial levels but ideally below 1.5 deg C

Urbanization

-The process by which towns and cities are formed/expanded as more begin living and working in central areas

Trade-Offs

-These are the alternative choices people face when making economic decisions -Environmental protection vs economic growth -- major question of sustainable development is how to balance these Need for global environmentalism to be attentive to development needs in developing countries Deep ecologists on one end of the spectrum, market liberals on the other Need to be balanced in context of preventing harm accumulation on future generations → how to limit current growth for this purpose

Locally Unwanted Land Uses (LULUs)

-Toxic disposal sites, a landfill, a polluting factory, a power plant, a mine, an incinerator -Go to more politically disengaged communities • Impact: trends seem to suggest that LULUs are more often placed in low income or minority communities • Significance: society needs these things but how do we decide where they go? • Example: Campo Indians

Tragedy of the Commons

-What is individually optimal is SUB-optimal for the larger community because individually optimal actions lead to exploitation of shared resources and spaces -Operates on perspective that there is no natural basis for humans to communally manage resources -Solution: introduce regulation, establish property rights, or promote community-based organizing (mutually beneficial self-control) Significance: possible solutions land policy (assign property rights) --> individual entities will optimize regulation (limits) --> sharing resources cooperation --> game theory (prisoner's dilemma)• Example: o Garret Hardin: major thinker behind idea of tragedy of the commons who used the example of homes built around a common area meant for grazing cattle (land degradation due to over-grazing) o Elinor Ostrom: solution through collaboration (community scale, common values) o Robert Solo: solution through substitutability - doesn't matter if we run down a resource as long as we have substitutes (ex. Whale oil)

Aldo Leopold

-Wrote A Sand Country Almanac (1949) -First to suggest a system of ethics governing human interactions with nature -Rejects human mastery/taming of nature; human and ecological success are linked -Conversation is a holistic/systematic process

Cap and Trade

1) Set a cap for sustainable level of emissions, fishing, etc. 2) Sell or give away allowances 3) Anyone who can drive emissions below the cap (over-performers) can sell extra allowances for profit to those who are underperforming (emitting above the cap) 4) People who are having a tougher time meeting the cap (underperformers) can buy more allowances from people who are UNDER the cap (over-performers) -Incentivizes people to innovate pollute below than the cap -Society still gets same amount of emissions reduction with a lower cost to society

M. King Hubbard

1956 Hubbard predicted Peak Oil would be in 1970. He was wrong like Malthus, because of new technology.

Paradigm Shift

A fundamental change in approach or underlying assumptions. Example is 1970s United States when the government took environmental issues very seriously.

Anthropocentrism

A human-centered view of our relationship with the environment • Definition: the belief that human beings are the most important entity in the universe• Impact: influences environmental ethics --> interprets or regards the world in terms of human values and experiences • Significance: anthropocentric land ethic was one of the primary factors that led to the Anthropocene era • Example: Thoreau was founding figure of anthropocentrism, describing nature as the pathway to individual self-reliance

Ecological Footprint

A measure of human impact on Earth's ecosystems (measured in area of wilderness or amount of natural capital consumed each year) The impact of a person or community on the environment, expressed as the amount of land required to sustain their use of natural resources

Adaptive Management

A structured and systematic resource management strategy that takes note of uncertainties, constantly refines strategies, focuses on continued learning and improvement, forecasts long-term effects Structured, repetitive process of robust decision making with aim of reducing uncertainty over time via system monitoring: Resource management (Teddy Rooselvet. Pinchot) o Biodiversity Convention: need adaptive management, price signals, collaboration between countries, data and metrics to protect species -2015 Paris Climate Change Agreement

Club of Rome

A think tank that argued that population growth was nearing the carrying capacity of Earth --> worked toward finding limits to growth • Definition: An organization of individuals who share a common concern for the future of humanity and strive to make a difference. • Impact: mission is to promote understanding of the global challenges facing humanity and to propose solutions through environmental analysis, communication and advocacy. • Significance: Members include individuals from all sectors (scientists, economics, businessmen/women, civil servants, former heads of state, etc.) • Example: commissioned the Limits to Growth report

Thomas Malthus

Argued that population will outstrip the world's ability to provide sustenance

Jedediah Purdy

Argues that humans are the defining our world (not necessarily in positive ways) Jedediah Purdy's After Nature establishes politics for the Anthropocene and tries to get people to take responsibility and claim ownership for the impacts they have produced

William "Bill" Nordhaus

Author of The Climate Casino: Risk, Uncertainty, and Economics for a Warming World. According to Nordhaus, we have entered the Climate Casino and are rolling the global-warming dice. But there is still time to turn around and walk back out of the casino. Nordhaus describes the science, economics, and politics involved, and the steps necessary to reduce the perils of global warming.

Theodore Roosevelt

Believed that humans should benefit from nature but manage the natural world carefully. Conserve land and water. Mostly hunters and fishers who want to hunt emerged in the late 1800s. Led to launch of state parks. Sustainable land management, scientific conservation. No more land in the US! The end of the frontier. You can't just keep "going west." o Teddy Roosevelt promoted cowboy culture urging that open spaces should be seen as opportunities and claiming the "soft life" of people living in cities o Teddy Roosevelt launched the first big wave of environmental movements in the US during his presidency at the beginning of the 20th century (Forest Service and National Parks) - sees nature as a national element of life

Political Partisanship/Bipartisanship

Bipartisan political action is when both parties work together to craft legislation. In the 1970s, the issue of the environment was very bipartisan but now it is partisan and the republicans effectively oppose any commonsense legislation or regulation regarding the environment or climate change.

Jeffrey Sachs

Columbia professor. Says we are trespassing on the limits to growth. 7.3 billion now we're going to 10 billion. Says with good policy we can have sustainable growth. Says we still haven't stabilized population or have agriculture and food on a sustainable basis. His whole theory is focused around setting goals (sustainable development goals) and getting a strong backing behind achieving them (monitoring, measurement, evaluation, feedback)

Energy, Environment, and Economy (EEE) as Integrated Strategy

Definition: The idea that there are multiple dimensions to sustainability (technical, moral, biological, economic), all of which are necessary in order to gain the full picture and create adequate solutions.• Implications: we must manage environmental impacts through an integrative strategy - you can't solve environmental issues in isolation (NO SILO-ing)• Significance:o each of the dimensions may appeal to different types of people --> garner broader support of sustainabilityo the environment cannot be managed alone without recognizing the connectedness of the global systems• Example: 0 pollution is not necessarily the solution

Cost-Benefit Analysis

Economic model that compares the marginal costs and marginal benefits of a decision

Externalities

Economic side effects or by-products that affect an uninvolved third party; can be negative or positive. Companies are externalizing some of the harm that they're causing, like smoke stacks pouring CO2 into the atmosphere. From economics point of view, that's a market failure, because the market isn't accounting fully for some harms. • Implications: possible solution --> command and control (tax negative impacts) - Tort Law: stop the harm or pay for it• Significance: earth as the "third party" but also humans when considering negative impacts on health (air pollution, contamination, etc.)• Example:o solid-waste management --> plastic companies and customers escape cost of disposing of plastic after consumer is finished with it because most garbage collection is organized through the public sectoro factories --> air pollution is an externality

Steady-State Economics

Economies that mirror natural ecosystems tend to be stable/steady

Game Theory

Evaluates alternate strategies when outcome depends not only on each individual's strategy but also that of others. For a prisoner's dilemma, the optimal strategy is for both to confess, for there to be a lose-lose outcome, and that's why we have an environmental problem!

Economic Incentives

Factors that motivate and influence the behavior of individuals and organizations

John Muir

Founder of the Sierra Club. Preservationist. "During a man's life only saplings can be grown, in the place of the old trees—tens of centuries old—that have been destroyed." o John Muir was a leading preservationist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries - sees nature as sacred and wants to preserve wild spaces ("In Gods wildness lies the hope of the world")

Public goods

Goods, such as clean air and clean water, that everyone must share. Environmental protection is a public good.

Bjorn Lomborg

Got famous as a doctorate student. Hypothesized that all of this environmental stuff is overblown and exaggerated. Human capacity to get out from under limits is enormous. If you have limited money you probably don't want to spend it on environmental protection. He has done a service by saying let's look at the data, but he didn't look at the right data.

Good Governance

Governance that is transparent, controlled by rule of law, accountable, and effective

Fracking

Hydraulic fracturing to extract natural gas or tight oil. Regulated by states. Been around for 40 years. There are hundreds of thousands of fracked wells. Why is there controversy? It's hugely environmentally risky. There are conflicting elements in science: The EPA says hydraulic fracking could be done safely. Affects water supplies. What do you do with the chemicals? May cause seismic activity. Smell is bad, carbon monoxide and methane is released. Needs more regulation. Methane has 12 years of 30x CO2 potency, CO2 lasts 500 years.

Limits to Growth

Hypothesis suggests human population is growing beyond the Earth's carrying capacity, with drastic consequences if changes are not made -Falls apart because of: changing politics; Underestimation of the power of innovation and technology (finding substitutions for common goods)

Ecosystem

Interconnection and interaction of living and non-living things within a designated area; complex and unpredictable; resilient Threats: changing land use; climate change and pollution; invasive species - non-native species; non-sustainable extraction of natural resources; hunting and fishing Protection: assess, manage, and govern them effectively

Free-riding

Part of collective action problem; someone who benefits from resources or service without paying for the cost of the benefit. A core problem that leads to an unsustainable world.

Jameison Reading (Luxury Emissions vs Subsistence Emissions)

Some emissions are justified because they provide essential parts of life, but some are unnecessary and therefore less moral. Problem is where to draw the line.

Preservation

Stricter than conservation. Under preservation of the environment, lands and their natural resources should not be consumed by humans and should instead be maintained in their pristine form. Preservationists believe that humans can have access to the land, but they should only utilize it for its natural beauty and inspiration. o Preservation: spiritual approach - nature is sacred and should not be touched o Both ideologies were a response to the same moment in history - a recognition that we do not have endless space o John Muir was a leading preservationist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries - sees nature as sacred and wants to preserve wild spaces ("In Gods wildness lies the hope of the world")

Assimilative Capacity

The ability of the environment to absorb human environmental impact, I.e Capacity to receive water wastes or toxic substances without deleterious effects or damages or the ability of a body of water to cleanse itself after receiving pollution• Implications: Suggests that it is the aggregation of many pollutants/negative impacts that is the problem• Significance: mistaken old rule that "the solution to pollution is dilution"• Example: Clean Water Act (CWA) tried to put an end to this notion but some heavily polluting industries created a loophole through mixing zones - dilution areas where state water quality standards don't apply

Deforestation

The removal of forest for various economic and societal purposes • Definition: the removal of trees without sufficient reforestation --> net loss in number of trees in a given area • Impact: results in habitat degradation, biodiversity loss and aridity in addition to having adverse impacts on the biosequestration of atmospheric CO2 • Significance: trees becoming a nonrenewable resource because we are not replanting at a fast-enough pace to support regrowth and the same benefits trees previously provided q• Example: land clearing for palm oil in Indonesia --> reason why Indonesia is on of largest GHG emitters

Sustainable Yield

The surplus required to maintain ecosystem services at the same or increasing level over time • Definition: the highest rate at which a renewable resource can be used indefinitely without reducing its available supply • Impact: understanding/determining the sustainable yield for a resource helps us act in such a way so as not to completely rid ourselves of the resource • Significance: challenges: no sustainable yield for non-renewable resources, difficult to accurately calculate sustainable yield, must understand both rate of depletion and depletion time • Example: lobster in CT # lobster so low that they can't procreate Tipping points

Henry David Thoreau

Writer who saw nature as a guide, as a teacher. Stewardship dimension. Emphasis on protecting and preserving nature. He and Emerson reject an anthropocentric view. Nature has a value independent of its relation to humans. Thoreau celebrated nature uncorrupted by humans. o Thoreau: nature as a teacher

Jared Diamond

Wrote "Collapse" -- ecosystems are not endlessly resilient, many societies hit limits and then collapsed, Norse of Greenland, community of Easter Island, the Mayans.

Paul Sabin

Wrote "The Bet" detailing Ehrlich and Simon's bet

Drivers

a factor that causes a particular phenomenon to happen or develop

Trends

a general direction in which something is developing or changing, such as Wealth creation happening in cities. New bc it used to be on the land where wealth was accumulated or the rising emissions in China, or rising GDP and population.

Environmental Performance Index (EPI)

a method of quantifying the environmental performance of a state's policies. It ranks countries on protection of human health from environmental harm and protection of ecosystems.

1970 NEPA- National environmental policy act

creates board of scientists that are supposed to advise the president on environmental issue NEPA requires federal agencies to assess the environmental effects of their proposed actions prior to making decisions.

Environmental Justice

fair treatment and equal involvement of all people with respect to the development and implementation and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations and policies. • Impact: EJ movement is rapidly gaining momentum in the US • Significance: comes out of a concern that the costs of environmental harm fall disproportionately on low income communities and communities of color • Example: United Church of Christ launched environmental justice movement after issuing a landmark report in 1987 entitled toxic wastes and race in the united states finding that race was one of the top variables associated with the location of toxic waste facilities in the US

Gifford Pinchot

founder of FES; first head of forestry department; supports scientific land/natural resource management o Gifford Pinchot was a leading conservationist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries - sees the economic value of nature and focuses on sustainable management

Rachel Carson's Silent Spring

highlighted population of birds. Traced the problem to DDT which was thinning the egg shells. Beginning 1970, federal and national government action began to address pollution. - Pointed out lack of agency and decision-making in communities affected by environmentally harmful activity--> "we have subjected enormous numbers of people to contact with these positions without their consent and often without their knowledge" -Brings up intergenerational aspect of sustainability --> "future generations are unlikely to condone our lack of corn for the integrity of the natural world that supports life" -Emphasizing systematic perspective on environmentalism -Acknowledges the environmental issues linked with capitalism -Emphasis on getting the cold hard facts of the situation

Renewable vs Non-Renewable Resources

renewable is a resource that is naturally replaced such as fish, trees, wind, sun. non renewable are fixed supply, oil, gas, coal, helium, materials, rare earths. People estimate reserves based on known reserves. Depletion time: years until roughly 80% of reserves gone. Might be recapture-able or recyclable. Coal is broken up into pieces and is gone, but metal is recapture-able and reusable.

Religious ecology

symbolic understanding of ecological interdependence

Conservation

• Definition: Conservation focusing on maintaining resources for future use whereas preservation urges the protection of resources for the sake of nature -Replenish and renew resources once used; minimize the impact of potential harm; use nature sustainable -Emerged at the turn of the 19th century and was driven by Teddy Roosevelt (end of the frontier) -Conservationists did not pay enough attention to environmental things that are difficult to measure (no measurement, no management) o Conservation: utilitarian approach - sustainable management o Both ideologies were a response to the same moment in history - a recognition that we do not have endless space

Sustainable Development

• Definition: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland Report). • Impact: idea that you don't have to choose between interlocking crises (poverty and environmental degradation) -Was launched partly to overcome what was perceived as an environmentalism that was too narrowly focused and didn't allow for economic growth -Critiqued as being an oxymoron (if development increases the exploitation of non-renewable resources, how can said development EVER be sustainable) -Solution: use more renewable resources • Example: In the US and other countries, for a long time, environmental damage has been the price paid for economic advancement.

closing the frontier

• Definition: Idea of a wild frontier that needed to be tamed emerged in the 1800s as settlers moved from east to west across the United States. • Impact: by 1890 the frontier had closed --> no more open spaces, America was fully "lived in" • Significance: masculine/religious overtones • Example: o Teddy Roosevelt promoted cowboy culture urging that open spaces should be seen as opportunities and claiming the "soft life" of people living in cities o William Cronon calls the idea of unoccupied, wild land a constructed reality --> the frontier was never truly empty or "pristine" - people had lived there an transformed the land before the European settlers arrived

transcendentalism

• Definition: a philosophical tradition describing the human relationship to nature as one of teachers and students (nature as a pathway to spiritual freedom) and claiming that nature gives meaning to life • Impact: emphasis on modernization as a negative component of life founding ideologies and figures of environmentalism • Significance: adherents believe society and its institutions have corrupted the purity of the individual urge a transformation and simplification of the world • Example:o Emerson: nature gives life meaning o Thoreau: nature as a teacher

Fisheries

• Definition: fish farming and commercial harvesting - fish as an open access resource has led to a tragedy of the commons scenario • Impact: historically fish were believed to be inexhaustible but over-fishing has caused fish populations to decline significantly --> about 61% of fisheries overfish without government intervention -Starting 100 years ago, we began to see fish stocks diminishing because of overexploitation -Example: cod off of Boston; populations have been demolished -New technologies enable us to capture more fish -Habitat destruction, ocean contamination, and climate change also contributes to diminishing fish populations • Significance: o Sustainable yield is unknown or at least easy to miscalculate o Pathological denial - politicians don't want to put people out of business o Solutions: Licensing --> controlled instead of open access Protected areas --> marine reserves Individual Tradable Quotas (ITQs) --> property rights for fishing that can be traded (sold) to other individuals (charge people for the right to fish) • Example: Cod by Mark Kurlansku discusses the collapse of fish stocks over the span of 1000 years

Greenhouse Gases

• Definition: greenhouse gases are gases that absorb infrared radiation thereby heating the earth though the greenhouse effect -Primary greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide (atmospheric lifetime of 500-1000 years), methane (29x more potent than CO2 but only lasts 10-20 yrs in atmosphere), nitrous oxide and ozone • Impact: climate change has been caused primarily by an excessive amount of GHG emissions primarily through the burning of fossil fuels, agriculture, and transportation --> trap heat and lead to thermal expansion, melting ice caps, severe and unpredictable weather, etc. • Significance: the greenhouse effect is natural and is what makes our earth livable, however an excess of GHGs has caused our earth to heat more than ever before due to positive radiative forcing earth receiving more energy than it radiates to space

Concentrated Benefits vs. Diffuse Costs

• Definition: the idea that interests groups tend to lobby the government to redistribute money to them because people face concentrated benefits and diffuse costs (each individual in the group reaps all benefits from the money but only pays a portion of the costs) Concentrated cost bearers or beneficiaries are willing to fight -More difficult to get action for diffused costs or benefits, because people aren't as willing to fight. • Impact: a minority benefiting from a government program will make a stronger effort to keep it than the majority will ever make to abolish it • Significance: free rider problem is stronger when a group becomes larger • Example: members of an interest group will often do more to create or defend a subsidy than a taxpayer will do to destroy it

carrying capacity

• Definition: the largest population of a certain species an environment can support at a given time • Impact: most species follow a logistic growth curve in terms of population growth because they are limited by their carrying capacity • Significance: for humans it is more complicated (impact and consumption vs. technology) to what extent does technology increase our carrying capacity? How long can we rely on this? Are we reaching our carrying capacity now?