Synoptic Gospels Midterm

Ace your homework & exams now with Quizwiz!

What is important to remember about Jesus and the Temple: significance of the Temple in Judaism: Presence and Sacrifice. How is Jesus presented as the New Temple in Mark's Gospel? Examples of passages related to the Temple: Jesus' entrance into Jerusalem (and the Temple) and the parallel preparation for the Last Supper; Cleansing of the Temple and its significance (Old Testament references; sandwich with fig tree that withers; accusations during the Passion about destroying the Temple?

OverarchingTheme:JesustheNewTemplereplacestheTempleinJerusalem(cf.Matt12:6:"something greater than the temple is here"). Significance of the Temple in Judaism: 1. Presence: The Temple in Jerusalem was the "house of God," the site of God's presence among his people and the dwelling place of his name. The Jewish people would therefore go up to Jerusalem on pilgrimage to appear before the Lord. In the time of Moses, a cloud overshadowed (Exod 40:35 LXX ἐπισκιάζω episkiazō) the tent of meeting, the precursor to the temple (1 Kings 8:10), as a sign of God's presence. The cloud overshadows (Mark 9:7 ἐπισκιάζω episkiazō) Jesus at the Transfiguration. 2. Sacrifice: The Temple with its sacrificial system also provided the Jewish people with a means of atonement. The Temple sacrifices enabled the people to receive forgiveness of sins and cleansing from certain ritual impurities. The sacrifices in the Temple carried out the prescriptions of the covenant God made with Moses and the people of Israel on Mount Sinai: "Behold the blood of the covenant" ἰδοὺ τὸ αἷμα τῆς διαθήκης (Exod 24:8 LXX). At the Last Supper: the sacrificial language of the words of institution reveals a new covenant sacrifice, which will replace the sacrifices in the Temple: "This is my blood of the covenant" τοῦτό ἐστιν τὸ αἷμά μου τῆς διαθήκης (Mark 14:24). III. Temple Vocabulary: 2 Greek words(1) hieron iJerovn, generally signifying the temple area (its courts); and (2) naos naovV, generally signifying the temple (sanctuary) itself (see attached pages and diagrams from Snodgrass and Ritmeyer). 1. Entry into Jerusalem: Mark 11:11 (NAB): "He entered Jerusalem and went into the temple area [hieron]." 2. Cleansing of the Temple: Jesus' prophetic action symbolizes the destruction of the Temple and the end of the Temple sacrifices a. 11:15: "They came to Jerusalem, and on entering the temple area [hieron] he began to drive out those selling and buying there [literally, "in the temple area" hieron]." b. 11:16: "He did not permit anyone to carry anything through the temple area [hieron]." 3. Teaching Ministry and Controversies in the Temple a. 11:27: "They returned once more to Jerusalem. As he was walking in the temple area [hieron], the chief priests, the scribes, and the elders approached him" b. 12:35: "As Jesus was teaching in the temple area [hieron] he said, 'How do the scribes claim that the Messiah is the son of David?'" 4. Eschatological Discourse: Jesus prophesies the destruction of the Temple a. 13:1-2: "As he was making his way out of the temple area [hieron] one of his disciples said to him, 'Look, teacher, what stones and what buildings!' Jesus said to him, 'Do you see these great buildings? There will not be one stone left upon another that will not be thrown down.'" b. 13:3-4: "As he was sitting on the Mount of Olives opposite the temple area [hieron], Peter, James, John, and Andrew asked him privately, 'Tell us, when will this happen, and what sign will there be...." 5. Arrest in Gethsemane: Jesus refers to this teaching ministry in the Temple a. 14:49: "Day after day I was with you teaching in the temple area [hieron], yet you did not arrest me; but that the scriptures may be fulfilled." 6. Jesus before the Sanhedrin: Accusation that Jesus said he would destroy the Temple and build another one: theme of an Old Temple (Jerusalem Temple) and a New Temple (Jesus). This accusation recalls Jesus' words at the cleansing of the temple in John's Gospel: "'Destroy this temple and in three days I will raise it up.' ... But he was speaking about the temple of his body" (John 2:19, 21). a. 14:58: "We heard him say, 'I will destroy this temple [naos] made with hands and within three days I will build another not made with hands.'" 7. Jesus on the Cross: Accusation at his trial is repeated and the Temple veil is torn at Jesus' death a. 15:29: "Those passing by reviled him, shaking their heads and saying, 'Aha! You who would destroy the temple [naos] and rebuild it in three days'" b. 15:38-39: "The veil of the sanctuary [i.e., temple naos] was torn [verb schizō] in two from top to bottom. When the centurion who stood facing him saw how he breathed his last he said, 'Truly this man was the Son of God!'" Tearing of the Temple veil (probably the one leading to the Holy of Holies) recalls the Baptism scene (use of the title "Son" and only other occurrence of verb schizō): "On coming up out of the water he saw the heavens being torn open [schizō] and the Spirit, like a dove, descending upon him. And a voice came from the heavens, 'You are my beloved Son' (1:10-11) Roman centurion, a representative figure of the Gospel going to the Gentiles (see 13:10), confesses Jesus as "Son of God." Access to God is now available through the new Temple, Jesus (see Heb 9:12). See Pope Benedict, Jesus of Nazareth, Vol. 2, p. 209, points out "two things we learn from this": (1) "The era of the old Temple and its sacrifices is now over." The tearing of the veil is thus a sign of the coming destruction of the Jerusalem Temple. (2) "The pathway to God is now open." (See Heb 10:20: "the new and living way he opened for us through the veil, that is, his flesh"). Jesus, "the new Temple is rising up before them" (p. 209). IV. Passages in Mark 11-12 1. Entry into Jerusalem (Mark 11:1-11): (Gospel for Palm Sunday) a. As Jesus prepares to enter the Jerusalem Temple... "he sent two of his disciples and said to them, 'Go into the village...'" (11:1-2) (fetching the colt) ἀποστέλλει δύο τῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦ καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς· ὑπάγετε εἰς τὴν κώμην Parallel: Jesus will do the same as he prepares to establish the new Temple at the Last Supper... "He sent two of his disciples and said to them, 'Go into the city...'" (14:13) (preparing the Passover) ἀποστέλλει δύο τῶν μαθητῶν αὐτοῦ καὶ λέγει αὐτοῖς· ὑπάγετε εἰς τὴν πόλιν b. Jesus, Son of David (see 11:10): Compare 1 Kings 1:32-40 where Solomon, the son of David, rides a mule and is declared king. c. Psalm 118:25-26 (great Hallel psalm sung at Israel's feasts) / Mark 11:9: Hosanna! (transliteration of Hebrew from Psalm "save us, we pray"): "Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord." 2. Cleansing of the Temple "Court of the Gentiles" (11:12-25): Sandwiched in the middle of the Cursing and Withering of the Fig Tree: the fate of the fig tree foretells the fate of the Temple. a. OT background (see Hays, Reading Backwards, 6-9) "house of prayer for all peoples" (11:17 NAB) (or "for all nations" e[qnoV) Isa 56:7, from Isaiah's vision of Jerusalem's restoration in which the Gentiles take part. Jesus explains the purpose(s) of his action by referring to two verses from Scripture. With this first passage from Isaiah, Jesus indicates that the selling & buying interferes with the purpose of the temple, i.e., prayer. Moreover, the place where the selling is taking place (Court of the Gentiles) interferes with the ability of Gentiles (i.e., people from the nations) to worship there. "den of thieves" (11:17) Jer 7:11 "Has this house which bears my name become in your eyes a den of thieves?" - from Jeremiah's Temple sermon. Jeremiah prophesies the destruction of the First Temple (7:12-14). The corruption of which Jeremiah speaks was also a problem in Jesus' day. Thus, Jesus will similarly condemn the corruption and will also soon predict the Second Temple's destruction (in the eschatological discourse in Mark 13). "fig tree withered" (11:21) Jer 8:13 "When I wanted to gather them, says the LORD, there are no grapes on the vine, nor figs on the fig tree; even the leaves are withered" (NRSV). Mark sandwiches the cleansing of the Temple with the story about the fig tree (compare Matt 21:12- 22), showing like Jeremiah that the Temple's situation is similar to that of the withered fig tree. 2 b. Significance: Jewish scholar: Jacob Neusner, quoted in Tim Gray, The Temple in Mark, 157: "The overturning of the moneychangers' tables represents an act of the rejection of the most important rite of the Israelite cult, the daily whole-offering, and therefore, a statement that there is a means of atonement other than the daily whole-offering, which now is null. Then what was to take the place of the daily whole-offering? It was to be the rite of the Eucharist: table for table, whole-offering for whole-offering.... The counterpart of Jesus' negative action in overturning one table must be his affirmative action in establishing or setting up another table, that is to say, I turn ... to the Last Supper." 3. Jerusalem Controversies (11:27-12:37): Recall earlier set of Controversies (2:1-3:6) a. 11:27-33 - Jesus' Authority Questioned - chief priests, scribes, and elders (Sanhedrin: 15:1). Chief priests and scribes are mentioned in the first and third Passion Predictions (8:31; 10:33), and in the Cleansing of the Temple (11:18). Issue of Jesus' authority came up in the first controversy with the paralytic (2:10). b. 12:1-12 - Parable of the Tenants (see Hays, Reading Backwards, 9-13): Jesus speaks in a parable because of the opposition he faces (recall Mark 4:11-12). Isaiah's Song of the Vineyard (Isa 5:1-7): vineyard, watchtower "beloved son" (Gen 22:2; Ps 2:7; Isa 42:1): Through the parable, Jesus indirectly answers the question from the previous passage about his authority. "Come, let us kill him" δεῦτε ἀποκτείνωμεν αὐτόν (phrase in Mark 12:7 = Gen 37:20 LXX): story of Joseph and his brothers: despite the evil deed, the result is salvation. "The stone that the builders rejected has become the cornerstone..." (Ps 118:22-23, same Psalm just quoted in entry into Jerusalem): "the new cornerstone of the eschatological temple" (Gray, Temple in the Gospel of Mark, 76). c. 12:13-17 - Paying Taxes to Caesar: Pharisees and Herodians together plot against Jesus, just as in the earlier controversy (3:6) d. 12:18-27 - The Sadducees and the Question about the Resurrection: Jesus responds with a passage from the Torah, the only part of Scripture the Sadducees considered authoritative for establishing doctrine. e. 12:28-34 - Love God and neighbor (Gospel for 31st Sunday Ord. Time 12:28b-34): Jesus combines Deut 6:4-5 and Lev 19:18 in his response. Jewish rabbis enumerated 613 commandments (positive & negative) from the Pentateuch. Jesus combines two of them. f. 12:35-37-QuestionAboutDavid'sSon(Matt22:41-46;Luke20:41-44):citationofPsalm110:1- Jesus poses a question regarding the Son of David. Some (e.g., Matera, New Testament Christology, 21-22) read it as saying that Jesus is denying the Son of David title, but others (Gray, Temple in the Gospel of Mark, 81-90) interpret the question as Jesus' way of referring the Davidic psalm to himself and redefining the meaning of the title. At his trial, when questioned by the high priest, Jesus again refers to Ps 110:1 (Mark 14:62). Jesus' references to Ps 110 highlight his kingly and priestly identity (Ps 110:4: Melchizedek). Jean Galot, Theology of the Priesthood, 37: "Jesus, then, claims the eternal priesthood attributed to the Messiah, a priesthood not levitical, but unique and exceptional." Crispin Fletcher-Louis, "Jesus as the High Priestly Messiah: Part 1," Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus 4 (2006): 173-74: "there should be little doubt what Jesus was thinking. Psalm 110 is the only biblical text that explicitly speaks of a king who is also a 'priest'. [...] Mark 12:35-37 is Jesus' thinly veiled public statement on the question of Israel's God-intended eschatological constitution: the nation should, and will, he thinks, be led by a king who is also a priest. [...] More than any other messianic model this would get him into trouble. [...] It obviously entails a direct attack on the Sadducean high priesthood." 3 Gray, Temple in the Gospel of Mark: "By citing the psalm that promises priestly office to the Davidic line and thereby the Messiah, Jesus is suggesting his own priestly authority" (87). "Jesus has come ... to the temple as priest-king, wielding authority from God to condemn the corrupt temple and dedicate a new one" (90). 4. 12:38-40 & 41-44 - Denunciation of Scribes and Widow's Mite (Gospel for 32nd Sunday Ord. Time 12:38-44). Parallel: The Widow's gift to the Temple (12:41-44) and the Woman's gift (anointing) to Jesus (14:3-9) frame the Eschatological Discourse (Mark 13). Jesus praises both women and the sacrifice that their gifts require. "One of the aims of the narrative is to show that Jesus' identity is to be related closely to the temple.... The two temples are doomed, and the irony in these scenes hints that the one that looks fragile (Jesus) will be the one that will endure even death, whereas the temple that seems so secure and permanent ... will not have one stone left upon another" (Gray, Temple in the Gospel of Mark, 102). V. The Eschatological Discourse (Mark 13) will be discussed together with the parallel passage in Matthew. VI. The Passion Narrative (Mark 14-15) will be discussed together with the parallel passages in Matthew. VII. The Resurrection Narrative (Mark 16) and Mark's Longer Ending (Mark 16:9-20): see the attached pages from Bruce M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament. 1. Mark 16: there is a textual-critical problem regarding the ending of Mark's Gospel (see footnote in NAB Bible). The so-called "Longer Ending" (Mark 16:9-20) is not found in the early manuscripts Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus (4th century). In these manuscripts, Mark's Gospel ends abruptly after 16:8. The longer ending is however accepted by the Church as canonical Scripture. a. The first passage in the chapter (Mark 16:1-8) recounts the empty tomb but then seems to break off without recounting any Resurrection appearances, even though one is announced (16:7). Three women are mentioned (Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, and Salome), who go to the tomb with spices to anoint Jesus. They discover the stone rolled back and a "young man" inside the tomb announces that Jesus has been raised. They are told to inform "his disciples and Peter" and to tell them that the disciples will see him in Galilee, as Jesus had told them (cf. Mark 14:28). They flee from the tomb in fear and say nothing to anyone. [...] Some think that the original ending was lost (e.g., the promised appearance in Galilee is not recounted). b. 16:9-20 - Longer Canonical Ending: The Longer Ending summarizes various Resurrection Appearances of Jesus: to Mary Magdalene (16:9-11; cf. John 20:11-18); to two disciples walking in the country (16:12-13; cf. Luke 24:13-35 Emmaus); to the Eleven at table (16:14-18; Luke 24:36-49; John 20:19-29). The Longer Ending also mentions Jesus' Ascension (16:19; cf. Luke 24:50; Acts 1:9-11) and the continuing mission of the disciples (16:20).

What is the spiritual sense of Scripture?

Spiritual Sense: interpreting Scripture "in accordance with the Spirit who inspired it" (CCC 111; cf. DV 12). The divinely intended spiritual meaning.

What is relevant Patristic Testimony regarding the Gospels?

(See Bird Reading: Gospel of the Lord, pp. 214-220) iv. 2nd Century: Patristic authors cite the Gospels and Paul's letters in their writings (1 Clement; Didache; Ignatius of Antioch; Polycarp; Shepherd of Hermas; Epistle of Barnabas; Justin Martyr) Marcion (ca. A.D. 140): anti-Semitic heretic; his "Bible" eliminates OT, includes only 1 modified Gospel (Luke) and 10 of Paul's letters ("Apostolicon" - no Pastorals: 1-2 Tim, Titus). Church's Response: keep OT; 4-fold Gospel Tatian's Diatessaron: 1 harmonized account of 4 Gospels Writing of gnostic, apocryphal gospels: Gospel of Peter, Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Judas. Muratorian Canon: an early list which has 22 NT books (ca. A.D. 180-200?) Irenaeus of Lyons (d. 200): first theologian to use the term "Scriptures" to mean both OT & NT. v. 4th Century: Eusebius (260-340), the Church historian, distinguishes a threefold classification (Ecclesiastical History, Bk 3, ch 25): - Recognized books: 4 Gospels, Acts, 14 Pauline letters (including Hebrews), 1 Peter, 1 John, Rev? - Disputed books: some widely approved (James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2-3 John) and books generally not accepted (Ep. Barn., Did.) - Absurd and impious books: Gospels of Peter and of Thomas A.D. 367: St. Athanasius, Easter letter: earliest full listing of 27 canonical NT books; same number and same order as our NT After the writing of the Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (i.e., by the 2nd century), these 4 works relating the "good news" about Jesus are called Gospels (e.g., Irenaeus - see Bird reading on patristic references to the Gospels). This is a third stage in the formation of the Gospels. With several written gospels, one can also study the genre of gospel (what kind of literature it is).

What is important to know about the topic of the return from exile (Cyrus) and building of Second Temple?

--2. 538 B.C.: Return from Exile in Babylon (Edict of Cyrus, king of Persia); 520-515 B.C.: Rebuilding of Temple (Chart says some exiles return from Babylon in 538 B.C.) Cyrus conquers Babylon and allows Jews to return.

What is important to remember about the Seleucid rulers (e.g., Antiochus Epiphanes IV) and the Maccabean revolt?

175-163 B.C.: Antiochus IV Epiphanes, Seleucid ruler; Maccabean Revolt (167); The Maccabees revolted against the Syrian rulers and it led to a golden age of nationalism, as well as antagonism among Jew Gentile relations. It started when an aged priest Matthias, was order to sacrifice to another god on another altar. The age of independence of Israel was followed by Roman rule during the time of Jesus.

What is important to know about the topic of the Exile to Babylon (Nebuchadnezzar)?

--Isaianic New Exodus theme: Isa 40:3 is part of Isaiah's Book of Consolation (Isaiah 40-66), which describes the return from exile as a new exodus (e.g., Isa 43:16-19). At the time of Christ, the Jewish people still considered themselves to be suffering the effects of exile: the tribes were scattered, Gentiles oppressed them, and there was no Davidic king. They looked to God to bring about their restoration through his Messiah. -History of Second Temple Judaism: Key Dates (See Blomberg reading; Timeline Handout) --1. 587 B.C.: Exile to Babylon; Destruction of First Temple (Solomon's Temple) --Isaianic New Exodus theme: Isaiah's Book of Consolation (Isaiah 40-66) describes the return from exile as a new exodus: e.g., Isa 43:16-19: "16 Thus says the LORD, who opens a way in the sea, a path in the mighty waters, 17 Who leads out chariots and horsemen, a powerful army, Till they lie prostrate together, never to rise, snuffed out, quenched like a wick. 18 Remember not the events of the past, the things of long ago consider not; 19 See, I am doing something new! Now it springs forth, do you not perceive it? In the wilderness I make a way, in the wasteland, rivers." John the Baptist appears in the wilderness/desert announcing "the way of the Lord" (Mark 1:3-4). At the time of Christ, the Jewish people still considered themselves to be suffering the effects of exile: the tribes were scattered, Gentiles oppressed them, and there was no Davidic king. They were waiting for God to bring about their restoration through his Messiah. The opening of Mark's Gospel indicates that this is all now coming to fulfillment in Jesus.

What is important to remember about Herod the Great and his successors: Herod Antipas, Philip, and Archelaus?

--Philip ended up ruling the province to the north and west of the sea of Galilee. --Herod Antipas 28-29 A.D. --6. 37-4 B.C. (or 39 to 1 B.C.?): Herod the Great, vassal king of Rome, refurbishes Temple & expands Temple Mount. (See Andrew E. Steinmann, "When Did Herod the Great Reign?" Novum Testamentum 51 [2009]: 1-29.) 7. ~6-4 B.C. (or 2 B.C.): Birth of Jesus, during the reign of Caesar Augustus (27 B.C. - A.D. 14) and the close of the reign of Herod the Great 37 B.C.-4 A.D. 8. A.D. 33 (April 3) (or April 7, 30): Jesus crucified by the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate (A.D. 26-36) during the reign of Tiberius Caesar (A.D. 14-37), with Herod Antipas (Herod the Great's son) as the tetrarch in Galilee. 9. A.D. 66-70: First Jewish Revolt: Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 (by Titus) 10. A.D. 132-135: Second Jewish Revolt (under Bar-Kochba) (put down by Hadrian) 11. Some NT Historical References: Herod the Great and three of his sons: Archelaus, Herod Antipas, Philip a. Luke 1:5 "In the days of Herod, King of Judea ..." b. Luke 2:1 "In those days a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be enrolled." c. Matt 2:22 "... when he heard that Archelaus was ruling over Judea in place of his father Herod ..." d. Luke 3:1-2 "In the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea, and Herod was tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of the region of Ituraea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias was tetrarch of Abilene, during the high priesthood of Annas and Caiaphas, the word of God came to John the son of Zechariah in the desert." e. Herod Antipas ruled during the Baptist's ministry and ruled during his arrest for questioning his marriage. f. Herod the great fueled many massive projects from taxes and his ample wealth.

What are some of the arguments used by scholars in favor of Markan Priority or questioning it?

1. Length: Mark is the shortest Gospel. It is easier to understand Matt and Luke as expanding on Mark, than to see Mark as an abridgment. 2. Grammar: Matt & Luke polish Mark's literary style. 3. Difficulty: Matt & Luke omit Mark's "harder" readings. 4. Agreements in Wording & Order: While there are many Matt-Mark agreements against Luke, and Mark-Luke agreements against Matt, there are fewer Matt-Luke agreements against Mark. 5. Literary Agreements: Certain verbal phenomena suggest Matt's re-wording of Mark. 6. Redaction: There are more features typical of Mark found in Matt than vice-versa. 7. Mark's More "Primitive" Theology is said to be dated earlier: there are fewer uses of titles like "Lord" for Jesus in Mark than in Matt. Against? Griesbach states, "In this view, Mark is shorter because it is like a digest that reports material where Matt & Luke agree (330 verses, the Triple Tradition). But why then did Mark still leave out the 220 verses that are common to Matt & Luke (the Double Tradition), such as the Lord's Prayer & Beatitudes?" He thinks Mark is a summary of both. The shortness is the hardest thing to explain if Mark was not first.

What is important to know about criteria for delimiting a Biblical Passage (Marguerat and Bourquin reading): changes in time, place, characters, and subject/theme?

What background information is important to know about Mark's Gospel, include testimony from Church fathers, the author himself, the date, location, audience, purpose, structure/outline, literary and stylistic elements and liturgical use?

2. Delimitation: Generally, the first step in exegesis is to set the boundaries or limits of the text to be studied: where does the passage begin and where does it end? When the Scriptures are read in the Liturgy, this task is already done for us in the Lectionary: certain verses have been selected to be read on a particular day. Moreover, most modern Bibles have headings for each passage which do the work of delimitation and provide a title. By comparing different Bible editions, however, one quickly notices that not every edition delimits every passage in exactly the same way. What then are the criteria used for delimitation, that is, for deciding where one passage (pericope) ends and a new one begins? (A pericope is a passage, a set of verses forming a coherent unit.) There are basically four criteria: changes in place, time, characters, and/or theme. For examples, study the delimitation of the pericopes in Mark 1-4. Liturgy:V. Mark's Gospel in the Liturgy: See Table: "Readings from Mark's Gospel (and John 6), Sundays, Year B (2015)" 1. Year B of 3-year Lectionary cycle, Sunday readings a. Semi-continuous Reading: 3rd - 16th & 22nd - 33rd Sundays in Ordinary Time. Supplemented on the 17th - 21st Sundays with readings from John 6 b. 1st & 2nd Sunday of Advent, Baptism of the Lord, 1st & 2nd Sunday of Lent, Passion/Palm Sunday, Easter Vigil, Ascension 2. Weekday Lectionary: a. Semi-continuous reading of Mark's Gospel in Weeks 1-9 of Ordinary Time (Mark 1:14-12: 44) b. 2 days during the Week after Epiphany, Friday of 3rd week of Lent, Saturday in the Octave of Easter 3. 96.3% (653/678 verses) of Mark read at Mass (Sundays & Weekdays): web-sites of Rev. Felix Just, S.J.: a. http://catholic-resources.org/Lectionary/Statistics.htm b. http://catholic-resources.org/Lectionary/1998USL.htm

What is important to know about the topic of Alexander the Great (spread of Greek language and Hellenistic culture)?

323 B.C.: Death of Alexander the Great (323); Alexander the Great (336-323) Defeats Persians at Issus (332) Occupies the Levant and Egypt Rome gains control over Greece (c.188-146; 146: sack of Carthage and Corinth). Israel came under Greek rule in 331 BC as Alexander's armies swept eastward. Like most of the peoples conquered, the Jews were given the same relative free- doms of worship and government as under the Persians, so long as they remained loyal subjects of Greece. Alexander apparently hoped to unite the eastern and western parts of his empire and create a new hybrid of cultures, religions, and peoples, with all, however, permeated by Hellenistic culture and influence. His tum-of-the-first-century biographer Plutarch; for example, claims that he founded as many as seventy new cities (Alex. 1), but most historians think this number is seriously exaggerated. It is important to recognize the influence of Greek culture during the time of Jesus, and now as we study the Gospels written in Greek.

What is important to remember about the Pompey and Roman occupation?

63 B.C.: Roman Rule begins (Roman general Pompey invades Jerusalem) Pompey conquers Levant in 66-62, enters Jerusalem in 63 B.C. This was during a time when people were fighting over who was ruling the people, political issues, and they asked for Rome's help, for they held political power during the time. They did so they invaded. They installed rulers of the area loyal to Rome.

What is important to know about Josephus?

A Jewish writer and historian, goes over to the Romans, writes antiquities and war. Wrote with a bias toward Rome, he is considered a reliable historian and studying his works, which is mostly all we have on the history of Israel during that time, can help us understand the background and context of the Gospels. It is his work that helps us understand the cultural groups at the time of Jesus.

What is important to know about the Roman Procurator: Pontius Pilate?

A.D. 33 (April 3) (or April 7, 30): Jesus crucified by the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate (A.D. 26-36) during the reign of Tiberius Caesar (A.D. 14-37), with Herod Antipas (Herod the Great's son) as the tetrarch in Galilee. See Gospel passage Luke 3. incidents under Pilate show him as imprudent but not vicious or dishonest. Jesus begins his public ministry and John the Baptist is executed ca. AD 28, · Jesus is crucified in 30 or 33. Pilate's repression of the Samaritans in· 36 causes.Yitellius, prefecfof Syria,·to send him to Rome (36/37}. He alienated Jews by doing things like putting things on his soldiers shields that violated the second commandment of the Jews.

What is important to know about the First and Second Revolts against Rome (AD 70: destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple by the general Titus, who later became emperor; in AD 135 Hadrian puts down the second Jewish revolt led by Bar-Kochba)?

A.D. 66-70: First Jewish Revolt: Jerusalem Temple destroyed in 70 (by Titus) A.D. 132-135: Second Jewish Revolt (under Bar-Kochba) (put down by Hadrian) Roman armies led by Vespasian and (after 69) by Titus struggle against revolutionaries in the First Jewish Revolt (66-70). - Second Jewish Revolt under Simon ben Kosibah (Bar Cochba;approval of Rabbi Akiba: 132-135).

What is textual criticism of the Gospel?

Besides studying the manuscripts available such as Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus (external evidence), scholars apply certain rules of thumb to evaluate the different variant readings (internal evidence): e.g., often the preferred reading is the shorter reading, or the more difficult reading, or the reading which is unlike the parallel readings, or the reading which explains the origin of the others. a. Diachronic Methods (diachronic: "through time"): consider the historical stages of formation of a written work; e.g., the Historical-Critical Method 1)Textual Criticism("lowercriticism"):studiesthevariantreadingsintheancientmanuscriptsto determine what is most likely the original reading of the biblical text. (See next page.) Variant Readings: Due to Errors made in the process of hand-copying biblical texts i. Unintentional Errors: e.g., from dictation of words that sound similar to other words, or from losing one's place in the manuscript because of repeated words or similar letters. ii. Intentional Errors: e.g., when the scribe attempts to improve the grammar or theology of the text, or to add more details. c. External Criteria: In evaluating the variant readings, scholars consider the external evidence: Which reading is more widely attested in the manuscripts? Scholars consider not only the number of manuscripts that have a particular reading, but also their date, geographical origin, and textual family. d. Internal Criteria: Scholars also use internal rules of thumb. For example, in general, ... i. the shorter reading is to be preferred as the more original. (Luke 9:54 "call down fire from heaven to consume them [as also Elijah did]") ii. the more difficult reading is to be preferred. (Luke 2:33 "his father and mother" rather than "Joseph and his mother") iii. the reading which is unlike the reading in parallel passages is to be preferred. (Mark 3:14; cf. Luke 6:13 "whom he also named apostles") iv. the reading which better explains the origin of the other readings is to be preferred. (Mark 1:2 "in Isaiah the prophet"/"in the prophets")

What else is important to know in criticism in the literal sense (leading us to understand narrative criticism?

Besides the historical-critical method which is a diachronic (through time) method which studies the formation of the Gospel texts, there are synchronic (final form of text) methods which study the final form of a text; e.g., Narrative Criticism.

What is important to remember of the confession of Peter of Jesus as Messiah: culmination of first half of Gospel, which focuses on Jesus' identity?

Centrality of the Cross: Early in the Gospel (3:6), a plot to kill Jesus is already mentioned. Jesus himself foretells his death with three Passion Predictions (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34), the first occurring right after Peter's confession. The predictions use the title "Son of Man," mention his being handed over [paradidōmi] to various Jewish leaders (e.g., chief priests, elders, scribes), refer to his suffering 4 and death, and also predict his resurrection on the third day. The third prediction is the most detailed, mentioning that he will be handed over to the Gentiles, who will mock, spit on, and scourge him. i. Mark 8:31 "to suffer many things and to be rejected" || Matt 16:21 || Luke 9:22 - possible Old Testament background: Isa 53:3 "spurned and held in no esteem"; Isa 53:4 "he carried our sufferings" (Fourth Suffering Servant Song [see sidebar in Healy 166]); and Ps 118:22 "the stone the builders rejected" ii. Mark 9:31 || Matt 17:22-23 || Luke 9:44 iii. Mark 10:33-34 "they will spit on him and they will scourge him" || Matt 20:18-19 || Luke 18:31b-3 - possible Old Testament background: Isa 50:6 "My back I gave to scourges ... I did not turn my face from the shame of spitting."

What is important to know about Christology: Titles of Jesus in Mark's Gospel: Christ, Son of God, Son of Man; Priestly Christology e.g. in Mark 1-6 (Fletcher-Louis). Use of the Old Testament in Mark in support of Mark's high Christology (Richard Hays, Reading Backwards)?

Christology: 3 a. i. ii. Titles of Jesus: summed up by Frank J. Matera, New Testament Christology (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1999), 24-25 (italics added): "The Messiah is the Spirit-anointed Son of God who proclaims the arrival of God's kingdom in word & deed. He heals the sick, expels demons, & even extends his ministry to Gentiles. Most important, he gives his life as a ransom for many. Having suffered, died, and risen from the dead, he will return as the glorious Son of Man." Matera also reminds us that we have to study the titles within the context of the story: "the Christology is in the story, and through the story we learn to interpret the titles" (26). Christ (Messiah, Anointed One): Title of Gospel (1:1); Peter's Confession (8:29); Title used by Jesus several times: his teaching on giving a cup of water to drink because someone belongs to the Christ (9:41); the Messiah as David's son (12:35); Apocalyptic Discourse (13:21). It is used in the Question of the High Priest to Jesus (14:61); it is mockingly said to Christ on the cross (15:32). Cf. the "Son of David" title is a related title (10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35, 37) Son of God: Title (1:1); The Centurion's Confession (15:39); Spoken by God to refer to Jesus (Baptism 1:11; Transfiguration 9:7) (cf. Jesus' use of the word "Abba" for God, 14:36); Spoken by Demons (3:11; 5:7); Figure of the Son in the Parable of the Vineyard Tenants (12:6); Question of High Priest (14:61) iii. Son of Man (used only by Jesus himself): Jesus uses the title when referring to his authority (2:10, 28), and when predicting his passion, death, and resurrection (8:31; 9:9, 12, 31; 10:33; 14:21, 41). He uses it also to explain the significance of his death (10:45) and to refer to his glorious future coming (8:38; 13:26; 14:62). The title is found in the Old Testament in Ezekiel (almost 100 times), where it simply means "man" / "human being" / descendant of Adam (cf. Ps 8:5). While such an interpretation is possible some of the times that Jesus uses the title, his use of the title more importantly refers (e.g., 13:26; 14:62) to the royal figure from Daniel (Dan 7:13: "the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven"; also Ps 80:18). Crispin Fletcher-Louis, "Jesus as the High Priestly Messiah: Part 2," Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus 5 (2007): 58, explains the "Son of Man" image from Daniel also as a priestly figure: "This individual is Israel's true eschatological high priest. His coming to God with the clouds evokes the Day of Atonement when the high priest enters God's presence surrounded by clouds of incense" (cf. Rev 1:13; Lev 16:4, 13). Fletcher-Louis suggests that many of the "Son of Man" sayings of Jesus have this priestly connotation (Mark 2:10, 28; 8:31; 8:38; 10:45; 13:26). For a more general discussion of Jesus' use of the Son of Man title, see the sidebar in Healy, Gospel of Mark, 164. b. i. ii. Messianic Secret (see especially 8:30; see 1:25, 34, 44; 3:12; 5:43; 7:36; 8:26; 9:9): Messianic Secret as a motif: Jesus often commands demons (1:25, 34; 3:12), people he has healed (1:43-45; 5:43; 7:36; 8:26), and the disciples (8:30; 9:9) not to disclose his identity. Note also Jesus' actions to guard this secrecy (5:37, 40; 7:33; 8:23, 26; 9:2). The explanation for the motif of the Messianic Secret is to be found in the narrative development of Mark's Gospel. Peter confesses that Jesus is the Messiah (8:29), but Jesus is not the kind of Messiah that Peter and many Jews expected, a political and military ruler. He is instead a suffering Messiah (see 8:31-33); his identity cannot be understood apart from the cross. Therefore, Jesus asks that his identity be kept secret until the message of the cross can be revealed (see Healy, Gospel of Mark, 53). a. Notice that in Jesus' first mission among Gentiles in the Decapolis, where the Jewish potential for misunderstanding is less of a concern, there is no secrecy motif after the healing of the Gerasene demoniac, but rather a commissioning (5:19-20). (However, when Jesus returns to the Decapolis, by then he is well known and must enjoin secrecy: 7:36; 8:26.) b. Notice that the motif of secrecy disappears once Jesus' suffering & death are announced (8:31). The one passage after 8:31 that has the secrecy motif (9:9, after the Transfiguration) can be explained the same way: the secret has a time-limit which again refers to Jesus' suffering & death ("until the Son of man should have risen from the dead"). c. In later passages such as 10:47-48 (Bartimaeus) and 11:9-10 (entry into Jerusalem), Jesus is openly acclaimed as the Messianic "Son of David" whose kingdom is coming. d. Related reasons for the secrecy motif are to avoid arousing opposition too quickly (e.g., from Herod 6:14-16) and to explain that he is more than just a wonderworker since he has come to heal the soul as well as the body (cf. paralytic's healing & forgiveness of sins 2:10-11). An earlier explanation, now largely rejected, was that of Wilhelm Wrede (1901), who thought that Jesus did not consider himself the Messiah, but since Christians after his Resurrection proclaimed him as Messiah, Mark had created the motif of the Messianic secret in his Gospel as an apologetic device for explaining this contrast. Thus, Wrede argued that Mark presented Jesus as knowing he was the Messiah but as telling his disciples to keep it secret. It seems that Wrede, like the disciples at first, was looking for the Messiah to match his own expectations! iii. c. Centrality of the Cross: Early in the Gospel (3:6), a plot to kill Jesus is already mentioned. Jesus himself foretells his death with three Passion Predictions (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34), the first occurring right after Peter's confession. The predictions use the title "Son of Man," mention his being handed over [paradidōmi] to various Jewish leaders (e.g., chief priests, elders, scribes), refer to his suffering 4 and death, and also predict his resurrection on the third day. The third prediction is the most detailed, mentioning that he will be handed over to the Gentiles, who will mock, spit on, and scourge him. i. Mark 8:31 "to suffer many things and to be rejected" || Matt 16:21 || Luke 9:22 - possible Old Testament background: Isa 53:3 "spurned and held in no esteem"; Isa 53:4 "he carried our sufferings" (Fourth Suffering Servant Song [see sidebar in Healy 166]); and Ps 118:22 "the stone the builders rejected" ii. Mark 9:31 || Matt 17:22-23 || Luke 9:44 iii. Mark 10:33-34 "they will spit on him and they will scourge him" || Matt 20:18-19 || Luke 18:31b-3 - possible Old Testament background: Isa 50:6 "My back I gave to scourges ... I did not turn my face from the shame of spitting." d. Human realism & emotions: Mark portrays Jesus' compassion (1:41; 6:34), strong displeasure (1:43), anger (3:5), surprise at disbelief (6:5), deep sigh (8:12), indignation (10:14), love (10:21).

What is important to remember about the Bread Motif?

Feeding of 5000/4000, Old Testament references (Jesus and Joshua Num 27:17; Psalm 23); Foreshadowing of the Eucharist (4 verbs: take, bless or give thanks; break; give); Syrophoenician woman; Jews and Gentiles (Marcus Reading) Bread Motif (Mark 6:6b-8:21): (Cf. a more detailed outline of this section in Moloney, Gospel of Mark, 116-117). Note the frequent occurrence (18 times) of the Greek word artos ("bread"; plural: "loaves") throughout this section (connections are obscured since the word is often translated as "food"): Mark 6:8, 37-38, 41 (twice), 44, 52; 7:2, 5, 27; 8:4-6, 14 (twice), 16-17, 19. Apart from this section (6:6b-8:21), the word artos is used only 3 other times: Mark 2:26; 3:20; 14:22 (Last Supper). Concordance: Bread or food (ἄρτος): Note "Bread" section (6:6b - 8:21) (Mark 2:26 NAB) How he went into the house of God when Abiathar was high priest and ate the bread (ἄρτους) of offering that only the priests could lawfully eat, and shared it with his companions?" (Mark 3:20) He came home. Again [the] crowd gathered, making it impossible for them even to eat. (ἄρτον φαγεῖν) (Mark 6:8) He instructed them to take nothing for the journey but a walking stick-- no food (ἄρτον), no sack, no money in their belts. (Mark 6:37) He said to them in reply, "Give them some food yourselves." But they said to him, "Are we to buy two hundred days' wages worth of food (ἄρτους) and give it to them to eat?" (Mark 6:38) He asked them, "How many loaves (ἄρτους) do you have? Go and see." And when they had found out they said, "Five loaves and two fish." (Mark 6:41) Then, taking the five loaves (ἄρτους) and the two fish and looking up to heaven, he said the blessing, broke the loaves (ἄρτους), and gave them to [his] disciples to set before the people; he also divided the two fish among them all. (Mark 6:44) Those who ate [of the loaves (ἄρτους)] were five thousand men. (Mark 6:52) They had not understood the incident of the loaves (ἄρτοις). On the contrary, their hearts were hardened. (Mark 7:2) they observed that some of his disciples ate their meals (ἄρτους) with unclean, that is, unwashed, hands. (Mark 7:5) So the Pharisees and scribes questioned him, "Why do your disciples not follow the tradition of the elders but instead eat a meal (ἄρτον) with unclean hands?" (Mark 7:27) He said to her, "Let the children be fed first. For it is not right to take the food (ἄρτον) of the children and throw it to the dogs." (Mark 8:4) His disciples answered him, "Where can anyone get enough bread (ἄρτων) to satisfy them here in this deserted place?" (Mark 8:5) Still he asked them, "How many loaves (ἄρτους) do you have?" "Seven," they replied. (Mark 8:6) He ordered the crowd to sit down on the ground. Then, taking the seven loaves (ἄρτους) he gave thanks, broke them, and gave them to his disciples to distribute, and they distributed them to the crowd. (Mark 8:14) They had forgotten to bring bread (ἄρτους), and they had only one loaf (ἄρτον) with them in the boat. (Mark 8:16) They concluded among themselves that it was because they had no bread (ἄρτους). (Mark 8:17) When he became aware of this he said to them, "Why do you conclude that it is because you have no bread (ἄρτους)? Do you not yet understand or comprehend? Are your hearts hardened? (Mark 8:19) when I broke the five loaves (ἄρτους) for the five thousand, how many wicker baskets full of fragments you picked up?" They answered him, "Twelve." (Mark 14:22) While they were eating, he took bread (ἄρτον), said the blessing, broke it, and gave it to them, and said, "Take it; this is my body." 1. 6:6b - Summary 2. 6:7-30 - Mission of the Twelve a. sandwiched with the death of JBap in 6:14-29 during a banquet; threat of Herod, a rival "king" b. Gospel for 15th Sunday Ord. Time 6:7-13: theme of mission; opportunity also for catechesis on Anointing of the Sick (6:13 "they anointed with oil many who were sick"; see Catechism 1511). 3. 6:31-44 - Feeding of 5000 (Gospel for 16th Sunday Ord. Time 6:30-34) (Marcus reading, 404-421) a. Joshua (Iēsous) a type of Jesus (Iēsous): Mark 6:34: shepherd for those who are like "sheep without a shepherd": see Num 27:17 (see also Deut 18:15, 18) (Marcus reading, 406) b. First feeding miracle on one side of Sea of Galilee: Israel - 12 tribes; 12 baskets of fragments; feeding with loaves with food left over recalls Elisha's miracle (2 Kings 4:42-44) c. Jesus fulfills Psalm 23: "The Lord is my shepherd": note the common details with the psalm: sheep/shepherd (6:34); rest (6:31); green grass (6:39); meal ("set a table before me"). Also, the traditional location of the miracle is near springs of water ("beside waters of rest he leads me"). Responsorial Psalm for the 16th Sunday Ord. Time is Psalm 23! (Marcus reading, 408) a. Mark 6:6b-8:21 Bread Motif i. 2 Baruch-Some indicate that sources say the Messiah will bring the "manna", this is not in the Bible. This helps us understand the Bread Motif. From pseudepigrapha. From first century A.D. Some indications that Jesus is revealing Himself as the Messiah. Jewish literature outside Bible can shed light on what is going on in the Gospels. ii. Didache-outside the Bible, non Biblical. Uses some of the same words in the feeding of the 5,000. Some words that are allusions of the Eucharist used in the Didache. 1. Manna reveals Elisha in some way? a. Short passage in 2 Kings 4:42-44 with Elisha, successor of Joshua. Similar to this miracle of feeding all these people. b. Jesus' miracle is greater, He has less and doing more. c. In the section about John the Baptist finishing, who leads to Jesus. i. Elijah leads to Elisha. This presentation of Elijah to Elisha is compared to John the Baptist leading to Jesus. a. Mission of Disciples/Bread Motif b. Up till now Jesus has been preaching and doing miracles, now He has a list of people associated with Him doing the same things. They are sharing the mission He is carrying out. c. Mark reports they come back and report to Jesus what they did. Between there are other stories. It is the death of John the Baptist. i. John had his story and his disciples, now we are moving from John to Jesus and His disciples. ii. The contrast of the banquet of Herod leading to death and banquet of Jesus feeding 5,000 leads to life. d. Feeding of 5,000 i. Sheep without shepherd, this is an allusion, we are not told he is quoting scripture. 1. Numbers 27:17-18 Joshua same name in Greek as Jesus in Greek 2. Compared to Joshua, the successor to Moses, Jesus is like Him the new successor ii. Moses-Manna from heaven in OT. Now they are in a deserted place, name for desert. Connections to Moses in OT here in this passage. 1. Bread/manna 2. Walking on water, like crossing of the Red Sea. iii. Psalm 23: The Lord is my shepherd/rest/banquet that satisfies 1. He is compared here to God the Father. He is greater than Moses. iv. Mark we have 4 verbs, take, bless, break, give. v. In this account, 12 baskets are left over. This helps us understand why the two similar miracle stories 1. 12 tribes of Israel vi. Word for basket used here is a word for basket used for Jews i. 6:6b-8:21 Mission of Disciples and Bread Motif 1. Introduced this part. Occurs a lot. Main pillars are the feeding of 5,000 and feeding of 4,000. In between in Mark 7 we have the Phoenician woman, Jesus heals daughter, bread and throw it to the dogs. Story of bread in the middle, it is the key that connects the two pillars.

What criteria has been developed to assess the historicity (use examples)?

For those skeptical of the Gospels' historicity, criteria have been developed by which at least a minimum of Gospels events can be assessed as historical; e.g.,... i. Multiple Attestation ii. Embarrassment iii. Discontinuity Some Criteria of the "new" quest for judging what is historical in the Gospels: Multiple Attestation (if a saying or event appears in different layers of tradition: Mark, Q, John, Paul): Jesus preached the kingdom of God. Embarrassment (if it created difficulty for the early Church): Baptism by John the Baptist; Crucifixion Discontinuity (if it is unlike both the Jewish background & the early Church): Jesus' prohibition of divorce

What are some of the similarities between the Gospels and ancient biographies? (Pitre reading; Mitch reading) What are some indications in the Gospels that they are written with the intention of being historical biographies?

Genre of "Gospel": In recent years, many scholars have come to understand the Gospels as belonging to the category of ancient (Greco-Roman) biographies (hence with the intention of writing history). This was the view of the early Fathers like Saint Justin Martyr. Ancient Biographies: More recent scholars (Richard Burridge, author of What are the Gospels? A Comparision with Graeco-Roman Biography, and Four Gospels, One Jesus?, and Richard Bauckham, author of Jesus and the Eyewitnesses) have argued that the Gospels are a form of biography with similarities to Greco-Roman biographies of the time (see readings by Mitch and Pitre). As a type of biography, the Gospel writers were interested in the historicity of their accounts and wrote them down in living memory of the events, that is, while eyewitnesses of those events were still living. The Gospels were thus written down precisely as the generation of eyewitnesses was passing away. Plus, biogrpaphies at the time were usually about a person's military exploits or someone one should mimic for his or her heroic virtue. The period of oral tradition, it should be remembered, was relatively short (one generation, not centuries). Moreover, the process of oral tradition was not uncontrolled, but rather controlled - Bauckham, for example, argues for formal controlled tradition: the Twelve and also the named minor characters (e.g., Bartimaeus, Jairus), who were eyewitnesses to the events, passed on the stories from Jesus' life & ministry and provided a control for the accuracy of what was handed on. Other scholars (e.g., Kenneth Bailey) argue (based on Middle Eastern models for community storytelling) for informal controlled tradition - even if we do not know the names of all those who passed on the stories about Jesus, the early Christian communities exercised a control to ensure that what was handed on was accurate. As a result, the written Gospels record the controlled oral tradition, and hence we can have confidence in the historicity of the Gospels, while also recognizing that they lead us to faith. VI. Nature/Genre of the Gospels: What kind of literature is a gospel? In particular, since the Gospels were written down (Stage 3) a generation or so after Jesus' life & ministry (Stage 1), the question arises as to what happened during the intervening period of Oral Tradition (Stage 2): are the gospels biographies of Jesus which faithfully hand on what Jesus actually said and did, or are they rather works of faith which tell us more about the beliefs of the early Christian communities in which the Gospels were written? See also Pope John Paul II, Apostolic Letter Novo Millennio Ineunte (2001), n. 18: "The Gospels do not claim to be a complete biography of Jesus in accordance with the canons of modern historical science. From them, nevertheless, the face of the Nazarene emerges with a solid historical foundation. The Evangelists took pains to represent him on the basis of trustworthy testimonies which they gathered (cf. Lk 1:3) and working with documents which were subject to careful ecclesial scrutiny. It was on the basis of such first-hand testimony that, enlightened by the Holy Spirit's action [...].

What is important to remember about the Hasmonean Dynasty (e.g. John Hyrcanus)?

Hasmonean Dynasty; John Hyrcanus (134-104) Rules Judea from 165-37. It should be ruled by an 'anointed one' who Is both priest and king (a priest who is also a king). The Aramaic Levi Document some (pre-Christian) material in the Testament of Twelve Patriarchs, the Hasmoneans from John Hyrcanus 1 onwards, (some) Sadducees, some Pharisees, 'Josephus' preferred state. It was the state of government before the Herodian government, of rulers who were considered royalty and priestly figures, and ruled Judea during the time of Independence. Some people who garnered expectations of a Messiah figure expected a Messiah like those who ruled in the Hasmonean Dynasty

What does the Catholic Church say about the historicity of the Gospels? One's view of the historicity of the Gospels depends on how one understands the stage of Oral Tradition. See Vatican II document Dei Verbum, n. 19.

Historicity: Second Vatican Council: Dei Verbum n. 19: "Holy Mother Church has firmly and with absolute constancy held, and continues to hold, that the four Gospels just named, whose historical character the Church unhesitatingly asserts, faithfully hand on what Jesus Christ, while living among men, really did and taught for their eternal salvation until the day He was taken up into heaven (see Acts 1:1).

What is important to know about Mark 2:1-3:6-cycle of controversy stories; foreshadowing of the Passion; Son of Man title

I. Context- a. Historical-background, cultural, geographical i. For example: Chapter 2 the question of fasting, one would have to help people know what was fasting to the Pharisees and why they practiced. b. Literary-context, where does this passage happen in the big story, and what can one happens in the grouping of passages, one in a series of controversies. What is happening in Chapter 2 in Mark's Gospel, right away. i. Pronouncement Stories 1. Controversy stories 2:1-3:6 a. A situation, it does not seem like a problem b. Controversy or question c. This above is answered by pronouncement that Jesus makes d. The ultimate point of every story is about revealing who Jesus is e. Stories can be in two categories, controversy and miracle stories, the story of the paralytic i. 1:14-3:6 Initial Ministry and Opposition 1. 2:1-3:6 We saw five controversies and the connections between them pointing to His Passion 2. 1:14-15JC emphasis on Good news and Gospel and Kingdom of God. Here Gospel is used as oral proclamation or preaching of Good News. 3. In Isaiah 52:7, He talks about Gospel and Good news and Salvation Same Greek words is used in Isaiah as in this passage of JC bringing Good News/Gospel/Kingdom. 4. At the beginning of the Gospel of JC uses Gospel as referring to the written Gospel one was reading. 5. Plot of Revelation-A Kingly figure, preaching the Kingdom. ii. 3:7-6:6a New Family of Disciples-Because of these controversies Jesus talks in parables. See previous section. The five controversy stories foreshadow the passion in this way: they are pronouncement stories, the Kingdom of God is opposed the charge of Blasphemy, bridegroom to be taken away, and the plot to be put to death. Son of Man-Jesus uses this title for himself, they appear is story of plucking grain on Sabbath on chapter 2. When He predicts His passion. Chapter 9 and Ten. Coming of the Son of Man with the clouds of heaven, in Dan 7-13:14. This is what He means. Finally, we get to see what He means by this. i. and behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man, and he came to the Ancient of Days and was presented before him. 14 And to him was given dominion and glory and kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him; his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and his kingdom one that shall not be destroyed. ii. God calls Ezekiel the Son of Man, could mean Son of Man like this, but what Jesus means is this.

What is important to know about Israel's expectation for Restoration: regathering of 12 tribes; reestablishment of the Davidic kingdom; freedom from Gentile powers (conquering or converting the Gentiles); coming of the Messiah; establishment of a new covenant; dawning of the age to come, marked by holiness?

In Judaism at the time of Jesus, they expected: Israel's Expectation for Restoration (Three Focal Points of Israel's Identity: Torah, Temple, and the Land): a. Regathering of the Tribes of Israel in the Land b. Reestablishment of the Davidic Kingdom c. Freedom from Gentile Powers / Conversion of the Gentiles (Pilgrimage of the Gentiles to the Jerusalem Temple) d. Coming of the Messiah e. End of the Present Age, Dawn of the Age to Come marked by Holiness (Worship of God in the Temple) f. Establishment of a New Covenant At the time of Christ, the Jewish people still considered themselves to be suffering the effects of exile: the tribes were scattered, Gentiles oppressed them, and there was no Davidic king. They were waiting for God to bring about their restoration through his Messiah. The opening of Mark's Gospel indicates that this is all now coming to fulfillment in Jesus. Several passages can point back to this, like the calling of the 12. Mark tries to establish this, "Kingdom of God is at hand."

What is the Synoptic Fact?

In Source Criticism of the Gospels: The Synoptic Problem and Its Proposed Solutions (Blomberg reading, pp. 97-104; Mitch, pp. xxi-xxiii; Porter and Dyer reading):. Synoptic Fact (to be covered later in more detail): Among the three Synoptic Gospels, there are many agreements in content (parallel passages), wording (similar wording in these passages), and order (same order of these passages) a. Content: The material from about 330 Markan verses is also found in Matt and Luke (Triple Tradition). Material from about 300 other Markan verses is also found in Matt, so in total, material from 630 of Mark's 678 verses is found in Matt. Matt & Luke have about 220-235 common verses (Double Tradition), and Mark & Luke have about 10-20 common verses. b. Wording: At times, the common material is expressed with the same or very similar wording: e.g., compare Matt 19:14; Mark 10:14; Luke 18:16 ("let the children come to me ...") c. Order: At times, the order of passages is the same: e.g., compare Matt 16:13-17:23; Mark 8:27- 9:32; Luke 9:18-45: Peter's confession, 1st Passion Prediction, Discipleship ("Take up your cross"), Transfiguration, Healing of Demoniac, 2nd Passion Prediction. This leads us to what is called: 3. Synoptic Problem: How do we explain the agreements in content, wording, and order?

What is the meaning of the literal sense of Scripture when interpreting the Scripture?

It is a search for meaning intended by the human author using various methods. Pope Pius XII means by it what the sacred writer intended. Literal Sense: "be attentive to what the human authors truly wanted to affirm and to what God wanted to reveal to us by their words" (DV 12; CCC 109). "The literal sense is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture and discovered by exegesis" (CCC 116). i. Take into account the conditions of the authors' time & culture, the literary genres used, the modes of speaking. ii. Distinguish literal (which includes figurative meanings) from literalist. Several ways of doing it: for instance, historical critical method, textual criticism, etc. The spiritual sense is based off of literal sense and is one of the four ways of interpreting the Gospel.

How is the Kingdom of God manifested?

It is manifested by Jesus' deeds (miracles) and teachings (parables); Jesus' authority over nature, demons, sickness, and death. Extends ministry to Gentiles. he gives his life as a ransom for many. And the restoration of the Kingdom in some ways.

What is important to remember about the Passion Predictions of Mark 8, 9, 10?

Jesus himself foretells his death with three Passion Predictions (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34), the first occurring right after Peter's confession. The predictions use the title "Son of Man," mention his being handed over [paradidōmi] to various Jewish leaders (e.g., chief priests, elders, scribes), refer to his suffering 4 and death, and also predict his resurrection on the third day. The third prediction is the most detailed, mentioning that he will be handed over to the Gentiles, who will mock, spit on, and scourge him. i. Mark 8:31 "to suffer many things and to be rejected" || Matt 16:21 || Luke 9:22 - possible Old Testament background: Isa 53:3 "spurned and held in no esteem"; Isa 53:4 "he carried our sufferings" (Fourth Suffering Servant Song [see sidebar in Healy 166]); and Ps 118:22 "the stone the builders rejected" ii. Mark 9:31 || Matt 17:22-23 || Luke 9:44 iii. Mark 10:33-34 "they will spit on him and they will scourge him" || Matt 20:18-19 || Luke 18:31b-3 - possible Old Testament background: Isa 50:6 "My back I gave to scourges ... I did not turn my face from the shame of spitting." Nature of True Discipleship: The key to understanding Jesus and what it means to be his disciple is the cross (8:31-38, following Peter's confession). Note how the disciples struggle to understand the cross in the verses immediately following the three Passion Predictions (8:32; 9:32-35; 10:35-37).8:31-33 - First Passion Prediction (Two more: 9:30-32 & 10:32-34): Jesus is the Christ/Messiah, but what kind of Messiah is he? He is not the political/military leader some expected (Peter), but rather a suffering Messiah (recall 2:20; 3:6). a. Jesus is Messiah and Suffering Servant: First Reading for 24th Sunday Ord. Time Isa 50:5-9a Third Suffering Servant Song: Isa 50:6 "My back I gave to scourges ... I did not turn my face from the shame of spitting." b. Mark 8:31 "to suffer many things and to be rejected" || Matt 16:21 || Luke 9:22 - possible Old Testament background: Isa 53:3 "spurned and held in no esteem"; Isa 53:4 "he carried our sufferings" (Fourth Suffering Servant Song [see sidebar in Healy 166]); and Ps 118:22 "the stone the builders rejected" c. "Son of Man" title (8:31), already used in 2:10, 28. See also 8:38; 9:9, 12, 31; 10:33, 45; 13:26; 14:21, 41, 62. OT background of title: Dan 7:13 (see Mark 14:62). 4. 8:34-38; 9:1 - The Conditions of Discipleship: the "way" of discipleship (recall 8:27b) involves taking up one's cross. Theme of Discipleship and Motif of the Disciples' Misunderstanding in this section. a. The Reader, like the Disciples, hears Jesus' proclamation to repent and believe in the gospel (1:15), and to follow Jesus (1:16-20). The reader looks to the Disciples for models of how to follow Jesus. b. However, the Disciples often do not understand who Jesus is and what he says (4:13, 40-41; 6:50-52; 7:18; 8:16-21; 9:5-6, 19, 32; 10:24; 14:37-41). Twice the disciples' "hardness of heart" is mentioned (6:52 by the narrator; 8:17 by Jesus). Jesus also points out the disciples' lack of faith (4:40; cf. 9:19) and lack of understanding (7:18; 8:17). He corrects their self-seeking ambition (9:33-34; 10:37). 3 c. Nature of True Discipleship: The key to understanding Jesus and what it means to be his disciple is the Cross (8:31-38, immediately following Peter's Confession). The Reader understands from the disciples' misunderstandings of Jesus that discipleship is a process and a challenge. Note in particular how the disciples fail to understand the Three Passion Predictions in the verses/passages immediately following the three predictions (8:32; 9:32-35; 10:35-37). 5. 9:2-8 - Transfiguration (Gospel for 2nd Sunday of Lent 9:2-10): Jesus speaks with Moses & Elijah. a. Recall theme of a New Exodus. In the original exodus, the Passover was instituted and God then established a covenant with Moses and the people of Israel on Mount Sinai. In the new exodus (cf. Luke 9:31), Jesus will celebrate a new Passover (the Eucharist) by which he establishes the new covenant (14:24). Motifs associated with Exodus: presence of Moses, Moses/Jesus have companions with them (cf. Exod 24); setting on a mountain (cf. Mt. Sinai); the cloud which overshadows (Exod 40:35); the command to "Listen to him" (Prophet like Moses in Deut 18:15, 18). Also, associated with this motif is the Jewish Feast of Booths/Tabernacles (see Lev 23:33-43) - "build three booths": the Israelites dwelt in tents/booths when God led them out of Egypt in the exodus. b. Voice from heaven: "This is my beloved Son" - cf. voice at Baptism (1:11) (First Reading for 2nd Sunday of Lent Gen 22 - sacrifice of Isaac, Abraham's only, beloved son [Gen 22:2, 12, 16 LXX]) 6. 9:9-13 - Coming of Elijah: Jesus identifies JBap with Elijah who is to come (recall 1:5-6; Mal 3:23) 7. 9:14-29 - Healing of Possessed Boy: emphasis on faith (9:23) 8. 9:30-32 & 9:33-37- Second Passion Prediction & the Greatest in the Kingdom (Gospel for 25th Sunday Ord. Time 9:30-37) (see parallels in Matt 17:22-23; Luke 9:44). Disciples do not understand (9:32) but instead are concerned about which of them is the greatest! (9:34). 9. 9:38-49 - Temptations to Sin (Gospel for 26th Sunday Ord. Time 9:38-43, 45, 47-48) 10. 10:1-12 - Jesus' Teaching on Marriage and Divorce (Gospel for 27th Sunday Ord. Time 10:2-16) a. Background to Pharisees' trap about divorce: the interpretation regarding the grounds for divorce was disputed among different rabbinic schools (Hillel / Shammai): Deut 24:1 "When a man, after marrying a woman, is later displeased with her because he finds in her something indecent, and he writes out a bill of divorce and hands it to her, thus dismissing her from his house, ...." b. Recall that John the Baptist was beheaded for questioning Herod's marriage: Mark 6:17-29. c. Jesus' response cites God's original plan for marriage (Gen 1:27; 2:24) (First Reading Gen 2:18-24), and explains Moses' permission as a concession for hardness of heart. Jesus thus fulfills the law (cf. Matt 5:17), by removing those statutes which were "not good" (Ezek 20:25; cf. Mal 2:16) and restoring and fulfilling God's original plan. d. Note how Mark's version balances rights of men and women (10:11-12) e. Matthew's version has an extra clause (compare Mark 10:11-12 with Matt 5:32; 19:9) which sets aside unlawful marriages (e.g., incestuous marriage or, in canonical language, marriage within a forbidden degree of consanguinity). See 1 Cor 5:1. 11. 10:17-31 - Rich Young Man (Gospel for 28th Sunday Ord. Time) 12. 10:32-34 - Third Passion Prediction (most detailed; see parallels in Matt 20:18-19; Luke 18:31b-3): "they will spit on him and they will scourge him". Old Testament background: Isa 50:6 "My back I gave to scourges ... I did not turn my face from the shame of spitting." 13. 10:35-45 - Request of James and John (Gospel for 29th Sunday Ord. Time) 14. 10:46-52 - Healing of Bartimaeus (cf. commentaries: Marcus, Healy, Moloney, Donahue & Harrington) a. Frame provided by Two Healings of Blind Men suggests that the journey from physical blindness to sight is a model of the journey from spiritual blindness (of the disciples) to faith. b. Motif of the Way - "by the roadside/way" at beginning; "on the way" at the end: the Way to Jerusalem (10:32), but also the Way of Discipleship (10:52). c. See Sample Paper that accompanies the first written assignment for an exegesis of the Bartimaeus pericope.

What is important to know about source criticism?

Luke says that many have written about Jesus and that he used such earlier works to write his own gospel. What sources did each of the Gospel writers use? What is the relationship among the Synoptic Gospels (which have many similarities)? Were some Gospels sources for other Gospels? (Note that Luke also refers to eyewitness sources, whose testimony may be unwritten/oral.) Source Criticism and the Synoptic Problem SourceCriticism:attempts to identify the written & oral sources of a literary composition (biblical text), and then to determine the meaning contained in the source(s) and how the author of that literary composition used the source(s) in his work. For the Synoptic Gospels, source criticism directs its attention to the Synoptic Problem, i.e., the relationship between Matthew, Mark, & Luke. c. Compare Matthew's and Luke's accounts of the temptation (Synoptic Analysis): Matt 4:1-11; Luke 4:1-13 both give 3 temptations but 2nd & 3rd are in different order. Why? Some might ask: which is the source for the other (source criticism)? A better question is: what is the narrative reason for the order?

Regards the nature of Oral Tradition and Historicity of the Gospels, compare the views of Bultmann (the form critics) with more recent views (Bauckham, Bailey) regarding what took place during the second stage of Gospel formation: was the Oral Tradition uncontrolled or was it controlled in some way (testimony on eyewitnesses; emphasis on memorization)?

No Quest (Interim Period): Is research into the "historical Jesus" important? R. Bultmann (The History of the Synoptic Tradition, 1921 German): his form-critical studies led him to consider the Gospels as reflecting the early Church not the life of Jesus. Since he thought the Gospels are mythical, they need to be "de-mythologized". He considered "discoveries" about the "historical Jesus" to be irrelevant to belief (influence of Lutheran division between faith and reason). His view was that one should not seek a historical basis for faith; Jesus has rather an existential significance for our lives (influence of Heidegger's existentialist philosophy). Also, The Form-Critical School (Rudolf Bultmann), the dominant view in the 20th century: Besides considering the literary forms in the gospels (e.g., parables, miracle stories), they also considered that these literary forms reflected the oral tradition of preaching the Gospel in various Christian communities. In particular, these scholars over-emphasized the role of the early Christian communities, claiming that they creatively reshaped the traditions about Jesus during the stage of the oral transmission of the gospel message, so that by the time the evangelists wrote the four Gospels, what was written down was the theological faith- perspective of the communities and not the original historical events of Jesus' life. (The German form critics were influenced by models of the oral transmission of folk literature in Germany over the centuries.) Since the goal of the Gospels was to lead people to faith, they claimed that those passing on the stories had little concern for their historicity. They believed that the process of oral tradition was uncontrolled - that is, there was no control of the historicity of the traditions being passed on, and indeed, the communities creatively re-shaped those traditions. These scholars contrasted the "Jesus of history" with the "Christ of faith" and said that the written Gospels, as the product of the creative oral tradition, gave us the "Christ of faith" but said little about the "Jesus of history". They considered the Gospels to be a unique type of literature. Underlying many of their views was the Protestant tendency to contrast faith and reason/history ("either/or" approach), rather than a more Catholic "both/and" approach. More modern scholars, such as Bauckham say: Towards a Solution? A More Promising Scholarly Approach: The Gospels as the Testimony of Eyewitnesses i. R. Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: "The Jesus of Testimony". The historiography of the Gospels is that of eyewitness testimony, which of its nature combines fact and meaning. Reading the Gospels thus requires, rather than suspicion, an element of trust in the credibility of the witness. Further, Ancient Biographies: More recent scholars (Richard Burridge, author of What are the Gospels? A Comparision with Graeco-Roman Biography, and Four Gospels, One Jesus?, and Richard Bauckham, author of Jesus and the Eyewitnesses) have argued that the Gospels are a form of biography with similarities to Greco-Roman biographies of the time (see readings by Mitch and Pitre). As a type of biography, the Gospel writers were interested in the historicity of their accounts and wrote them down in living memory of the events, that is, while eyewitnesses of those events were still living. The Gospels were thus written down precisely as the generation of eyewitnesses was passing away. The period of oral tradition, it should be remembered, was relatively short (one generation, not centuries). Moreover, the process of oral tradition was not uncontrolled, but rather controlled - Bauckham, for example, argues for formal controlled tradition: the Twelve and also the named minor characters (e.g., Bartimaeus, Jairus), who were eyewitnesses to the events, passed on the stories from Jesus' life & ministry and provided a control for the accuracy of what was handed on. Other scholars (e.g., Kenneth Bailey) argue (based on Middle Eastern models for community storytelling) for informal controlled tradition - even if we do not know the names of all those who passed on the stories about Jesus, the early Christian communities exercised a control to ensure that what was handed on was accurate. As a result, the written Gospels record the controlled oral tradition, and hence we can have confidence in the historicity of the Gospels, while also recognizing that they lead us to faith.

What are some important things to remember about the quests for the historical Jesus?

Quests for the Historical Jesus 3. "Biblical Interpretation in Crisis" and a Way Forward a. Analysis of the Problem: J. Ratzinger, "Biblical Interpretation in Crisis", 1988 lecture in New York City ( http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_article/548/Biblical_Interpretation_in_Crisis__Joseph_Ratzinger.html ) b. Towards a Solution? A More Promising Scholarly Approach: The Gospels as the Testimony of Eyewitnesses i. R. Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: "The Jesus of Testimony". The historiography of the Gospels is that of eyewitness testimony, which of its nature combines fact and meaning. Reading the Gospels thus requires, rather than suspicion, an element of trust in the credibility of the witness. a. First Quest (1778-1906): the goal was to determine who Jesus "really was" and so to change Christian beliefs accordingly. The Gospels (especially John) were considered to be theological creations, thus historically unreliable. i. H.S. Reimarus (1778) said that Jesus was really a Jewish revolutionary, not the fictional projection of those who pretended he rose from the dead. Rationalist explanations of the miracles. ii. D.F. Strauss (1835) said that the Gospels are mythical rather than historical iii. A. Schweitzer (1906) critiqued these 19th century scholars for describing not Jesus but themselves & their own social-historical worldviews (mirror-image reflection). He fell into the same trap, however. He emphasized Jesus' apocalyptic outlook: as Messiah, Jesus would by his death bring about the end of the world. The world did not end, so Jesus must have been a failure. No Quest (Interim Period): Is research into the "historical Jesus" important? R. Bultmann (The History of the Synoptic Tradition, 1921 German): his form-critical studies led him to consider the Gospels as reflecting the early Church not the life of Jesus. Since he thought the Gospels are mythical, they need to be "de-mythologized". He considered "discoveries" about the "historical Jesus" to be irrelevant to belief (influence of Lutheran division between faith and reason). His view was that one should not seek a historical basis for faith; Jesus has rather an existential significance for our lives (influence of Heidegger's existentialist philosophy). "New" (Second) Quest (1953-present): i. E. Käsemann (student of Bultmann disagrees with him): Christianity cannot be divorced from its historical roots. Without history, it becomes a myth (a sort of docetism). He launched the "new" quest, albeit one still influenced by Bultmann (methodological doubt: nothing historical unless corroborated in some way; no miracles, no special knowledge of Jesus, etc.). ii. Some Criteria of the "new" quest for judging what is historical in the Gospels: Multiple Attestation (if a saying or event appears in different layers of tradition: Mark, Q, John, Paul): Jesus preached the kingdom of God. Embarrassment (if it created difficulty for the early Church): Baptism by John the Baptist; Crucifixion Discontinuity (if it is unlike both the Jewish background & the early Church): Jesus' prohibition of divorce iii. The Jesus Seminar (1985-): revives the "new" quest but has very radical views (J.D. Crossan, M. Borg): Jesus an itinerant sage preaching a social gospel Third Quest (1980s-present): i. More reliance on historical method than special criteria; renewed study of first-century Judaism (Josephus, Qumran): J.P. Meier; N.T. Wright ii. Considers Jesus' aims, his relationship to Judaism, why Jesus died, how the early Church began, why the Gospels are what they are, etc.

What is the Synoptic Problem? What are the key terms in it and the proposed solutions?

SP: How do we explain the agreements in content, wording, and order? REMEMBER TO STUDY THE DIAGRAMS!!!!!!!!!!!!! Double and Triple Tradition are called: Content: The material from about 330 Markan verses is also found in Matt and Luke (Triple Tradition). Material from about 300 other Markan verses is also found in Matt, so in total, material from 630 of Mark's 678 verses is found in Matt. Matt & Luke have about 220-235 common verses (Double Tradition), and Mark & Luke have about 10-20 common verses. a. Scholars in the last two centuries have generally sought a solution to the Synoptic Problem in terms of linear development and literary dependence: e.g., the traditional Augustinian view (Matt - Mark - Luke); the Two-Source Theory (Mark & "Q" used by Matt & Luke) (majority); the Griesbach Hypothesis (Matt - Luke - Mark); or the Farrer Hypothesis (Mark - Matt - Luke). Q-is a source of the Gospels used by Matthew and Luke that we do not have today. German for Quelle.

What is important to know about the Jewish High Priests: e.g., Caiaphas?

See Luke 3. He was high priest during the Passion of the Lord. History: when did these events happen? A.D. 28-29: Luke 3:1-2: Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate, Herod Antipas, Caiaphas. He also had a place to go and stay during that time. He was also the son in law of annas. He was appointed by Rome.

What are some characteristics of redaction criticism that are good to know?

Studying the redaction (editing) of a Gospel (differences from other Gospels) which often highlight the theological emphases of an evangelist. 4) Redaction Criticism: studies the whole of a literary composition in its finished stage in order to determine the author's theological purpose and the nature of the audience/community, as these are revealed in the author's collecting, arranging and editing of inherited traditional material as well as in his incorporating his own material into the whole work. The four Gospels are similar but they are also different. Luke used sources for his Gospel (e.g., Mark), but it nonetheless is distinctive from Mark's Gospel. There is a different selection of events reported. There are different theological emphases. Luke therefore edited his sources. Redaction Criticism Narrative Criticism: considers a biblical book in its final form as a work of literature. It examines the book as a narrative—the story of Jesus told in a particular way—considering aspects such as plot, characters, thematic development, setting, etc. It considers the skill of the author (who is not just considered an "editor" as in redaction criticism). This approach is very useful for the Gospel narratives. (Recall earlier reading from Marguerat and Bourquin, How to Read Bible Stories.)

What important themes are important to know about Mark 1:1-15-Prologue Testimony of Church Fathers?

Testimony of Church Fathers: For example, Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, 3.1.1, implies that Mark wrote in Rome: "So Matthew issued a written Gospel among the Hebrews in their own dialect, while Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome, and laying the foundations of the Church. After their departure, Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, did also hand down to us in writing what had been preached by Peter." See also Clement of Alexandria, quoted in Eusebius (Eccl. Hist. 6.14.6-7). Internal arguments for Rome are the use of Latin loanwords: e.g., the Greek kodrantēs from the Latin quadrans is added to explain the widow's offering of a "penny" (Mark 12:42; cf. Luke 21:2); the Greek kentyriōn from the Latin centurio is used in Mark 15:39, 44-45, rather than the typical Greek word for centurion, hekatontarchēs, used in Matt & Luke- Acts. The traditional date is in the early or mid-60s of the first century, shortly after Peter's martyrdom in Rome (A.D. 64) (Irenaeus) or even while Peter was still alive (Clement of Alexandria; Jerome). 2nd Century: Patristic authors cite the Gospels and Paul's letters in their writings (1 Clement; Didache; Ignatius of Antioch; Polycarp; Shepherd of Hermas; Epistle of Barnabas; Justin Martyr) Marcion (ca. A.D. 140): anti-Semitic heretic; his "Bible" eliminates OT, includes only 1 modified Gospel (Luke) and 10 of Paul's letters ("Apostolicon" - no Pastorals: 1-2 Tim, Titus). Church's Response: keep OT; 4-fold Gospel Tatian's Diatessaron: 1 harmonized account of 4 Gospels Writing of gnostic, apocryphal gospels: Gospel of Peter, Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Judas. Muratorian Canon: an early list which has 22 NT books (ca. A.D. 180-200?) Irenaeus of Lyons (d. 200): first theologian to use the term "Scriptures" to mean both OT & NT. v. 4th Century: Eusebius (260-340), the Church historian, distinguishes a threefold classification (Ecclesiastical History, Bk 3, ch 25): - Recognized books: 4 Gospels, Acts, 14 Pauline letters (including Hebrews), 1 Peter, 1 John, Rev? - Disputed books: some widely approved (James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2-3 John) and books generally not accepted (Ep. Barn., Did.) - Absurd and impious books: Gospels of Peter and of Thomas A.D. 367: St. Athanasius, Easter letter: earliest full listing of 27 canonical NT books; same number and same order as our NT Various local Church Councils list both OT & NT books (Catholic canon): Hippo (393), Carthage (397 and 419) After the writing of the Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (i.e., by the 2nd century), these 4 works relating the "good news" about Jesus are called Gospels (e.g., Irenaeus - see Bird reading on patristic references to the Gospels). This is a third stage in the formation of the Gospels. With several written gospels, one can also study the genre of gospel (what kind of literature it is). "So Matthew issued a written Gospel among the Hebrews in their own dialect, while Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome, and laying the foundations of the Church. After their departure, Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, did also hand down to us in writing what had been preached by Peter. Luke also, the companion of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel preached by him. Afterwards, John, the disciple of the Lord, who also had leaned upon His breast, did himself publish a Gospel during his residence at Ephesus in Asia."

In using the literal sense to interpret Scripture, and choosing to use the historical-critical method, what are the steps of the historical-critical method?

Textual criticism, source criticism, form criticism, redaction criticism, and besides the historical-critical method which is a diachronic method which studies the formation of the Gospel texts, there are synchronic methods which study the final form of the text; e.g., narrative criticism

What is important to know about Philo?

The voluntary dispersion of many of the Jews continued, as under Persia, since greater economic gain was to be had in many parts of the empire outside Israel. In fact, the largest Jewish community not in Palestine developed in one of Alex- ander's newly founded cities in Egypt, which he named for himself-Alexandria. i This city became an important Christian center by the second century AD. Jews, under the influence particularly of the mid-first century writer Philo, as well as Christians, especially following the late~second century theologian Origen, developed in Alexandria an allegorical form of exegesis that sought to harmonize the best of Greek philosophy with Jewish or-Christian religion. Finally, there is Philo of Alexandria. A voluminous writer, Philo was a Helle- nistic Jew who wedded Jewish religion to Hellenistic philosophy. He wrote com- mentary on much of the Pentateuch as well as other philosophical and apologetic works, seeking to demonstrate by means of allegorical interpretation that Moses' teaching was compatible with, and indeed anticipated, the best of Greek thought. He is known for developing further Plato's dualism between earth and heaven (sometimes thought to lie behind Heb 8) and for his discourse on the logos or Word (also prominent in John l: 1- 18).50

What is the fourfold sense of Scripture?

This includes the Literal sense and the threefold spiritual sense (Allegorical, Moral/Tropological, Anagogical)(Catechism 116-118; Saint Thomas Aquinas Summa Theologica I. Q. 1, a. 10 [part of class handout]). Relationship of three spiritual senses to the theological virtues (ongoing purpose of Scripture): faith, charity, hope. Fourfold Sense: Literal sense & threefold spiritual sense together make up the four senses of Scripture: The Letter speaks of deeds; Allegory to faith; the Moral how to act; Anagogy our destiny.

What are the three criteria for finding the spiritual sense of Scripture?

Three criteria for Finding the Spiritual Sense, for interpreting Scripture in the same Spirit by whom they were written (Vatican II, Dei Verbum n. 12; Catechism nn. 112-114; Pope Benedict, Jesus of Nazareth "Foreword"): Pay attention to the... 1) Content and Unity of all of Scripture 2) living Tradition of the Church 3) analogy of faith

What is important to remember about the Blindness of the Disciples and the Two Miracles in which Jesus heals blind men (8:22-26 and 10:46-52 Bartimaeus [Marcus reading]); Way of Discipleship as a Way to Jerusalem (Way of the Cross); Discipleship as following Jesus?

a. Framing-two stories of Jesus healing blind men close to one another. i. He creates a frame using similar stories. Setting a section off in Mark's Gospel, sets a frame of what is going on in between. ii. Mark frames the spiritual blindness of the disciples between the healing of the two people of the physical blindness Framing of blocks: Mark frames large blocks of material by similar incidents at beginning and end: a. 8:22-26 [8:27-10:45] 10:46-52: Two healings of blind people frame the middle section on discipleship: contrast with the disciples' blindness in understanding Jesus' suffering. . Discipleship: Mark's Gospel depicts the challenges of following Jesus. Readers can learn discipleship from observing the disciples' own struggles (see France, Gospel of Mark, 27-29). a. Model Disciples: Mark portrays the disciples' radical commitment to Jesus (1:18, 20; 2:14; 10:28- 30), their being granted insight into the kingdom of God (4:11), and their sharing in Jesus' mission (3:14-15; 6:7, 12-13, 30). b. Disciples' Faults and Failures: However, Mark also portrays the disciples' weaknesses: their lack of faith (4:40; 9:19), hardened hearts (6:52; 8:17), lack of understanding (4:13; 6:52; 7:18; 8:17, 21; 9:32), seeking their own glory (9:33-34; 10:37), and inability to stay awake (14:37-41). Structurally, the middle section of the Gospel (8:22-10:52), framed by the two healings of blind men, highlights the spiritual blindness of the disciples.Middle Part 8:22-10:52: the section begins and ends with a miracle restoring sight to a blind man (8:22-26 man of Bethsaida; 10:46-52 Bartimaeus in Jericho). Jesus also predicts his passion three times, but the disciples are slow to understand. There is a focus on discipleship: Jesus instructs his disciples about the cross & about service, overcoming their spiritual blindness (cf. 8:17-18). For example, like the first blind man who requires a two-step healing since he is healed only partially the first time (8:23-25), so Peter's confession that Jesus is the Christ/Messiah is true, but it is only part of the truth about Jesus since Jesus is a suffering Messiah who must suffer & die on the cross.14. 10:46-52 - Healing of Bartimaeus (cf. commentaries: Marcus, Healy, Moloney, Donahue & Harrington) a. Frame provided by Two Healings of Blind Men suggests that the journey from physical blindness to sight is a model of the journey from spiritual blindness (of the disciples) to faith. b. Motif of the Way - "by the roadside/way" at beginning; "on the way" at the end: the Way to Jerusalem (10:32), but also the Way of Discipleship (10:52). c. See Sample Paper that accompanies the first written assignment for an exegesis of the Bartimaeus pericope. 1. 8:22-26 - Healing of Blind Man of Bethsaida: two-step healing: his blindness is only partially healed the first time Jesus lays hands on him (8:23-25).

What are the three stages of Gospel Formation (Dei Verbum nn. 7-8 and 19; Catechism 126)?

a. Life and Teaching of Jesus b. Oral preaching of the Gospels (Oral Tradition) (Bultman considers this the creative stage so in order to understand the true historical Jesus one must get rid of the "creative" stuff) c. Writing of the Gospels

What important themes are important to know about Mark 1:1-15-Titles of Jesus, Old Testament citations (and New Exodus Theme); Old Testament allusions regarding John the Baptist and Elijah; Baptism of Jesus; Meaning of the Word "Gospel" in Mark 1:1, 14-15 (and background of the word in Old Testament and in the Roman Empire)?

a. Mark's Gospel i. 1:1-13 Prologue ii. 1:14-3:6 Initial Ministry and Opposition 1. 2:1-3:6 We saw five controversies and the connections between them pointing to His Passion 2. 1:14-15JC emphasis on Good news and Gospel and Kingdom of God. Here Gospel is used as oral proclamation or preaching of Good News. 3. In Isaiah 52:7, He talks about Gospel and Good news and Salvation Same Greek words is used in Isaiah as in this passage of JC bringing Good News/Gospel/Kingdom. 4. At the beginning of the Gospel of JC uses Gospel as referring to the written Gospel one was reading. 5. Plot of Revelation-A Kingly figure, preaching the Kingdom. I. Titles of Jesus a. Christ/Messiah i. Messianic Secret 1. Peter recognizes Jesus as the Messiah. Jesus always tells people to keep his ID as Messiah secret. Not just a one-time thing. It happens a lot. It is a theme or motif. So they should not have a mistaken idea of what the Messiah should be and they do not want them to make Him a King. 2. After chapter 8, 9, 10 it disappears. The time must be fulfilled. b. Son of God c. Son of Man-Jesus uses this title for himself, they appear is story of plucking grain on Sabbath on chapter 2. When He predicts His passion. Chapter 9 and Ten. Coming of the Son of Man with the clouds of heaven, in Dan 7-13:14. This is what He means. Finally, we get to see what He means by this. i. and behold, with the clouds of heaven there came one like a son of man, and he came to the Ancient of Days and was presented before him. 14 And to him was given dominion and glory and kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him; his dominion is an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away, and his kingdom one that shall not be destroyed. ii. God calls Ezekiel the Son of Man, could mean Son of Man like this, but what Jesus means is this. II. Other Themes a. Cross b. Discipleship There are allusions to Elijah of John the Baptist in his clothing and Jordan River 2 Kgs 1:8 & 2:7 Malachi 3:1, 23 - the Messiah preceded by the messenger Elijah (John the Baptist) (Matt 11:7- 15; 17:9-13) John the Baptist and Elijah: Note his manner of dress and his appearance at the Jordan (see 2 Kings 1:8; 2:6-11). What is the significance of this allusion? See Mal 3:23 [4:5 RSV] (Mal 3:1 cited in Mark 1:2; cf. Mark 9:11-13; Matt 11:7- 14; 17:10-13). Expectation of Elijah's return. They replied, "He wore a hairy garment with a leather belt around his waist." "It is Elijah the Tishbite!" he exclaimed. (2 Kings 1:8) Elijah said to him, "Stay here, please. The LORD has sent me on to the Jordan." Elisha replied, "As the LORD lives, and as you yourself live, I will not leave you." So the two went on together. [...] the two of them stood next to the Jordan. (2 Kings 2:6-7) Now I am sending to you Elijah the prophet, Before the day of the LORD comes, the great and terrible day (Mal 3:23) 1:9-11 - Baptism of Jesus by John (CCC 536) (Gospel Reading: Baptism of the Lord, Year B: Mark 1:7-11) a. Why is Jesus baptized by John (and not the other way around)? Compare the 4 Gospels (Synoptic Analysis: e.g., see Aland Synopsis). Matthew's explanation (Matt 3:15 "to fulfill all righteousness") is consistent with his theological emphases on fulfillment (e.g., Matt 1:22; 26:56) and righteousness (e.g., Matt 5:6, 20; 6:1) (redaction criticism). b. Trinitarian theophany: Spirit as dove (over water: cf.Gen 1:2;8:8-12); Father's voice; Jesus "Son" (cf. Transfiguration 9:2-8) c. "beloved Son" OT allusions Ps 2:7; Isa 42:1; Gen 22:2, 12 "only son" beloved son LXX.Isaianic New Exodus theme: Isa 40:3 is part of Isaiah's Book of Consolation (Isaiah 40-66), which describes the return from exile as a new exodus (e.g., Isa 43:16-19). At the time of Christ, the Jewish people still considered themselves to be suffering the effects of exile: the tribes were scattered, Gentiles oppressed them, and there was no Davidic king. They looked to God to bring about their restoration through his Messiah.

What are the characteristics of the Pharisees?

a. Pharisees: scribes, experts in the Law; belief in the resurrection; Oral Law in addition to the Written Law (Torah). Many times they reject Jesus in hostile ways. They question Jesus and plot against him. Point out things that Jesus did or His disciples that were unlawful. They view holiness as separate from contamination. They held one view of interpretation of divorce among differing views of the day. Two most famous were Hillel and Shammei. Members of the Sanhedrin and consistently opposed by Sadducees. They were the "evangelical pastors" of the day.

What is the "Messianic Secret", the reasons for this recurring motif, and some examples from the Gospel of Mark?

b. i. ii. Messianic Secret (see especially 8:30; see 1:25, 34, 44; 3:12; 5:43; 7:36; 8:26; 9:9): Messianic Secret as a motif: Jesus often commands demons (1:25, 34; 3:12), people he has healed (1:43-45; 5:43; 7:36; 8:26), and the disciples (8:30; 9:9) not to disclose his identity. Note also Jesus' actions to guard this secrecy (5:37, 40; 7:33; 8:23, 26; 9:2). The explanation for the motif of the Messianic Secret is to be found in the narrative development of Mark's Gospel. Peter confesses that Jesus is the Messiah (8:29), but Jesus is not the kind of Messiah that Peter and many Jews expected, a political and military ruler. He is instead a suffering Messiah (see 8:31-33); his identity cannot be understood apart from the cross. Therefore, Jesus asks that his identity be kept secret until the message of the cross can be revealed (see Healy, Gospel of Mark, 53). a. Notice that in Jesus' first mission among Gentiles in the Decapolis, where the Jewish potential for misunderstanding is less of a concern, there is no secrecy motif after the healing of the Gerasene demoniac, but rather a commissioning (5:19-20). (However, when Jesus returns to the Decapolis, by then he is well known and must enjoin secrecy: 7:36; 8:26.) b. Notice that the motif of secrecy disappears once Jesus' suffering & death are announced (8:31). The one passage after 8:31 that has the secrecy motif (9:9, after the Transfiguration) can be explained the same way: the secret has a time-limit which again refers to Jesus' suffering & death ("until the Son of man should have risen from the dead"). c. In later passages such as 10:47-48 (Bartimaeus) and 11:9-10 (entry into Jerusalem), Jesus is openly acclaimed as the Messianic "Son of David" whose kingdom is coming. d. Related reasons for the secrecy motif are to avoid arousing opposition too quickly (e.g., from Herod 6:14-16) and to explain that he is more than just a wonderworker since he has come to heal the soul as well as the body (cf. paralytic's healing & forgiveness of sins 2:10-11). An earlier explanation, now largely rejected, was that of Wilhelm Wrede (1901), who thought that Jesus did not consider himself the Messiah, but since Christians after his Resurrection proclaimed him as Messiah, Mark had created the motif of the Messianic secret in his Gospel as an apologetic device for explaining this contrast. Thus, Wrede argued that Mark presented Jesus as knowing he was the Messiah but as telling his disciples to keep it secret. It seems that Wrede, like the disciples at first, was looking for the Messiah to match his own expectations!

What are the characteristics of form criticism?

b. Form Criticism: analyzes individual pericopes (selections from books), categorizing them by form/genre and considering them as expressing units handed on in the stage of oral tradition. The form critic also speculates on the "situation in life" (Sitz im Leben) of the community from which they came. Famous 20th century form critics include Martin Dibelius, Rudolf Bultmann, and Vincent Taylor (see the attachment). The Primary Distinction of Forms is between Narrative Forms and Discourse Forms: i. Narrative Forms: Miracle Stories; Pronouncement Stories; Stories about Jesus [like Baptism; Transfiguration; Entry into Jerusalem; Cleansing of the Temple; these have no particular form] ii. Discourse Forms: Parables; Prophetic/Apocalyptic sayings [Mark 13: Apocalyptic Discourse]; Son of Man sayings [such as the Passion predictions in Mark 8:31-33; 9:30-32; 10:32-34; cf. OT background from Ezek; Dan 7:13-14]). Form Criticism: cautious use, aware that "the method is often interlaced with inadmissible philosophical & theological principles" c. The Gospels were written down after a period in which the gospel message was preached orally. The oral preaching probably involved relating different forms/kinds of short stories about Jesus (the miracles he worked; the parables he taught; etc.). What happened during this process of oral tradition? If a period of time elapsed between the life of Jesus and the writing of the Gospels (i.e., the period of oral tradition), are the Gospels historically reliable? Form Criticism and Historical Criticism

What are the characteristics of the Sadducees?

b. Sadducees: chief priests & lay aristocracy (elders); coexistence with Romans; no belief in resurrection; only Torah for beliefs. Made up the Sanhedrin, the Jewish Supreme Court. Less popular with people. Made peace with Hasmonean Dynasty. They amassed great wealth and used it improperly according to the people.Hence they denied immortality, resurrec- tion, angels, and demons. They strongly emphasized the freedom of the human will and living as God's people in this life. They did not protest Roman occupation of Israel, and they largely benefited from this stance by being able to administer and profit from the temple ritual.73 Jesus repeatedly criticized the Sadducees with- out the balancing factors noted above in our discussion of the Pharisees. On one occasion, in response to their skepticism, he demonstrated the resurrection even from the books of Moses (Mark 12: 18-27 pars., citing Exod 3:6). Because the Sadducees were so tied to the temple and its cult, they did not survive the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70. They benefitted from the status quo and did not want to change.

What are the characteristics of the Essenes?

c. Essenes (cf. Qumran, Dead Sea Scrolls): rejected the Jerusalem priesthood as corrupt; apocalyptic outlook Although Josephus describes this group alongside the Pharisees and Sadducees, they appear nowhere by name in the New Testament. Still, their pres- ence on the shores of the Dead Sea near the Judean wilderness, in one quarter of Jerusalem, and in other major cities around the empire makes it probable that Jesus and his disciples interacted with them at times. The name Essene may come from the Aramaic hasya-pious or holy. Like the Pharisees, they may be descen- dants of the Hasidim. In fact, they reflect an even more radical protest against the Hellenization and Romanization of Israel than the Pharisees. Evidence from Qumran suggests the existence of a group at that site from mid-second century BC until just after the fall of Jerusalem.75 The Essenes were apocalyptically oriented. They were founded by an anony- mous leader known from their literature as the 'Teacher of Righteousness." They believed that Jerusalem and its temple had become hopelessly corrupt, especial- ly under an individual called simply the "wicked priest" (probably Jonathan or Simon, brothers of Judas Maccabeus). They opposed those who taught Israel its Law as "seekers after smooth things" (probably the Pharisees). The present age had become so wicked that its end was surely at hand, but neither social action nor revolution could bring about the messianic age. Only withdrawal from society, intense devotion to the Law, and patient trust that God would intervene supernatu- rally with the armies of heaven to establish his kingdom could bring it. enes placed strong emphasis on God's sovereignty and predestination. Needless to say, they saw themselves as the elect subgroup within Israel that would be present to fight for God when he began the "war between the sons of light and the sons of darkness"--described in detail in their document known as the War Scroll.76 Most Essenes lived in separate neighborhoods in the main cities. Qurnran is the only completely monastic site of Essene life that we know about; therefore, it is precarious to generalize from the Dead Sea sect's literature to all Essenes. We know, for example, that elsewhere Essenes married and had children, whereas a vow of celibacy was required for Qurnran initiates. Nevertheless, there were probably various parallels in urban Essenism to some of the other major charac- teristics of the Dead Sea sect: (1) a communal lifestyle, involving daily prayers, work, study, and ritual (including daily baths or baptisms to wash away the previ- ous day's sins); (2) an extensive period of probation before being granted full- fiedged membership (up to three years), followed by strict discipline and policies for excommunication of the recalcitrant; (3) a perception that they were fulfilling biblical prophecy, with (a) the Teacher of Righteousness as the prophet Moses predicted in Deut 18: 18, (b) the entire sect as "a voice of one calling ... in the wilderness" (Isa 40:3) and as inaugurating God's new covenant with his people (Jer 31:31-34), and (c) the events of their day as the fulfillment of numerous "end-time prophecies.':" In addition, (4) the Qurnran sectarians looked for the coming of two messiahs-one priestly and one kingly (since each had to come from different tribes). (5) They foreshadowed the messianic banquet oflsa 25:6 in the communal meals that they shared. (6) Significant interest in Melchizedek as a kind of archangel may provide some of the background for similar imagery in the Epistle to the Hebrews. (7) One entire scroll outlines a blueprint for a new temple but, short of its construction, the Essenes would not offer sacrifices. (8) The Cop- per Scroll refers to the burial of a vast hoard of wealth in the desert; if its account was true, the ability to rediscover the treasure has long since been lost.78 Of great fascination to contemporary readers are the various manuals of dis- cipline and communal organization, hymns, prayers, psalms, liturgical texts, cal- endars, Old Testament commentaries, and apocalyptic literature that make up the Dead Sea Scrolls. Inaccurate but sensationalist claims have fueled this interest. The truth is that the vast majority of all the scrolls and their fragments have been trans- lated. There is no conspiracy to hide information damaging to Christianity from

What are the characteristics of the Zealots?

d. Zealots: Jewish revolutionaries who advocated overthrowing the Roman occupation. Josephus refers to this group as the "fourth philosophy." They are the most loosely knit group of the four and probably should not be thought of as a formal party until the Jewish rebellion in the late 60s, but there were important precursors. In AD 6, Judas of Galilee led an uprising against a Roman census and registration of property under the Syrian governor Quirinius (cf. Acts 5:37). Throughout subsequent decades numerous self-appointed prophets and rebels emerged, some little more than bandits or terrorists, others commanding more of a following for a time. Acts 5:36 refers to one by the name of Theudas, and Acts 21:38 mentions an unnamed Egyptian who "led four thousand terrorists out into the wilderness some time ago." Josephus describes many more. Simon the Canaanite is also called a "Zealot" in the Gospels (Luke 6: 15; cf. Acts 1: 13). The "thieves" on the crosses next to Jesus were called lestai (Mark 15:27 pars.), perhaps better translated "insurrectionists." In the 50s and 60s, the sicarii ("dagger men") emerged, killing by stealth prominent local Jews who col- laborated with Rome. An intriguing eccentric named Jesus ben Ananias made such a nuisance of himself for several years in the mid-60s, predicting first the destruction of the temple and ultimately his own demise, that he was :flogged. He was later accidentally hit by a stone and killed (J. War6.5.3). The story of the fail- ure of the Jewish revolt against Rome is described briefly above (pp. 25- 26). The Zealots had hoped they could repeat the Maccabean miracle and were convinced that God would honor military efforts to overthrow Rome, but they turned outto be tragically mistaken. In striking contrast, Jesus' preaching was consistently nonviolent.82 By way of summary, one may think of first-century Judaism as a diverse collec- tion of responses to the theological "contradiction" involved in living under foreign occupation in a land God had promised to give Israel forever. Pharisees sought to rectify the situation by internal reform; Sadducees benefited from the status quo and so rejected attempts to change the situation; Essenes saw no hope apart from com- plete withdrawal and a fresh start; and Zealots strove to overthrow the oppressors by military might. The average "person of the land" was too busy simply trying to survive to join any of these parties. But many of them no doubt looked for a mes- sianic deliverer of some kind (cf. also below, pp. 476-77).

What is important to remember about Augustus Caesar and other Emperors: Tiberius, Nero?

~-------6-4 B.C. (or 2 B.C.): Birth of Jesus, during the reign of Caesar Augustus (27 B.C. - A.D. 14) ~------Luke 2:1 "In those days a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be enrolled." He divides Herod's the Great's kingdom upon his death among his three sons. Revolts at the time? -----Tiberius (14-37) was emperor during the time of John the Baptist's ministry. A.D. 33 (April 3) (or April 7, 30): Jesus crucified by the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate (A.D. 26-36) during the reign of Tiberius Caesar (A.D. 14-37), with Herod Antipas (Herod the Great's son) as the tetrarch in Galilee. ------------- incidents under Pilate show him as imprudent but not vicious or dishonest. - Jesus begins his public ministry and John the Baptist is executed ca. AD 28, · -Jesus is crucified in 30 or 33. -Pilate's repression of the Samaritans in· 36 causes. Yitellius, prefect of Syria,·to send him to Rome (36/37}. -Death of Stephen and conversion of Saul (Paul} ·ca. 36. Nero persecuted many Christians (54-68) blamed Christians for the burning of places in Rome. Persecutions took place 64-68

Synoptic Gospels Midterm

Related study sets

Unit 4: Session 1: Type of Client

world geography

Economics 5.2 Taxation

Chapter 4

Gateway A2. Unit 5. Grammar revision

Heparin and Warfarin

Deontological Ethics

Exam 3- Blaw

PMP Rita Exam Prep Questions - Chapter 10 - Communications Mgmt

NCLEX Q&A Chp 46

Module 42-43

Exam Random Practice Questions

BIO 444 EXAM1

Conditions Existing Before Conception

Business Law - Lesson 1-1

L&H

chapter 9 psych exam 2

Leap Year

Intro to OB

Exam FX Test 3