T&HS ch 2

meaning:

The subjective interpretation people give to events or physical objects. Meanings are developed by individuals and groups, and different meanings can be attributed to the same event or physical object because the definitions are always influenced by interpretation. Social scientists in this tradition believe that meanings cause actions.

Stern also believes that religion helps to produce the "______________," a person striking out with an ideology but no group.

lone-wolf avenger

Walter Laqueur

says that no one can develop a composite picture of a terrorist because no such terrorist exists.

, Buford Furrow entered a Jewish day care center in August 1999 and began shooting people. He was a lone wolf, or what is called a _____________________." He had no extensive logistical network or support organization.

"berserker

Radicalization tends to take place among two factions and three major groups. The first faction involves various Muslim groups who use cut-and-paste versions of the Quran, and the second group centers around white supremacy. This results in three major groups:

(1) Islamic extremism, (2) Christian extremists who use selected biblical passages to justify their views, and (3) white supremacists who have adopted the Norse pantheon of Odin, Thor, Frida, and the other gods and goddesses

six-step model gleaned from Sageman.

(1) alienated youth, (2) join other alienated youths, (3) they seek orientation in religion, (4) their religion is militarized, (5) they encounter an actor who knows terrorists, and (6) the actor introduces them to the terrorists and they join.

terrorists and criminals exhibit practical behavioral differences. These include:

1. Criminals are unfocused. Terrorists focus their actions toward a goal. 2. Criminals may live in a criminal underworld, but they are not devoted to crime as a philosophy. Terrorists are dedicated to a cause. 3. Criminals will make deals to avoid punishment. Terrorists rarely cooperate with officials because they do not wish to betray their cause. 4. Criminals usually run when confronted with force. Terrorists tend to attack. 5. Criminals strike when the opportunity to do so is present. Terrorists strike against symbols after careful planning. 6. Criminals rarely train for crime. Terrorists prepare for and rehearse their operations.

Berman believes there are_______active religious terrorist organizations in the world: Eighteen of them are based in Islam, and less than a dozen are very effective.

20

eschatology:

A Greek word used to indicate the theological end of time. In Judaism and Christianity, it refers to God bringing creation to an end. In some Shi'ite Islamic sects and among Christians who interpret biblical eschatological literature literally, believers contend that Jesus will return to lead a final battle against evil. Other major religions also have end-time theology.

Total criminal intelligence

A concept aimed at gathering information about all potential crimes, the activities of known and suspected criminals, crime patterns, and potential social problems. Information is analyzed and used to prevent crime.

profiling:

A practical criminological process designed to identify the behavioral attributes of certain types of criminals.

theory of action:

A social science theory that assumes human beings take action based on the subjective meanings they attribute to social settings.

Sedgwick believes that the term "radicalization" simply confuses everybody. He proposes a solution:

Abandon the use of the word as an absolute, definitive concept.

Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab: (b. 1986)

According to a federal indictment, smuggled a chemical bomb and chemical igniter in a syringe onto a Northwest flight from Amsterdam to Detroit on December 25, 2009. He was born into a family that practiced Islam but became radicalized while attending school in the United Kingdom. He was allegedly trained by terrorists in Yemen, who supplied the explosive compound.

________________________ are the results of social and psychological interpretations of reality.

Alienation and radicalization

Omar Hammami: (b. 1984)

An American leader of Al Shabaab, under the name of Abu Mansoor al-Amriki.

James W. von Brunn: (1920-2010)

An American white supremacist and anti-Semite. He entered the Holocaust Museum on June 10, 2009, and began shooting. He killed a security officer before he was wounded and subdued. He died in federal custody while awaiting trial.

social geometry:

As used by Donald Black, the social space occupied by a structure and the direction in which it moves. Groups take actions based on their relationships with other groups. Terrorist groups move to strike governments, and governments have structures that strike back. Groups are not violent, Black says; the structures that contain them may be.

routes to terrorism:

As used by John Horgan, refers to the psychological and social factors that motivate people to join and remain in terrorist groups.

_______thinks many analysts do not understand terrorism because they search for social and political meanings to find the root causes of conflict. Scholars are often particularly weak in their understanding of terrorism because they focus their attention on descriptions of violent groups and individuals.

Black

PRISON RADICALIZATION—Mark Hamm's research for the National Institute of Justice concludes that inmates are recruited and radicalized in a number of ways:

Crisis Convert—joins a radical group as a result of a personal crisis Protection-Seeking Convert—seeks a group out of fear Searching Converts—have been exposed to religion, but seek deeper meaning while in prison Manipulating Converts—are controlled by a strong member inside a group Free-World Converters—result from chaplains outside of the system who spread literature and preach radicalization

___________ plays a major role because messianic warriors in the endtime correct the heresies of the past and fight for the ideal divine order of a deity. Pearce believes that empirical findings demonstrate that terrorism is partially a religious process.

Eschatology

Tanja Ellingsen (2005) says two primary reasons account for the continued influence of religion.

First, religion has always been an important factor in the history of humanity. There is no reason to believe that it will fade as technology grows. Second, modernization tends to break down communities, families, and social orientation. People seek a deeper meaning to their lives.

Al Shabaab:

Formed as a militant wing of a federation of Islamic courts in Somalia in 2006. Its senior leadership is affiliated with al Qaeda.

The _______ tradition of sociology was very important in the search for social meaning, and some social scientists study behavior as if they are looking at scenes in a play or movie. Others came to see the study of life as a dramatic series of actions filled and driven by meaning

German

retired DEA agent_______(2005) uses a meaning framework to develop a method of classifying terrorist organizations. His purpose is to assist law enforcement officers in conspiracy investigations.

Gregory Lee

alienation:

Happens when an individual or group becomes lost in the dominant social world. A person or group of people is alienated when separated from the dominant values of society at large.

nodes:

In counterterrorist or netwar discussions, the points in a system where critical components are stored or transferred. The importance of a node is determined by its relation-ship to the network.

Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs)

In theory, this allows the FBI to coordinate law enforcement resources in the face of domestic terrorism and to expand investigations.

To counter such tendencies in law enforcement, the FBI has created local terrorism task forces—______________—around the country.

Joint Terrorism Task Forces (JTTFs)

__________________ (2009) complains that there is no consensus about the definition of radicalization.

Mark Sedgwick

In_____________________analysis, terrorists take action out of an ideological desire for social change. He implies that all terrorists are unhappy with the state of the world, and they are motivated to change it.

Nance's

According to the _______, there is little need to study the processes of radicalization.

National Counter terrorism Center

Laqueur (1999) believes that other group characteristics can be discerned through the type of movement.

Nationalistic and separatist groups are aggressive, and their actions are characterized by horrible violence. Such violence may or may not be the result of psychological inadequacies. In democracies, Laqueur says, terrorists tend to be elitists. Nationalistic movements produce terrorists from the lower classes, but religious terrorists come from all classes. Individual and group profiles are the result of political and social conditions.

__________is a structural method for examining terrorism. The analogy assumes that terrorism takes place within a network of social connections. Actions take place at nodes, or connections in the network. The goal of counterterrorism is to disrupt the network.

Netwar

netwar:

One network fighting another network.

CesareBeccaria: (1738-1794)

One of the founders of the discipline of criminology. His work Of Crimes and Punishments (1764) is the classic Enlightenment study of the discipline.

violent radicalization:

Refers to the process of adopting extremist positions and engaging in violence based on a new set of beliefs.

_______ terrorists look at the modern world and reject it. This world is evil in the meaning framework of religious terrorists, and they refuse to accept the boundaries of the secular modern world.

Religious

__________________ believes certain psychological factors interact with social factors to create a climate conducive to terrorism.

Ross

Sageman's Model

STEP 1 Alienated young man STEP 2 Meets other alienated young men and forms bond INTERIM They become a "Bunch of Guys" STEP 3 Groups gravitate toward religion INTERIM They outdo each other in zeal in order to express love for the group STEP 4 Religion interpreted in militant terms INTERIM Most groups stop at this point STEP 5 Militant group meets terrorist contact STEP 6 Militants join terrorists as a group decision

Researchers at____________, Texas, used a structural model to track terrorist organizations throughout the world (Ward and Hill, 2002). Avoiding a meaning framework, they identified more than 500 violent groups engaged in subnational violence. Using public information, they created a database that tracked 21 types of events with a multiplicity of variables. The structures that emerged from their research were defined by the events and variables. The effort resulted in a comprehensive picture of terrorist violence.

Sam Houston State University in Huntsville

meaning framework:

The definitional boundaries for a particular social meaning. Individuals and groups create boundaries around their experiences and perceptions, and they define issues within them. Meaning frameworks are the social boundaries surrounding those definitions.

structural framework:

The idea that social constructs are based on systems that provide order. The systems are social structures that accomplish functions necessary to survive. Human activity occurs to accomplish the functions required to maintain the social structure of the system.

Sageman began looking at radicalized members of al Qaeda. Using public sources and the biographies of 172 militants, he found a common behavioral pattern in al Qaeda.

The terrorists were almost exclusively male and were radicalized in the West. Most of the men were mentally stable, and they came from middle-class—sometimes wealthy—families. They had no history of violence, and few of them had arrest records. There is no evidence to show that they were recruited by a sinister network or that they were brainwashed by militant ideology.

In religious radicalization, people exhibit distinctive forms of behavior, and these may appear in any sequence

They adopt rigid, literalist interpretations of re-ligion. They trust only selected radical sources of theological information, and they tolerate no deviance from their interpretation.

The National Counterterrorism Center a federal agency created in 2004 to integrate all information gathered on international terrorism,

a federal agency created in 2004 to integrate all information gathered on international terrorism,

the process of becoming a terrorst involves three distinct phases.

a person must decide to become a terrorist, and this is followed by a decision to remain in a terrorist group. disengagement—the behavior of people who decide to abandon terrorism.

Chetan Bhatt (2009) believes radicalization is associated with _______

alienation.

lone-wolf avenger

are the most difficult type of terrorist to deter or detain.

For social acceptance to work, however, the terrorist group must be _________________ from mainstream society.

isolated

Many social scientists explain_______as a group process taking place inside a social construct or as a multilevel mixture of constructs operating within the same time frame.

behavior

One of the current weaknesses in terrorism research is the lack of quantitative and qualitative____________studies.

behavioral

involved, there are other behavioral indicators. People being radicalized accept the idea of the "-------," and they believe that the West is at war with Islam.

clash of civilizations

According to Latora and Marchioni's thesis, terrorist organizations are structured in the same manner as ____________. This means they are composed of networks that move in patterns—for example, patterns of telephone lines or highways—to particular critical points, or nodes.

communication and transportation systems.

A number of researchers believe that members of terrorist groups go through ______________ processes while they are being violently radicalized

decision-making

Believers must identify with a _____________ and believe they are participating in a struggle to change history. And this struggle must be a cosmic struggle; that is, the outcome of the struggle will lead to a new relationship between good and evil. When they feel the struggle has reached the critical stage, violence may be endorsed and terrorism may result.

deity

Marc Sageman (2004) was one of the first analysts to suggest that radicalization could be modeled and observed. Sageman presents radicalization as a six-step frame-work. It starts with alienated young men who find other groups of alienated young men. They "________" religion as a way of giving meaning to their lives.

discover

David Rapoport believes that religion has influenced terrorism because of _____________ expectations. Belief in end-of-the-age theology and the coming of a deity serves to justify violent behavior.

eschatological

Ross identifies five psychological and other factors involved in the development of terrorism:

facilitating traits, frustration/narcissism-aggression, associational drives, learning opportunities, and cost-benefit calculations.

The key to counterterrorism is to _______ radicalized individuals when they try to join the militant group.

focus

Practical criminology

focuses on the common actions of lawbreakers. Police officers are not as concerned with theories of criminality as they are with the practical aspects of criminal behavior. They want to know what criminals do so that they may deter them from committing a crime or catch them after the crime is committed.

Terrorism was rare in the past because _______ would not allow it to develop.

geography

Bernard Lewis (2002) examines the rise and demise of the Ottoman Turks, the last great Islamic empire, in the face of Western expansion and colonialism. He argues that trouble between Islam and Western modernity can be attributed to the meanings each group attributes to______

historical change.

Facilitating traits .

include fear, anger, depression, guilt, antisocial behavior, a strong ego, the need for excitement, and a feeling of being lost

Terrorism investigations

involve long-term observation, informant development, and evidence collection. It usually involves a lengthy process of piecing together elements of a complex criminal conspiracy

social process

is the way individuals and groups structure themselves, interpret reality, and take action based on those interpretations.

Ross believes that five interconnected processes are involved in terrorism:

joining the group, forming the activity, remaining in the campaign, leading the organization, and engaging in acts of terrorism.

Anthropologist Marvin Harris (1991, pp. 437-453) believes that human beings have experienced two types of religions:

killing and nonkilling religions.

Many social scientists study group behavior by looking at the________of actions.

meaning

Mark Juergensmeyer (2000, pp. 216-229) uses this approach to study the impact of religion on terrorism.

meaning

Social scientists who study group and individual behavior from this perspective believe the way we interpret the world motivates the actions we take.

meaning framework

Juergensmeyer sees the clash between________ and traditional culture as one of the reasons for terrorism

modern values

Mark Juergensmeyer (1988, 2003, 2009) spent many years examining the issues surrounding religious terrorism. In Terror in the Mind of God , he approaches several militants from different religious traditions around the world. After extensive inter-views, he categorizes their discussions to find commonalities. The findings are based on the meanings his subjects attach to __________________.

modernity

People use stories to explain deep truths beyond the immediate world, and terrorist groups build their own ______ to justify their actions through stories.

mythologies

Latora and Marchiori's position reflects a new theory in modern warfare called ______ . According to this theory, sub national criminal, terrorist, or revolutionary groups organize themselves in a network of smaller logistical structures, groups, or command posts.

netwar

Any point where information, weapons, or personnel are gathered or exchanged is called a _____ ; the node is the critical target for counterterrorist operations.

node

Bodrero (2002) says terrorist behavior differs from standard patterns of criminal behavior because terrorists are highly motivated and loyal to a particular cause. Whereas ordinary criminals are________, terrorists are focused.

opportunistic

Johnny Ryan (2007) maintains that there are behavioral commonalities as groups move toward violence. Radicalization is the result of "Four Ps":

persecution, precedent, piety, and perseverance.

Law enforcement, intelligence, and military communities use both meaning and structural approaches to understand terrorism. Security forces do not look for theories about behavior. They look for practical results to neutralize terrorism. Therefore, they approach criminology from a __________________

practical perspective.

Potential terrorists are motivated to join groups through ___________________________

religion, ethnicity, nationalism, or ideology

Killing religions developed during the food-gathering cycles of_______________and early agricultural societies, and they were premised on a deity helping the community in times of crisis.

preagrarian

Many law enforcement agencies, including the Behavioral Science Unit in the FBI, have attempted to develop practical models for _____________________terrorists based on individual psychological characteristics. They employ a variety of techniques and have become more sophisticated in using behavioral science against many forms of criminality

profiling

Ross believes structural factors interact with the _______makeup of potentially violent people to produce terrorism.

psychological

When using the word criminology in an academic setting, images of _________ theories appear in the minds of researchers and teachers.

psychological and sociological

Randy Borum (2004) says that researchers have come to the conclusion that there is no standard rationale for justifying behavior. He says it is profitable to distinguish three different phases of self-justification:

reasons for joining the group, reasons for remaining, and reasons for leaving.

radicalization:

refers to the psychological process of adopting extremist positions.

Scholars and analysts who use_________________as a way of examining terrorism use meaning and structural frameworks. They believe that religion influences behavior. It does so by placing terrorism within the context of a sacred story giving new meanings to the actions a group takes or the social structures supporting the organization.

religion

According to Marxist theories, the conventional wisdom of modern societies, and some schools of science, modernization should lead to the decline of____________

religious identification

Eli Berman (2009) examines the internal interpretations and publicly projected meanings to examine the emergence of ___________

religious terrorist groups.

To maintain the power formally given by the sacred story, leaders develop internal enforcement mechanisms such as _________________

rewards

John Horgan (2008), director of the International Center for the Study of Terrorism at Pennsylvania State University, believed rather than searching for the "__________________," Horgan believes researchers should search for the routes to terrorism . In other words, Horgan is concerned with the psychological processes that lead people to terrorist groups

roots of terrorism

Terrorism is a social process and it can be studied with the same methods used by social scientists. One method is to ______________________

search for meanings behind actions. Another way to analyze terrorism is to look for structures.

Many sociologists define alienation as a process by which an individual or group becomes separated from the values, norms, and mores of the dominant social world. This leads to ______________

self-estrangement.

Black argues that explaining terrorist behavior is comparable to explaining any other aspect of human action. Groups do not organize and take action based on the meanings people attribute to the world. All groups, including terrorist organizations, take action because they belong to a structure that operates for a specific purpose. Black calls this ______

social geometry .

Terrorism is a ______________ . It involves groups of people forming associations, defining social realities, and taking actions based on the meanings given to those realities.

social process

Post's (2007) research shows that individual psychological and sociological factors create the framework for interpreting reality. The influence of ____________ serves as the major background for interpreting reality for most individuals.

social structure

Ross believes there are Two factors involved in the rise of terrorism at any point in history.

social structure.and structural factors

Individuals come to a group, according to Stern, because they believe they have been called to the ______ of an entire people.

story

The approach to understanding terrorist behavior by looking at the way organizations function can be called a ______

structural framework

Black argues that explaining terrorist behavior is comparable to explaining any other aspect of human action. Groups do not organize and take action based on the meanings people attribute to the world. All groups, including terrorist organizations, take action because they belong to a ________ that operates for a specific purpose. Black calls this social geometry .

structure

Michael Arena and Bruce Arrigo (2005, pp. 11-48)

study meaning by looking at the ways terrorists look at symbols to develop their concepts of self

Law enforcement, military, and security officials need to focus on ideology, group and individual behavior, and sharing information over broad geographical regions to successfully investigate______________

terrorism.

two schools of thought dominate the scholarly literature on terrorism. One group tends to focus on _______________

the meaning of activity; the other school looks at the structure of action.

Malcolm Nance (2003, pp. 47-59), perhaps inadvertently but very effectively, advances a _______ while dealing with the practical aspects of counterterrorism in The Terrorist Recognition Handbook .

theory of action

Staub states that terrorists come from three types of social groups:

those who identify with a suffering group, those who respond to suffering in their own group, and alienated individuals who find purpose by joining a terrorist group.

Ross says that modernization, democracy, and social unrest create the structural conditions that facilitate terrorism. In Ross's analysis,_______________________ produce the greatest potential for unrest and the greatest availability of weapons.

urban areas

Stern says the most successful groups operate with a ________of different styles of subgroups.

variety

Radicalization tends to take place among two factions in prison

various Muslim groups who use cut-and-paste versions of the Quran, and the second group centers around white supremacy.