TESL 510 Midterm

Quick Content Assessment Measure or to measure Students' reading ability

"Quick and Dirty" Assessment measuring students' comprehension: 1) Teacher provides a passage 250-words 2) Teacher asks Students to underline words they don't know 3) 3 minutes for 100 words 4) 0-10 per 100 words : independent level and 1-20, instructional level: 21/100, frustration and capacity

Indicator of students' content comprehension:

0-10 highlighted words per 100 words—Independent 11-20 highlighted words per 100 words—Instructional 20 or more highlighted words per 100 words--Frustration

Reading readiness and Oral activities for younger learners (Kiraithe)

1. Distinguish between and produce statements, questions, exclamations. 2. Past, present, future concepts (not total control) 3. Singular and plural: for example: may still say "they has time" 4. Prepositional phrases: position and location of phrases - not two word verbs like "look up" 5. Adjectives like "plentiful" 6. Basic adverbials like: "inside, outside, here, there, now, later, yesterday" 7. Color, size, shape perception and terminology: Used for short, lables, etc. 8. Sequential counting: math, science, sequences of syllables, what happened first, second, etc. in narratives 9. Use subject, object and possessive pronouns: beyond me, I, mine. 10. More extensive vocabulary 11. Develop compound and complex sentences, if-then statements and cause-effect

Four main categories of Adult ESL: (Eyring, p. 126)

1. General ESL→ Instruction centered on meaningful topics (housing, shopping, recreational)while integrating language skills. Pre-employment instruction to teach "soft skills" (social, communication, and self-management behaviors) and "hard skills" (technical knowledge) can also be included in General ESL. 2. Family Literacy-(intergenerational literacy) programs improve the oral and literacy skills of parents so that they can assist with their childrens' 3. Workplace (the most popular one nowadays)-Many state and federally funded programs focus on preparation for workplace/career/college. Most of these programs follow a competency-based syllabus--students learn functions/structures in order to accomplish practical daily tasks. This includes training programs for particular occupations, worker programs, "bridge" programs, and career/academic prep courses. 4. Civics Education--Prepare Ss to take the naturalization exam, encourage new citizens to vote, attend civic activities that can improve local communities

ELL assessment for older learners:

1. self and peer-assessment 2. strategy checklist/rating scale 3. reading conferences

Discuss Adult Education - literacy levels:

A complicating factor in adult ESL classrooms is that students have various literacy levels. Some are PRELITERATES (no written oral lang in their L1) or NONLITERATES (there is a written lang for L1, but students don't know it). Others have lived in the US for awhile but still only write and read a little bit-SEMILITERATES. Students who come from different countries such as China have a completely different way of writing through symbols, and other Ss have different alphabets.

Shadow reading

A five step approach to help engage students in a comprehension check. Used to help focus on understanding not just on the reading rate. 1) Ss listen to reading passage 2) Ss listen and follow with their eyes 3) Ss listen and speak along with the text 4) Ss read the text silently 5) Ss read the text aloud Important to the key methodological issue teachers and materials developers need to address: Fluent Reading

incidental word learning

A focus on language use not on words. Learning vocabulary by extensive reading. Learning words naturally or implicitly learning.

SQ3R

A technique developed to increase students' retention of content material. "Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review" 1) Survey: looking for main ideas using skimming. 2) Question: Ask questions about the reading. What the reader wants to know about the text. Gives the student an authentic purpose read reading! 3) Reading: read while looking for answers. 4) Recite: Answer the questions they asked before. 5) Review: review the questions and answers. Evaluate.

Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol or S.I.O.P.

A widely used model for Sheltered English with a strong assessment component

Word derivatives

A word with affixes (suffixes and prefixes) that change the meaning of the word/changes the form class of the word, from adjectives to nouns, or verbs to nouns, etc.... For Example: Publish=verb, Publisher=noun, unpublished=adjective. This is different from inflections, which do not ultimately change the meaning of the word, but just change words to plurals or past tense. For example: publishes, published meaning of word does not change.

AWL List

Academic Word list: It is a list of 570 most frequent words encountered in academic reading

New Literacy Studies

Also known as NLS. Lies between critical and functional studies. Teachers care about students' needs while being sensitive to intercultural differences and sociocultural settings. Moderate on the spectrum of left and right wing. New literacy studies says that if getting a job is the goal of literacy then it will employ the functional literacy approach, if the goal of literacy is to change one's society, it will employ a critical literacy curriculum. (CM, Eyring, p. 574, Lecture notes)

maze procedure

An alternative to the cloze assessment: 1) Use a 100 word passage, leave the first and last sentences in tact. 2) Give three options in assessing student's reading ability or the text's readability: a. correct word, b.incorrect word same part of speech, c. incorrect words different part of speech. • circle correct word (multiple choice) • Independent Level = 85%+ Instructional Level = 50-84% Frustration Level = 49% or less

Cloze

An assessment used to measure readability AND reading ability. 1) Choose a passage that students haven't read about 250-words, in the middle of the book 2) Leave a title, first and last sentence in the text 3) Beginning in the second sentences, delete every fifth word. Independent level = 70%+ Instructional level = 50-69% Frustration Level = 49% or less.

DRA or Directed Reading Approach

An example for the DRA are use of Basal Readers. 80-90% of teachers use basal readers & DRA today! Approach to teach reading with 5 basic elements: 1) Background 2) Vocabulary 3) reading and silent reading 4) follow-up 5) Related skill development

1.- Program Standards:

Articulated sequence of ESL courses from ESL beginning literacy through ESL Advance High level. The variables for this standard are the number of students served and the number of sites use for classes.

DRA-L2 (Direct Reading activity for L2 learners)

Background knowledge is essential for L2 students. The integration of vocabulary and background in Step 1 is necessary in the DRA for L2 readers! Activity with 4 basic elements: 1) Background and Vocabulary 2) reading 3) Follow-up 4) Related skill development

Describe methods used to teach English as a Second Language.

Basic interpersonal communication skills encompass two different and distinct styles of communication. Context-embedded communication uses visual and vocal props to help the student understand what is being said. Pictures and other objects graphically explain and demonstrate. The speaker's gestures and tone of voice also help. Context-reduced communication doesn't have visual cues, so the student must rely on competency and fluency to understand. Phone conversations don't allow the listener to see the speaker, so visual aides are missing. Reading a note without pictorial guides may make it difficult for the student to understand the written words. The three methods most commonly used to teach English as a Second Language (ESL) are grammar-based, communication-based and content-based. Grammar-based teaches students the rules: structure, function and vocabulary. Emphasis is on the why and how. Communication-based teaches how to use English in everyday, realistic situations. It emphasizes practical conversational usage. Content-based teaches grammar and vocabulary, and uses written assignments to practice these skills. It emphasizes an integrated approach to learning English.

metacognitive strategies

Being aware of strategies we use while we are reading. To plan and prepare for effective reading and decide when to use the strategies. Examples are: predicting, questioning, making inference, summarizing and visualizing. Anderson says there are 5 elements: 1. preparing & planning for effective learning 2. deciding when to use specific strategies 3. knowing how to monitor the use of strategies 4. learning how to combine them 5. evaluating the effectiveness of the strategies (PpWsHmHcEe) or (PWHHE) :An acronym of the 5 elements in metacognitive strategies

Building discourse-structure awareness

Building formal schemata make students aware of different organizational aspects and structure of the text. 1. Teacher teaches the organization (e.g., transition phrases, headings, paragraphing and structure of the text to achieve comprehension. 2. Building discourse in Pre-reading: examine the heading and subheading to predict which section is about. 3. During-reading: underline the lexical clues, fill up the underline, and highlight transition words 4. Post-reading: summary, venn diagram

Content-Based Language Instruction

Combines information, hands-on tasks & instructional techniques. Goal: to develop language skills, learn subject matter & acquire cognitive & study skills. Sheltered Instruction -to help students with limited or non-existent English proficiency. Taught content in native language, then move to English lessons with the goal:to mainstream L2's as quickly as possible.

Elaborative interrogation (Ozgungor & Guthrie, 2004; Pressley, 2006)

Considered a more gentle approach to main idea comprehension. Teachers ask why they are choosing the answer and students need to defend their answers. They ask comprehension questions and ask why in order to go deeper. Comprehension questions are followed by the why questions that oblige students to return to the text. Why questions lead to an exploration of main ideas - reading between the lines and coherence building/making connections. An example may be Socratic seminars. Good for critical thinking. 1) Teacher asks why questions after answering comprehension questions 2) Teacher asks Students to reread to support their answers. 3) Then the class has a discussion and students defend their answers and explain the strategies they used.

Corpora:

Corpora are large, principled collections of naturally occurring texts. It helps to identify word frequency in various domains. It is a data base that contains natural written and spoken texts. It helps language learners to find out word collocations as well as natural use of language.

dictionary use:

Dictionaries are useful. Many dictionaries are based on corpora (large collections of natural occurring text) Corpus-based dictionaries are rich sources of information for the language learners because they are authentic. However, T should not let Ss to check a dictionary before they try to guess the meaning of the word.

intentional word learning

Focus on study of the words or explicit learning.

intensive reading

Focuses on specific forms or vocabulary while reading.

graphic organizers

For example: Venn Diagrams, KWL charts, Cluster Maps, Timelines, etc. These and through other mapping or mind-mapping activities the learner can put the information from the readings into a visual format . The results are better comprehension/retention of the information for students.

eye movement photography

Here, skillful readers focus on content words not every single word. Beginners read word by word. The research behind interactive model.

ELL assessment for younger learners:

Home language survey: 1. Which language did your child learn first ? 2. Which language does your child use most frequently at home? Oral Language Assessment Rubric : 1. Anecdotal records

Synthetic approaches (skill-based, bottom-up)

In beginning reading methods, the teacher stresses part-whole relationships and give emphasis to building meaningful words as letters, sounds, and syllables.

word families:

Includes the base word, its inflections and derivations.

informal reading inventory (IRI)

Informal diagnostic reading test. It can be a text or a word list as well (reading ability) Developed by Dr. Emmett Betts 1) It is an oral test 2) T asks S to read and checks every mistake the S makes on the paper.

incremental word learning

Information of words is learned gradually over time. (little by little)

vocabulary breadth

Knowing an enormous number of words.

vocabulary depth:

Knowledge about the aspects of each word such as: 1) Meaning: what does the word mean? 2) Written form: How is it spelled? 3) Spoken form: How is it pronounced? 4) Grammatical behavior: In what patterns does it occur? 5) Collocations: What words are often used before or after the words? 6) Register: Formal or informal 7) Associations: How does this word relate to other words? 8)Frequency: Is this word common? (CM p.289) Basically - Knowing a lot about a word!!

content-based instruction

Language is taught through content. Teaching subjects such as science, art, and history to teach English. Students learn a language through the studying of subject matter. The focus is not on the language itself but the subject matter.

intermediate level slump

Learners who mastered basic principles of reading will have a hard time when they move from learning to read to reading to learn.

Questions to consider when planning a lesson with commercial textbook:

Materials assessment: Does it address the needs of Ss? Interesting? Engaging? Do the language features match up to standards? Match proficiency level of Ss? These questions will assure that the lesson is suited to students' needs. (Eyring, p. 131)

vocabulary depth

Meaning, Spoken form, Written form, Register, Grammatical behavior, Collocations, Associations Frequency

syllabic method

Method by which we teach the ABC's which also focus on the relationship between syllables like consonants and vowels. With this we use the horn book for bottom-up processing.

linguistic method:

Method teaching minimal pairs and contrasts. Each word and regular spelling patterns to show students English has some regular spelling patterns. ex) Dan is on the van. This is a bottom-up type of approach.

D.A.C.A.

Obama announced in 2012 Department of Homeland Security would not deport certain youth DACA: Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (also known as the "Dream Act") Under this program, signed into law by executive order in January 2015, 4-5 million individuals may become students. Questions about this may include: "What kind of VISA will this be? What are the implications for U.S. society and for ESL education?

PRELITERATES

PRELITERATES Students who have no written oral language in their L1

vocabulary logs

Personal dictionary. Students write unfamiliar words that encountered in books or any other situations. 1) part of speech 2) sentence which the word was used 3) a phrase explaining what they think the word means. 4) clues that help Ss to guess the meaning of the word. 5) the definition of the word from the dictionary 6) Original sentence.

extensive reading

Reading for pleasure and for understanding more global ideas. Does not focus on specific forms. It can be outside reading.

Understand techniques and principles related to reading readiness and beginning reading. Distinguish bottom-up vs. top-down reading strategies. Describe methods of beginning reading taken from Gunderson and Eyring's lectures.

Reading readiness: a. can sit quietly for a reasonable amount of time b. can pay attention c. can follow directions given orally d. can tolerate being part of a group e. can work alone for short periods of time. Bottom-up approaches: • Phonics • Onomatopoeic Method • Initial Teaching Alphabet (ITA) • Syllabic Method • Linguistic Method Top Down Approaches • Look/Say Method or Whole Word Method (Basal Method) • Language Experience Approach or L.E.A. • Whole Language Methods for beginning reading: Synthetic approaches (skill-based, bottom-up) • Stress part-whole relationships and give emphasis to building meaningful words as letters, sounds, and syllables Analytic Approaches (strategy-based, top-down) • Focus on whole words and meaningful sentences, which can be examined further for their elements

optimal word learning instruction:

Since word learning is incremental (little by little), word learning instruction should include repetition, spaced-repetition, and opportunities to focus on both meaning and form. Also T should teach Ss how to use dictionary, select words to be taught according to the frequency and salience of the words in the content, and choose the good text books.

onomatopoeic method

Something sounds like the way it is written. A word whose sound imitates the actual sound. For example: Pop, Puff, Sizzle, meow, oink-oink.

SDAIE or sheltered instruction:

Specially-designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE): The purpose of this instruction is to teach academic content in a more comprehensible and supportive way for ESL students. The teacher uses toned-down or simple language to help students understand the content. The teacher also uses many visual aids and provides first language instruction if needed.

Standards vs. Standards Based Curricula:

Standards is above in the section entitled "Standards-Based Instruction and Assessment" Standards-based curricula require placement testing and formative/ summative assessments.

Skimming

Strategy used to look for general ideas. For example: in reading newspapers.

Writing conferences:

Students bring their writing to the teacher. The teacher asks questions, provides positive support, and gives feedback for their writing. It can be regularly scheduled or randomly done when the teacher thinks it is needed. The purpose of writing conference is to check students' progress. There are two types of writing conferences. One is done through writing logs and the other one is one-on-one conference. The teacher comments on the students' logs.

schema research studies:

Students can understand better when they have schema. For example: a study showed that Iranian students recall Iranian fork-tale more clearly in English than American fork-tale even though the American fork-tale was simpler than Iranian one. This is the research behind interactive model.

whole word

Students ignore letters but focus on whole words. Opposite of phonics which led to "The Reading Wars." This is a top-down type of approach. Example: McGuffeys' Eclectic Readers (1837) Other examples: sentence strips, discussions "Fruits I like are____", word banks, big books.

SEMILITERATES.

Students who come from different countries such as China have a completely different way of writing through symbols, and other Ss have different alphabets.

Incorporating standards into the instructional and assessment process: (From Dr. Eyring article)

Table # 2: Standards-Based Instructional and Assessment Cycle Step and Activities: Planning Step: Create a sequence of instructional activities, based on indicators or benchmarks found in the standards-based outcomes. Collecting and recording information Step: Determine the formative and summtive assessment tools to measure outcomes. Analysing and interpreting information Step: Comparing current and previous peformances to measure progress of individual students and the class as a whole. Reporting and decision Step: Provide feedback to students on their mastery of the appropriate benchmarks and determine next steps, if more practice is needed.

ITA or Initial Teaching Alphabet

Teach the students the alphabet the way it sounds by using a different system of symbols. Ex) " Ted sed..." This is a Bottom-up type of approach. The ITA has 44 symbols.

echoic reading

Teacher models and Students read. Teacher gives positive feedback. It is designed for students to enjoy reading. It is for fluent reading not for comprehension.

US doesn't have national ESL standards. Why and what does the US have?

The U.S. is equipped for the Future project (by National Institute for Literacy). Formative (mid) vs. Summative (finals) Assessments

guessing meaning from context

The ability to guess or infer the meaning of the vocabulary the reader doesn't know using the contextual clues. This is one of the most effective ways to improve vocabulary and comprehension skills. Singhal suggests this may be the MOST USEFUL skill readers may have.

reading fluency

The ability to read smoothly and quickly while comprehending 70% of the text with about 450 wpm for a university student.

4.- Standards for student evaluation:

The curriculum standard is focused on meeting students needs as determined by assessment of students' language proficiency, goals and interest.

Reciprocal teaching method

The instructor teaches four strategies: 1) asking questions about the text they are reading, 2) summarizing parts of the text, 3) clarifying words and sentences they don't understand, and 4) predicting what might occur next in the text by asking, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting)

Freirian perspectives (critical literacy):

The perspective inspired by Paulo Freire's Pedogogy of the Oppressed (1970). Students learn how to identify their own problems and solve them by using English to liberate themselves from their social conditions to effect change through cultural and nonviolent political revolution.Students are taught to deconstruct texts to understand the underlying messages, to question & challenge the attitudes, values & beliefs that lie beneath the surface.

2.- Curricular Standards:

The program has a curriculum, including learning objective for each course in the articulated sequence. The variables for this standard are the relative emphases on language focus and informational content (e.g. language function, grammatical form, life skills, vocational skills, academic skills, etc.)

3.- Instructional Standards:

The programs uses multiple measures to assess students' language proficiencies for placement and promotion in courses at the approprite proficiency levels. The variables for this standard are the ability levels of students in their primary language as well as in English.

reading conferences

The purpose of these conferences is to monitor, encourage, and guide students' progress. During the conference. The teacher takes careful notes about what the student is reading and any suggestions for further reading.

Phonics

The relationship between letters and sounds. Teach letter-sound correspondences (bottom-up)

miscue analysis

The student both reads a text aloud and retells the story in his or her own words, or answers questions about the story. Using a checklist, written text, or a rubric, the teacher notes each miscue that the reader makes. This strategy is attributed to Ken Goodman. IRI (Informal Reading Inventory) methods: grade word list. Refers to reading ability and the research behind interactive model.

neurological impress method

The student picks a book. Adult moves her finger along with the text. An adult reads into the student's ear with fluency and articulation, and enthusiasm. And the student reads with the adult. The student's reading is never corrected if he makes mistakes. No correction. Complements only. Not for comprehension. Developed by Heckelman in 1969.

Self-paced reading

The students determine their own reading-rate goal. Students determine how much material needs to be read in a 60-second period to meet their own goal. Important to the key methodological issue teachers and materials developers need to address: Fluent Reading

LEA or Language Experience Approach

The students tell a story and the teacher writes it down on the board without correcting errors. They read it together and go over vocab and use it for activities. It is useful because the students feel comfortable. For example: students go on a field trip or to a TESOL potluck party. This is a top-down approach.

think-aloud technique

The teacher asks the students to say what they are thinking as they are reading to see which strategies the students are using while reading. This is the research behind interactive model.

Strategy Training Studies or TSI "Transactional Strategies Instruction" approach

The teacher models and coaches the students for effective reading strategies by explaining what strategies the teacher is using aloud. Also known as reciprocal teaching.

academic words

The words frequently encountered in academic reading materials.

NONLITERATES

There is a written language for L1, but students don't know it.

KWL and KWHL

These are different charts that a teacher can use with an entire class. used in pre-reading activities that active background knowledge, help with goal setting, monitoring for important points, evaluating text information, and relating text information to reading goals. Can be done in a graphic organizer too! Pre-reading/During reading/After reading K: what I know W: what I want to know L: What I learned K: What I know W: What I want to know H: How I will accomplish my goal L: What I learned

Wikis

These are dynamic spaces online that are under continual revision. It is a collaborative online workspace where people can edit, add, delete without any specialized knowledge or tools.

graphic organizers

These are visual displays used to organize information and to make the information easy to understand and learn for students. For example: a Venn diagram or a Time line.

reading strategies

These can be defined as: techniques, behavior, and problem solving skills that make learning more efficient and effective. These can help learners to understand the reading material better and they can use these skills when they don't understand the text. For example: skimming, scanning, SQ3R..

word derivatives

These change the part of speech or the meaning of the word. For example: publish becomes publisher

Metacognitive analysis

Thinking about our own thinking.

whole language

This integrates the four skills: reading, writing, speaking, listening Focuses on meaningful active language, Learning of content and Learning processes and strategies. Reinforcing each skill. Top-down approach.

Dolch List

This is a list of 220 frequent words that Dolch developed. It covers 70% of beginning level reading and 50% of academic reading. Ex. of "Whole Word Technique"

Scanning

This is a reading skill used for finding specific information. For example: look for the date or price or what did Gunderson say about this particular skill on p. 218?

uninterrupted sustained silent reading (USSR)

This is a regularly scheduled block of time during which the students and teachers read books silently. The teacher models reading for the students. They should read together.

visual thesaurus:

This is an online resource that helps Students try to find synonyms with visual word mapping.

Schema

This is comprised of three elements: 1) Content: cultural knowledge, knowledge of the world. 2) Formal or textual: Organizational features of the text and genre, discourse. 3) Linguistic language: Sentence, grammar, syntax, vocabulary.

Language Across The Curriculum

This is content-based teaching that deliberately coordinates English language instruction (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc.) in all classes no matter what the subject matter. Sometimes this program uses an integrated curriculum approach; sometimes a team teaching approach, and sometimes a combination of the two.

DRTA or Directed reading thinking activity

This is good for pre-reading. It activates the reader's schemata. The L2 can emphasize the pre-reading activity by using predictions. Teacher asks onle 3 questions: 1. What do you think the story is about? 2. What do you think will happen next? 3. What makes you think so? Example: Have students uncover title and ask them their predictions on what they think the story will be about, and then uncover the author ask the same. Look at all subtitles and headings, etc. Ask students questions that allows them to predict what they may read about=good reading strategy. When they read, they will be looking for answers and reading with a purpose, which will ultimately aid in comprehension (page 140 Gunderson) Also known as "Guided Reading" or the "uncover" technique by Gunderson, 2014, pp. 140-142.

functional literacy

To teach the knowledge and skills necessary to help students/people find and get a job and function properly in a work place. This teaches practical skills. This is on the right side of the socio-political spectrum.

Teacher Qualifications and Needs in Adult ESL in The United States now:

Ts often need to play roles as community resources/ advocates for Students. Qualities-culturally sensitive, flexible, warm, compassionate. Many multitask, with families and working several different part-time ESL jobs. "Freeway flyers"=teachers who live in large metropolitan areas who have several adult ESL jobs at different sites to earn enough money to survive (most of us in the future, at least the first couple years of teaching...sad) -- There is a need for qualified and trained adult ESL teachers. Some states have very low qualifications for teaching adult ESL (for ex, Alaska-no requirement or college degree) Some states offer teacher training. Despite efforts, there seems to be a high turnover rate of adult ESL teachers and there is a need to train new teachers. Need to build stronger teacher communities. ESL Adult Education is often open enrollment classes under the title "Adult Education And Literacy" with other adult basic education students. This is a bad decision because ESL students often have very different needs from learners in Basic Adult Education.

Repeated reading

Used to improve a students reading rate and comprehension of the text. Student reads the text multiple times to increase their reading to at least 70% of comprehension with 200 words per minutes. Important to the key methodological issue teachers and materials developers need to address: Fluent Reading

the beginner's paradox

When beginners do not know enough words to understand the text. Yet, they need to read to acquire new words.

spaced repetition

Words are learned better when learners study words not all at once but rather in several shorter amount of times. It is spacing between the repetitions. For example: instead of studying a word for 15 minutes. Students divide studying sessions into five sessions.

content words:

Words which have meanings within themselves. For example: nouns, verbs, adverbs and adjectives. These are the opposite of functional words such as preposition, articles, and determiners.

Models of Literacy Instruction

• ABC Method • Whole Word Method • Directed Reading Approach (DRA) • Initial Teaching Alphabet (ITA) • Linguistic Approach • Phonics • Language Experience Approach (LEA) • Whole Language and Literature-based Reading Programs • Critical Literacy • Multiliteracies

Distinguish between types of reading programs:

• SURVIVAL - Teaches important school vocabulary: girls, boys, office, fire, counselor. • SPECIAL - Teaches reading skills and information that is of value or is of interest to students • GENERAL - Teaches published reading series • CONTENT - Teaches sheltered English (SDAIE) for classes in math, science, and social studies • TECHNICAL - Teaches complex material often beyond the understanding of the ESL instructor • EXPERIENTIAL - Teaches reading skills based upon language experiences

Possible Think-Aloud Strategies (Barnett 1988)

• keeps MEANING of text in mind • SKIPS UNKNOWN words or guesses • USES CONTEXT in preceding and succeeding sentences and paragraphs • IDENTIFIIES GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES of words • EVALUATES guesses • reads TITLE and makes INFERENCES • Recognizes COGNATES