TEST 1 CH 1,2,4,8

Reggie tells his parents, "I read online that fast-food cooks make more money than college graduates. I'm dropping out and getting me a paper chef's hat!" Which one question should Reggie's parents ask to demonstrate their critical-thinking skills and show Reggie the error of his ways? a. "How many nuggets does an average chicken yield?" b. "What was the source of the information?" c. "Will you be making dinner tonight?" d. "What's the salary breakdown per fiscal quarter?"

"What was the source of the information?"

After you have some results in hand, you must do three things with them:

(1) describe them, (2) assess how reliable and meaningful they are, and (3) figure out how to explain them.

The professional activities of psychologists generally fall into three broad categories:

(1) teaching and doing research in colleges and universities; (2) providing health or mental health services, often referred to as psychological practice; and (3) conducting research or applying its findings in nonacademic settings, such as business, sports, government, law, and the military (see Review 1.3). Some psychologists move flexibly across these areas.

Critical Thinking Guidelines (9)

1. define your terms 2. ask questions be willing to wonder 3. examine the evidence 4. analyze assumptions and biases 5. don't oversimplify 6. avoid emotional reasoning 7. avoid emotional reasoning 8. consider other interpretations 9. tolerate uncertainty

is a detailed description of a particular individual based on careful observation or formal psychological testing.

A case study (or case history)

Which of the following would be an example of a psychologist contributing to the community at large? a. A psychotherapist enrolls in continuing education workshops to obtain a legitimate degree, thereby expanding his clientele. b. A neuropsychologist studies the brain mechanisms involved in the regulation of hunger and thirst. c. An industrial/organizational psychologist switches from consulting with a nonprofit group to consulting with a Fortune 500 corporation. d. A clinical psychologist volunteers her services at an inner-city halfway house for recovering methamphetamine addicts.

A clinical psychologist volunteers her services at an inner-city halfway house for recovering methamphetamine addicts.

is a medical doctor (MD) who has completed a 3-year residency in psychiatry to learn how to diagnose and treat mental disorders.

A psychiatrist

is a person who practices one particular form of therapy: psychoanalysis. To call yourself a psychoanalyst, you must have specialized training from a psychoanalytic institute and undergo extensive psychoanalysis yourself. At one time, admission to a psychoanalytic institute required an MD or a PhD, but this is no longer true; clinical social workers with master's degrees, and even interested laypeople, are often now admitted.

A psychoanalyst

is simply anyone who does any kind of psychotherapy. The term is not legally regulated; in fact, in most states, anyone can say that he or she is a "therapist" of one sort or another without having any training at all.

A psychotherapist

Which of the following would be an example of a psychologist contributing to the community at large? a. A psychiatrist uses his prescription privileges to increase the dosage of depression-relieving drugs for all the residents of a hospital ward. b. A social psychologist works with a local youth organization to implement ways of reducing prejudice and hostility between rival inner-city gangs. c. A clinical psychologist expands her practice to include treating three more clients each week. d. A biological psychologist conducts basic research into the origins of mental illness by conducting experiments on mice.

A social psychologist works with a local youth organization to implement ways of reducing prejudice and hostility between rival inner-city gangs.

Which of the following is not one of the eight critical-thinking guidelines discussed in this chapter? a. Avoid evidentiary confirmation b. Define your terms c. Examine the evidenced. d. Tolerate uncertainty

Avoid evidentiary confirmation

Dr. Allanson studies mood awareness, individual differences in how people monitor and label their mood states. His interest is in knowing how the process works, what its limits are, and the mechanisms that cause it to happen. Dr. Martin wants to know whether people who are higher in mood awareness are better able to control and regulate their mood states, and therefore might experience better outcomes during therapy. Dr. Allanson's interests are in ___________, whereas Dr. Martin's interests are in _____________. a. Learning theory / sociocultural psychology b. Counseling psychology / clinical psychology c. Basic psychology / applied psychology d. Biological psychology / psychometrics

Basic psychology / applied psychology

Gary asked his psychology professor, "Why is the brain located in the head?" His professor replied, "That's a really good question. Although there are probably lots of reasons, I'm not sure of the one best answer. Let's find out together this semester." Which principle of critical thinking was Gary practicing? a. Defining his terms b. Examining the evidence c. Avoiding emotional reasoning d. Being willing to wonder about things

Being willing to wonder about things

Sid wants help dealing with his lack of motivation in school, so he enlists his roommate George, who's taking an introductory psychology course, to offer advice. "The problem is all in your brain," George suggests. "You've got an imbalance of chemicals and hormones, which is causing you to feel lackluster and unfocused." Which perspective on psychological science is George adopting? a. Psychoanalytic perspective b. Biological perspective c. Cognitive perspective d. Learning perspective

Biological perspective

is the ability and willingness to assess claims and make objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence rather than emotion or anecdote.

Critical thinking

What's the most appropriate way to characterize critical thinking? a. Critical thinking is a process, rather than a once-and-for-all accomplishment. b. Critical thinking always starts with rejecting some commonsense explanation. c. Critical thinking should be practiced by scientists, but not necessarily ordinary people. d. Critical thinking skills are something you're born with, rather than something you learn.

Critical thinking is a process, rather than a once-and-for-all accomplishment.

study how people change and grow over time physically, mentally, and socially. Some specialize in childhood issues; others study adolescence, young adulthood, the middle years, or old age.

Developmental psychologists

study psychological principles that explain learning and search for ways to improve educational systems. Their interests range from the application of findings on memory and thinking to the use of rewards to encourage achievement.

Educational psychologists

conduct laboratory studies of learning, motivation, emotion, sensation and perception, physiology, and cognition. Do not be misled by the term experimental, though; other psychologists also do experiments.

Experimental psychologists

usually require both an experimental condition and a comparison, or control condition. Green Highlight

Experiments

Which cross-cutting influence helped to focus psychology on the study of all humans, rather than just culturally dominant or readily available humans? a. Humanism b. Inclusionism c. The "new spirituality" movement d. Feminism

Feminism

Psychological science has increasingly embraced a diversity of viewpoints, research topics, and explanations for behavior. Which cross-cutting emphasis played a role in bringing about that kind of increased inclusiveness? a. Feminist psychology b. Psychoanalysis c. Social-cognitive learning theory d. BehaviorismBehaviorism

Feminist psychology

With which school of thought is William James most closely associated? a. Structuralism b. Psychoanalysis c. Behaviorism d. Functionalism

Functionalism

a researcher observes, measures, and records behavior, taking care to avoid intruding on the people (or animals) being observed.

In observational studies,

study behavior in the workplace. They are concerned with group decision making, employee morale, work motivation, productivity, job stress, personnel selection, marketing strategies, equipment design, and many other issues.

Industrial/organizational psychologists

Dr. Lifeson has taken a job consulting with Omega, Inc. The managers at Omega want to know why employee morale is so low in their manufacturing division, and they want Dr. Lifeson to design the appropriate studies and collect the necessary data to answer that question. Dr. Lifeson most likely is a specialist in: a. Experimental psychology b. Educational psychology c. Industrial/organizational psychology d. Human development

Industrial/organizational psychology

The first psychological laboratory was officially established in: a. Boston, Massachusetts b. Leipzig, Germany c. Paris, France d. London, England

Leipzig, Germany

"The study of bumps on the head," a discredited approach to psychology, is also known as: a. Psychoanalysis b. Phrenology c. Bumpology d. The theory of humors

Phrenology

Which of the following specialists has an MD and tends to take a medical approach to mental health problems? a. Clinical psychologist b. Psychoanalyst c. Psychiatrist d. Counseling psychologist

Psychiatrist

Daniela and her friend visit a psychic who tells her "you will experience great change in the coming year" and "you'll need to act fast to seize a new opportunity that awaits you." As they leave the session, Daniela chuckles quietly while her friend seems shocked and amazed. "That was awesome; that psychic really predicted some heavy stuff for you!" "Oh, it's just for laughs" replied Daniela. "I don't believe a word of it." Why is Daniela correct to be skeptical? a. Daniela thought the psychic was actually making predictions about her friend. b. Psychic predictions are typically so vague that they're essentially meaningless. c. Psychics practice a type of science that most people can't understand. d. Daniela experienced great change and seized a new opportunity during the previous year, so she knew those predictions couldn't come true again.

Psychic predictions are typically so vague that they're essentially meaningless.

The idea that emotional problems spring from unconscious conflicts originated with: a. Psychoanalysis b. Structuralism c. The mind cure d. Functionalism

Psychoanalysis

Which of the following specialists was specifically trained in a therapeutic approach started by Sigmund Freud? a. Clinical psychologist b. Psychiatric social worker c. Psychoanalyst d. Psychiatrist

Psychoanalyst

sometimes called assessment instruments, are procedures for measuring and evaluating personality traits, emotions, aptitudes, interests, abilities, and values.

Psychological tests,

the discipline concerned with behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism's physical state, mental state, and external environment

Psychology

Which of the following academic psychologists would most likely be involved in constructing a personality test to measure introversion? a. Developmental psychologist b. Health psychologist c. Educational psychologist d. Psychometric psychologist

Psychometric psychologist

design and evaluate tests of mental abilities, aptitudes, interests, and personality. Nearly all of us have had firsthand experience with one or more of these tests in school, at work, or in the military. The video Asking the Tough Questions 2 will help you appreciate the broad range of interests and applications psychologists pursue.

Psychometric psychologists

Beatrice decides she wants to "help people," so she rents an office, advertises her services, and has business cards printed. Which mental health term would Beatrice be allowed to use, despite not having a scrap of psychological training? a. Psychiatrist b. Marriage, family, and child counselor c. Psychotherapist d. Psychoanalyst

Psychotherapist

Laurie told her friend Sandi about an amazing video she saw on YouTube. "It was incredible. This guy levitated a miniature poodle for 25 seconds using psychic energy. He channels a star-force through a time continuum, and that allows him to unleash the hidden powers of his mind. It's totally legit; he's got a website and everything." Sandi replied, "Maybe he's just making it up." Which principle of critical thinking is Sandi practicing? a. Sandi is refining her biases b. Sandi is considering other interpretations c. Sandi is reducing uncertainty d. Sandi is defining her terms

Sandi is considering other interpretations

Which of the following statements is true regarding how scientific psychology differs from the popular psychology found on television shows, the Internet, or in self-help books? a. Scientific psychology is only conducted in laboratories, whereas popular psychology is studied in a variety of settings. b. Popular psychology offers experience-based explanations for behavior, whereas scientific psychology detaches itself from everyday experience. c. Scientific psychology addresses a much broader range of issues and topics than popular psychology typically does. d. Popular psychology produces testable predictions, whereas scientific psychology deals only with theories.

Scientific psychology addresses a much broader range of issues and topics than popular psychology typically does.

Psychoanalysis, a type of early psychology, was originated by: a. William James b. Wilhelm Wundt c. Sigmund Freud d. John Watson

Sigmund Freud

Maria's been feeling a lot of pressure lately. She wants to fit in with her peer group, so she started dressing as her friends do. She wants to be accepted by her family, so she's paid more attention to their traditions and customs lately. She also wants to fit in at school, so she's mindful of the implicit and explicit rules that students follow in that environment. Which type of psychological scientist would be most interested in explaining Maria's behaviors? a. Biological psychologist b. Learning theorist c. Sociocultural psychologist d. Behaviorist

Sociocultural psychologist

Two psychologists, Eddie and Bill, walk into a bar, and each orders a beer. Eddie says, "Look at that golden nectar ... the bubbles, the foam, the slight fruit notes on my tongue, the amber color; man, that's a beer!" Bill says, "This'll get me drunk." Eddie most likely endorses ____________, whereas Bill most likely favors _____________________. a. Structuralism / psychoanalysis b. structuralism / behaviorism c. Structuralism / functionalism d. Functionalism / structuralism

Structuralism / functionalism

In one study you read about, a group of introductory psychology students completed a test of "psychological information" on the first day of class. What was the general result of that initial survey? a. Students performed better than chance at identifying correct findings from the psychological research literature. b. Students believed that many false statements regarding psychology were actually true. c. Students showed a bias to believe that all statements on the survey were false. d. Students were quite accurate in distinguishing factual statements about psychology from incorrect ones.

Students believed that many false statements regarding psychology were actually true.

Which of the following is not one of the major current perspectives on psychological science? a. Symbolic-interactionist perspective b. Learning perspective c. Sociocultural perspective d. Biological perspective

Symbolic-interactionist perspective

focuses on how bodily events affect behavior, feelings, and thoughts.

The biological perspective

emphasizes what goes on in people's heads—how people reason, remember, understand language, solve problems, explain experiences, acquire moral standards, and form beliefs.

The cognitive perspective

Little Arnold screams and throws a fit whenever he doesn't get what he wants. When this happens, his parents rush to his side and soothe him, often fulfilling whatever wants or demands he has at the moment. Which perspective on psychological science would argue that Arnold has been rewarded for his behavior? a. The sociocultural perspective b. The learning perspective c. The biological perspective d. The cognitive perspective

The learning perspective

is concerned with how the environment and experience affect the behavior of human beings (and other animals).

The learning perspective

"getting poor grades in college is a result of students being lazy" is an example of____. "Students who participated in a 6-week study skills course improved their grades by 15% by the end of the term" is an example of ____. a. an opinion/ empirical evidence b. empirical evidence/ empirical bias c. an opinion/research bias d. research evidence/ an opinion

a. an opinion/ empirical evidence

the study of psychological issues that have direct practical significance; also, the application of psychological findings

applied psychology

, which is calculated by adding up all the individual scores and dividing the result by the number of scores.

arithmetic mean

Beliefs that are taken for granted are called: a. Attitudes b. Assumptions c. Hypotheses d. Opinions

b. Assumptions

Humans can accurately recognize a smile from a greater distance than they can other facial expressions of emotion. One explanation for this finding is that being able to predict, accurately and quickly, that an approaching stranger had good intentions contributed to the development of cooperation among humans, which in turn helped form societies. Upon which perspective on psychological science is this explanation based?a. Behaviorism b. Evolutionary psychology c. Structuralism d. Social-cognitive learning.

b. Evolutionary psychology

the study of psychological issues for the sake of knowledge rather than for its practical application

basic psychology

psychology is defined as an area of study concerned with a. the development, structure, and functioning of human society b. the biological bases of mental disorders and the interpersonal problems of adjustment faced by people who have poor coping skills c. behavior and mental processes, and how these are affected by physical, mental, and environmental states d. the factors that lead to flawed decision making in s social context

c. behavior and mental processes, and how these are affected by physical, mental, and environmental states

the tendency to look for and accept evidence that supports our pet theories and assumptions and to ignore or reject evidence that contradicts our beliefs.

confirmation bias:

The word is often used as a synonym for "relationship,"

correlation

The statistic used to express a correlation is called the

correlation coefficient.

examines the extent to which two things are related to one another.

correlational study

One reason why beliefs in pseudoscience and psychic abilities persist is that: a. They challenge our existing beliefs, and humans like uncertainty b. Pseudoscience is still a type of science, and science is based on facts c. Psychic predictions have been shown to be accurate the majority of the time d. They give people a sense of predictability in a confusing world

d. They give people a sense of predictability in a confusing world

What distinguishes scientific psychology from pseudoscience and popular opinion? a. Popular ideas always take time to filter into the scientific literature, whereas scientific findings are immediately embraced by the scientific community. b. Scientific psychology only studies topics that can't be explained through common sense. c. Evidence from a carefully controlled experiment isn't as compelling as people's long-held beliefs. d. scientific psychology relies on empirical evidence for its conclusions

d. scientific psychology relies on empirical evidence for its conclusions

which allow researchers to describe and predict behavior but not necessarily to choose one explanation over competing ones.

descriptive methods,

To provide this information, we need numbers that sum up our data. Such numbers, known as are often depicted in graphs and charts.

descriptive statistics,

In such a study, the person running the experiment, the one having actual contact with the participants, also does not know who is in which group until the data have been gathered.

double-blind study.

relying on or derived from observation, experimentation, or measurement

empirical (evidence)

follows in the footsteps of functionalism by focusing on how genetically influenced behavior that was functional or adaptive during our evolutionary past may be reflected in many of our present behaviors, mental processes, and traits.

evolutionary psychology

To pin down cause and effect, you decide to do an

experiment.

And researchers' expectations, biases, and hopes for a particular result may cause them to inadvertently influence the participants' responses through facial expressions, posture, tone of voice, or some other cue. Many years ago, Robert Rosenthal (1966) demonstrated how powerful such

experimenter effects

a psychological approach that analyses the influence of social inequities on gender relations and on the behavior of the two sexes

feminist psychology

the careful study of behavior in natural contexts such as schools and the workplace Green Highlight

field research,

an early psychological approach that emphasized the function or purpose of behavior and consciousness

functionalism

a statement that attempts to describe or explain a given behavior.

hypothesis,

These statistics do not merely describe or summarize the data; they permit a researcher to draw inferences (conclusions based on evidence) about how meaningful the findings are. Like descriptive statistics, inferential statistics involve the application of mathematical formulas to the data.

inferential statistics.

One of Wundt's favorite research methods was called____ trained training volunteers to carefully observe, analyze, and describe their own sensations, mental images, and emotional reactions.

introspection

means that high values of one variable are associated with low values of the other.

negative correlation

, or established standards of performance.

norms

which specify how the phenomena in question are to be observed and measured.

operational definitions,

(Greek for "study of the mind"), which became wildly popular in Europe and the United States in the early 1800s. Phrenologists argued that different brain areas accounted for specific character and personality traits, such as "stinginess" and "religiosity." Moreover, they said, such traits could be "read" from bumps on the skull.

phrenology

a fake treatment or sugar pill that looks, tastes, or smells like the real treatment or medication, but is phony.

placebo,

means that high values of one variable are associated with high values of the other and that low values of one variable are associated with low values of the other.

positive correlation

does not mean that the idea will be disproved, only that it could be if contrary evidence were to be discovered. In other words, a scientist must risk disconfirmation by predicting not only what will happen but also what will not happen.

principle of falsifiability,

a theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy, developed by Sigmund freud, that emphasizes the exploration of unconscious motives and conflicts; modern psychodynamic therapies share this emphasis but differ from freudian analysis in various ways

psychoanalysis

producing the same results from one time and place to the next or from one scorer to another. Green Highlight

reliability,

a group of participants that accurately represents the larger population that the researcher is interested in.

representative sample,

which tell researchers how likely it is that their result occurred by chance.

significance tests,

Because their expectations can influence the results of a study, participants should not know whether they are in an experimental or a control group. When this is so (as it usually is), the experiment is said to be a

single-blind study.

tells us how clustered or spread out the individual scores are around the mean; the more spread out they are, the less "typical" the mean is.

standard deviation

having uniform procedures for giving and scoring the test.

standardized,

An early psychological approach that emphasized the analysis of immediate experience into basic elements.

structuralism

are questionnaires and interviews that gather information by asking people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions.

surveys

empirical evidence refers to: a. the majority opinion adopted by most people when considering an issue b. the most straight forward explanation that can be offered for a particular phenomenon c. the info that was gathered or derived from observation, experimentation, or measurement d. the opinions of experts that are believed by non experts for a given issue

the info that was gathered or derived from observation, experimentation, or measurement

an organized system of assumptions and principles that purports to explain certain phenomena and how they are related.

theory,

measuring what it sets out to measure. Green Highlight

validity,

because they can vary in quantifiable ways. Height, weight, age, income, IQ scores, number of items recalled on a memory test, number of smiles in a given time period—anything that can be measured, rated, or scored can serve as a variable.

variables

People who are willing to volunteer their opinions may differ from those who decline to take part.

volunteer bias:

The dominant school of scientific psychology most closely associated with the learning perspective is: a. Behaviorism b. Feminist psychology c. Socialism d. Evolutionary psychology

a. Behaviorism

Luisa listened in amazement as she overheard her psychology professors design a new experiment. "We should be sure to measure this factor, to rule out a competing explanation for the results," said Professor Paskos. "Yes, and also allow for idiosyncratic responses in case anyone doesn't speak English as a first language," added Professor Green. "Let's not forget to have the results double-checked and interpreted by a qualified colleague," Professor Yufik chimed in. Although Luisa was amazed, to the professors this was second nature. Why? a. The professors knew Luisa was listening, so they were showing off a little in order to impress her. b. The professors had already collected the data and were covering their tracks in case any of the results didn't precisely confirm their preconceptions. c. The professors were well versed in critical-thinking skills and were simply applying those principles to the scientific task at hand. d. The professors knew that science often results from luck and guessing, so they simply repeated phrases people expect scientists to say.

The professors were well versed in critical-thinking skills and were simply applying those principles to the scientific task at hand.

focuses on social and cultural forces outside the individual, forces that shape every aspect of behavior, from how we kiss to what and where we eat.

The sociocultural perspective

Gary asked his psychology professor, "Why is the brain located in the head?" His professor replied, "That's a really good question. Although there are probably lots of reasons, I'm not sure of the one best answer. Let's find out together this semester." Which principle of critical thinking was the professor practicing? a. Avoiding emotional reasoning b. Oversimplifying c. Defining his terms d. Tolerating uncertainty

Tolerating uncertainty

What characterized the thinking of pre-psychological approaches to psychology from ancient times through the early 1800s? a. Pre-psychological approaches all focused on explaining human actions as the result of spiritual forces; "religion" and "psychology" were seen as interchangeable terms. b. Before it became a science, psychology was viewed as a type of witchcraft; therefore, any conclusions reached were contaminated by bias and prejudice. c. Without an empirical methodology, conclusions were based on opinion and casual observations; sometimes these conclusions were right, but many times they were wrong. d. Conclusions were based on the opinions of medical doctors because they were the closest practitioners to "psychologists"; these conclusions were all biologically based.

Without an empirical methodology, conclusions were based on opinion and casual observations; sometimes these conclusions were right, but many times they were wrong.