The causes of the French Revolution from 1774 and the events of 1789 + Some Napoleon

.Was Napoleon a great reformer?.

.Civil code: -NApoelon ahd interest in reforming this. Still maintained important parts from the revolution. -Code recognised the legal rights of those who had bought land confiscated from Church and nobility = bidn them to the regime. -Inehritance of estate qually from children = 'partage'. -Strengthen authority of father/ husband who coudl send defiant child/adulterous wives to prison. Appease catholics, degeneration of morals. Divroce made difficult. -Slaves subject to close police supervision through livret (work permit of employmen trecord ) without which it was virtually impossible to get a job. Plebisictes: -A number of plebiscites held over the next 15 years (1800-15) as an attempt to seek popular approval for significant changes. -NEcessary to bind the beneficiaries to these transfers (eg land) to the new regime. -Rigged results in 1800 plebsicite but granted him role of 1st consul anyway -> success for change. -Aspects of popualr sovereignty and democracy remained eg plebiscites, whilst avoidign the involvement of SC or Jacobin radicals. Constitution: -New constitution of 1799 provided order and stabiltiy for France, as did him becoming Consul for life. -One head isntead of many = domineering personality = easier to make decisions. -Napoelon as firist consul to 'make the rpeublic lvoed by its own citizens...new constitution was based upon the true principles of the representtive government". Reforms and repression: -By numerous measures, some subtle, Napoleon built up over the years a system of supervision and control: -Judges, isntead of being elcted as under the Directory, were appoitned by the government for LIFE ad were kept subservient and loyal by a combinatin of close supervision and a system of purges. Contorl the good judges or whatever. -New hierarchy of judicial tribunals set up. 1810 a system of arbitrary imprisonment without trial (lettres de cachet) was intorduced -Police and prefects acted as trained spies, imposed censorship, set up surveillance of possible subversives, searched for army deserters and organsied raids on areas believed to be sheltering draft dodgers or enemy agensts. Like reps en mission. -1800 gendarmes (organisation set up by NA which operated as an armed police force 0 in France. Reports submitted daily to Napoleon. -Prefects expected to (among other jobs) spread propaganda, monitor public opinion in their areas and report on suspicious political activity. Suspects could be placed under house arrest =little political opposition. Censorship and propaganda: -1800 reduced the number of political journals published in Paris from 37 to 9 and forbade the publication of new ones knowing the press could undermine his regime. Surviving ones were forbidden to discuss controversial subjects and didnt give reliable news. 1811 all except 4 Parisian papers suppressed and those remaining were subject to police supervision. -Editors forced to rely for news on articles published in Le Moniteur, written by Napoleon himself or his minsiter.s -Up to 1810, reports on all books, plays,m lectures and posters in PAris were sent, often daily, to Napoleon. Publishers required to forward two copies of every book to the police before publication. -1810, regular systems of censors set up : more than half the printing presses in Paris were shut down, and publishers forced to take out a licence and to swear an oath of loyalty to the government. Bookersellers controlled, if ofund to be 'subversive' = severely punished even with death.Some author exiled for criticising the government and dramatists forbidden to mention hsitorical events which may reflect adversely on the present regime. -MAny theatres shut down, others operated under licenses. -Napoleon utilised sculptors/architechts/artists' skill to portray his image grandly. EG David and Ingres employed as state propagandists, depicting him as a romantic hero figure or the embodiment of supereme imperial authority (toga and laurel wreath) -David 'painter to the government' supervised all paintings produced in France...

Was the fialure of the Directory invetable? The war with Austria :..

--From June 1794 in the Battle of Fleurus to March 1794 France had a series of victories, leading to them defeating or making peace with almost all major allies but Austrian and Britain, eg. In the Treaty of Basel in 1795 Prussia promised to give France its territory on the left bank of the Rhine -Their main objective was now to defeat Austria. Carnot prepared a pincer movement: The main force of the attack was 140,000 troops across Bavaria led by Moreau and Jourdan and Bonaparte led the smaller Italian campaign with 30,000 troops -After one month Bonaparte had won the loyalty of his men by promising wealth, forced Piedmont into making peace, defeated the Austrians and entered Milan and in February 1797 he captured Milan. He was a skilled soldier and had fought for the Directory against popular uprisings before. -As Archduke Charles had pushed Moreau back to the Rhine he signed an armistice in Leoben in April, the terms were decided without consultation of the Directory and going against some of their policies. -The Directory wanted to use Lombardy as a bargaining chip for the left bank of the Rhine, but he joined it to Modena and the Papal Legations to form the Cisapaline Republic. In exchange for that and Austria recognising the French annexation of the Austrian Netherlands he gave them part of the Venetian Republic including Venice. The possession of the left bank was left to the decision of the Holy Roman Empire. -They needed Napoleon on their side as the royalists won the election in France and so had to confirm these terms in The Peace of Campo Formio on 18 October 1797. -This kept the military support of Napoleon which the Directory relied upon in place, but the fact that they had to accept a general making his own foreign policy showed how weak the Directory was. The loss of Venice was compensated by the looting of vast amounts of wealth and works of art from it, but the Directory had not wanted to give up this territory. They did not gain definitive control of the left bank of the Rhine, one of their main objectives, though they later gained in 1798. Agreeing to the peace terms left Austria out of the war and only Britain left, which was a major victory. -Great as the material and military gains of the end of the war with Austria were, the Directory's inability to prevent or punish Napoleon for putting his own foreign policy into place and going against their orders made their actions a failure. The steps they took themselves were not hugely damaging, it was the fact that they had to follow one of their general's peace terms because they could not survive without military backing which suggested the weakness of the Directory to many...

Jourdan's law:..

-1798= Cocnerns about French army -> only 270,000 -Desertoin, low morale and a reluctance to join. -Jourdan's law reintrudoced conscription for the first time since 1793 -. councils approved BUT: -Unpopualr move -> revolts in Austrian Netherlands. -first draft only 74,000/230,000 joined army. Reluctance. -1799 elections highlighted Directory was unpopular -? 66/187 government candidtes elected. -1799 new levee ne masse called - all men ages 20-25 to be called up immediately...

The Assembly of Notable- met at Versailles 22 Feb 1787:

- 144 notables, including 7 princes, 14 bishops, 36 noblemen, 12 from council of state, 38 magistrates, 12 reps from pays d'etat, 25 mayors and civic dignitaries. -Louis expected them to agree with Calonne's proposals for a new land tax with no exemption, new elected regional assemblies to implement the new taxes, the economy to be stimulated by removing restrictions on trade such as internal customs barriers. -Calonne proposed to exempt nobility from capitation and maintain exemption from taille, thus signalling he only intended a limited attack on noble privilege. However, Calonne was not succesful. -clergyr efused to surrender their privileges wihtout consulting their assemblies, as did the pays d'etat. The new provincial assemblies were crtiicsed too. Nobles attacked the jsutice and practicalities of the new land tax, saying it would bee xpensive to collect. They disliked the fact iti was not fixed term. On a good note, most agreed that the corvee shoudl be commuted to a money tax, and that trade should be freed and the taille reformed. -By the second week Calonne had got nowehere and was forced to reveal the deficit of 112 million livres. The notables were dissatisfied and demanded to see the accounts, and refused to agree to new tax innovation without calling an Estates General. -12 March, Calonne tried to force their hand by telling the King they were satisfied, this made matters worse. -Then Calonne issued the 'Avertissement' - the was an accompaniment to the the full original texts of his proposals. This appealed to the third estate, so using outside pressure, and denounced the notables' criticism as self interested obstruction. It mocked the Notable doubts. -This still failed to gain him support and he was dismissed by the King on 8 April. The Parlements of PAris began proceedings against him and now demands for an Estaes general grew. The King had lost the initiative. -The Notables claimed that they coudl not make a legtimate decision until they had full access to the King's account records. Calonne condemned Necker's Compte Rendu au Roi of 1781 as misleading, angering th eNeckerites. It was claimed that the Notables had no right to approve new taxation (protect hteir privilege). That right belonged to the Estates-General. -As the Assembly made little progress Calonne was dsimissed. -Brienne, one of the notables and Archbishop of Toulouse, was selected as his replacement. He made some reforms to satisfy the Notables, guaranterring the lcergy and nobility sets in the new provincial assemblies, but by this point the Notables were demanding more. They wanted to establish a permanent commission of auditors to scrutinise the King's accounts. Louis vetoed it, which brought all constructive work to an END. -This VETO signified a lack of cooperation and activeness. He had no other choice -> lack of control. -As a result, the parlement of PAris refused to register an extention of stamp duty ( a tax) on 2nd July 1787. It called for the Estates General to be convoked. The government decided to force registration through on 6 Aug, through a LIT DE JUSTICE. -The parlement continued its opposition, and was exiled to Troyes the following wek. In September Brienne managed to work on a compromise to tempt the parlement back; he withdrew the new taxdes in return for registration fo a continuation of the old. Brienne announced the new loans at a Royal session in November, and the King accounced that the Estates general woudl meet in 1792. When questioned on the legality of this, he rplied: "its legal because I wish it". The parlements strengthened their opposition as a result of this. -In May 1788 the government annoucned judicial reforms, to crush the pwoer of the Parlements. They were reduced to simple appeal courts. By June the nation was in protest. Louis was being irrational, unreasonable, not in tune with the scale of the financial crisis. -In July 1788, Brienne annoucned that the Estates general would be formed soon, in order to divert attnetion away from the unpopualr judicial reforms. Brienne was told i August that the Treasury was EMPTY. To reaniamte credit with a bold political gesture, he named a date for the Estates General as 1 May 1789. =Brienne resigned as a result of bankruptcy, and Necker was recalled.

The Constitutoin of year VIII;.

-3 consuls set to work on new constitution in Luxembourg PAris. -Bypassed the standing committees who were supposed to draw up plans. -Sieyes said Napoleon should be the figurehead. -Napoleon refused saying the First Consul should have compelte control - and that is hsould be him. -Sieyes wanted 'voix deliberative' - each consul would have equal vote. -Napoleon wanted voix consultative - the right merely to express opinion - wont necessarily have an impact at all. -Napoleon = domineering personality -> Sieyes concedes. -Each of the 3 would intially serve for 10 years. -NEgotations took 6 weeks to complete. -Power shifted from many to just one, yearly elections to long term reigns..

The new political system:..

-Although beginning of the Consulate adopted idea of universal suffrage (more than Constitution of Year III) it was very indirect. Not an entirely democratic system. -No elections, jsut presentations of candidates suitable for appointment. -Choice usually restricted to nobles - welthy, property owning or already govt officials. -Power largely in the hands of one man - the first consul = NApoelon...

What was the impact of jourdan's Law on the Directory?.

-Armies having to be drawn back to France -> couldn't rely on plunder from territory to supprot economy -> forced loan on the rich was decreed. Most rich were royalists so even more oppoosition. -Introduced a FORCED LOAN - had to give 3/4 of their income. Generate social unrest. -12th July introduced Law of Hostages to contorl prisings and their porperty would be taken off them and given to state. -Law of hostages never actually implemented but could have signified a return to the terror...

What was the imapct of Jourdan's law on the Directory?..

-By Novemver 10 million livres of the forced loan had been collected, cosncription planned to raise 402,000 troops. But: -1798 = strong resistance in the provinces eg only 248000 troops raised. Didn't fill quota. -Many became brigands of royalists to avoid joining up to the army. Political failure. Unpopualr directory...

Coup d'etat of Brumaire, why did it happen?..

-By September 1799 the military situation had improved. e.g Russia driven out of Switzerland. -Sieyes, had become a director and saw this as a change to stage a coup. -He wanted to strengthen the executive. -Napoleon had come back from Egypt (where he created a succesful campaign out of it despite not being succesful), on the 10th October. Moreau had been asked to stage coup with Sieyes but he recommended Napoleon instead. Napoleon was good at branding himself. -Napoleon had been welcome back enthusiastically from Egypt. -N agreed to join Sieyes in the coup on the condition that a provisional govt of 3 consuls would be set up and a new constitution...

Napoleon Bonaparte:..

-Came to prominence at the siege of Toulon in 1793. -Puts down the Vendemiaire uprising Ocotober 1795. -Ambitious and energetic. -Not just a fantastic military strategist, also an astute political operative...

Problems immediately facing the Direcotyr:..

-Following the Vendemiaire uprising a new third of members were elected to the Council of 500 but they were mainly royalists. -No money in the treasury. -End not in sight for the war. -Taxes unpaid. -Assignat dropped in value -Low hopes fo rht edirectory. The commune was not doing well , economically too so hard to gain support. However, Directory still fairly new, takes time to enact polices...

In what ways was the new system limited?..

-Constant re-elections -> instabiltiy as it's inefficient. One group doesn't have all the power, awkward distribution of power. Constant retiring = no long term plan. -Age limit/boundaries. No mix of ideas, need people of all levels of society. -No means of resolving conflicts between legislative and executive. -Councils could paralyse the Directory by refusing to pass laws that the gov required.. -Directors could neither dissolve the councils nor veto laws passed by them. -Legislative not in a strong position either, if it clashed with the Executive. Can't mediate, got to have cooperation on all levels. It could alter the composition of the Direcotry only by replacing the one director who retired each year with its other candidates...

.The role of the First Consul.

-Controlled government appointments, made and unmade ministers, whom he closely supervised. -Initiated all legislation through the Council of State or the Senate. -Declared War and made Peace. ABUSES: -Senate had been made to act as a break on the executive. Senatus-consultum : A prodcedure that allowed the Senate to preserve and amend the constitution and to approve constitutional change and news laws. BUT: -Napoleon used it as a way to gain mroe contorl through senatus-consultum. -Used extensively January 1801 onwards to thwart plans of Tribunate and the Legislature. -Appointed Senators for life, gave huge salaries and gifts. E.g. lands and titles. -Senate increased from 80 to 140. -Senate became a consultative body eager to pelase its benefactor ; Napoelon...

A bit on Napoleon:.

-From minor Corscian nobility. Was an oppurtunist, enforced meritocracy. -Napoleon was still heavily ifluenced by his Corscian heritage and they were sitll demanding independence. Napoleon did not agree however with the nobles who wished to rule Corsica and return it to federalism. June 1790 he participated in a popular uprising in Ajaccio which drove a wedge between him and his once hero Paolo who was beginning to reject republicanism. -Napoleon started shifting away from his Corsican nationalism in favour of French political beliefs. - This led to Corsica losing any autonomy or indepndence and beconing a department of France like any other. -Napoleon strongly believe din meritocracy. He, alongside Lafayette believed that the JAcobins were becoming too radical and were wary of th eParisian extremism they embodied. 'Le souper de Beaucaire' was a pamphlet published by Napoleon in which a soldier dissuades men from deferalist revolt and was designed to impress and appease the JAcobin party and Paris - oppurtunisitic. -He helped to maintain peace during riots of the summer of 1789 and was a participant of a general uprising in 1790. However, he disapproved of the Federalist revolts. -He became a 'commander of the artillery of the army' in 1793 and his succesful tactics and victories saw him promoted to the office of brigadier general. -He was placed under hosue arrrest for 14 days after the Convention on the 9th of Thermidor due to his closeness with the Jacobin party and Augustus Robespierre. But he was allwoed out when hsi miltiary support for the revolution was emphasised. -Assigned an infantry in the Vendee but never took up as he claimed ot be unwell at the tim eto stay i Paris. -topographical beaureau in CPS. Part of the Terror. -He wouldnt have been able to gain as many oppurtunities as he did if not for the 1789 rev. -In 1788 at 20, he was sent to Auxonne, the best military base in France to complete trainng, whislt he was here France was in crisis. -He went to Corsica on leave in september 1789 where he found the island in turmoil, the nationalsit leader had returned and had sour feelings for the Bonaparte family due to them abandoning the nationalist movement in favour of French occupation. -Napoleon managed to convicne the right people that he shoul dbe transferred to the Corsican ANtional Guard and be elected Lieutenant-Colonel. -He also joined the Jacobin part. He played a part. Many critics say why become a sole leader when you were part of the most anti revolutionary club during the revolution. Can he be trusted???.

.Was the fialure of the Directory invetable? The Babeuf Plot:.

-Gracchus Baeuf was a radical pampheteer and disliked the Consittution of the year III As it gave powet to the wealthy. He believed private property produced inequality. -March 1796 he organised a plan to overthrow the Direcotry by a coup, his 'Conspiracy of Equals' as a popualr rising. -Through propaganda and agitation they would persuade key institutions e.g. army and police, who would provide the armed force to seize power. After seizing it, the revoltuionary leaders woudl establishe a dictatorship, in order to make fundamental changes in the organsiation of society. -He recieved no support from the sans -culottes and little from former JAcobins. -He was arrested in May 1976, after being betrayed by a fellow conspirator. -Executed the following year. -MArxist historians such as Albert soboul consider BAbeuf's theories to be icnredibly influential ,arguiong his ideas not only inspired more 19th century French revolutionaries like Blanqui, but ultimately Lenin and his followers. -Babeuf's importance to the revolution tiself, however, was minimal. -This was mostly a success: There was a trial for Babeuf and his Conspirators, where ultimately they were guillotined. Since had little support from other factions, there was no real uproar following his death, his minmal role in the Revolution meant that the Directory could gloss over the incident easily, receiving little backlash for their course of action and also prevent the potential for another brutal dictatorship, BAbeuf envisioned would equalise France, which the Directory was trying to move away from. -Thoguh elimniating opposition sounds reminiscient of the terror, the Directory di dhave support , from the Army and public, they were moving away from the Terror so to the public, any indiation of returning to it, such as Babeufs plot would not have been popular thus the Directory's action would be jsutified. -Since there was also trial, it was difficult ot paint the Directory badly as they did give him a trial and would be difficult to prove whether it was 'fair' or not...

.Was not a GREAT reformer:..

-He just used old policies the Directory and previous regimes lacked control to implement eg Turgot wanted to reform the economic system the way the econmoic ministers did ( more efficient system of taxation. Prefects similar to intendents). Undermined the fundamental aims of the reovlution: Censorship: -PAris journals reduced from 93-9 i1800 -Booksellers were strictly controlled and risked exile if they were caught selling subversive material -His personal journal Le Moniteur was the only soruce that journals could rely on for articles. New aristocracy- Just an aristocracy of wealth rather than birthright. Nepotism: -The lycees in whcih palces were most sought after actually only really allwoed the sons of notables to fill them (women werent allowed either) -He used bribery and patronage to win support and secure peoples loyalt: Eg legion of honour or senatories -how far would peopel supprot his reforms if there were no monetary incentives. 1. Changed fraternity to proeprty -> no brotherhood in the reovlution. 2. No recongition of priveleged of birth (undercut by the aristocracy he later establishes during his later years as Emperor. 3. Freedom of religion - agaisnt the policies of the Terror (Robespierrers cult of the supreme being) 4. Separation of the Church and State (Bought Catholic support -Pope attended his coronation) yet he introduces St NApoleon's day. Returns from the chnges of the revolution. He crowned himself rather than the Pope, -5. Placing father as head of the family. Restricting ground of divorce to adultery, conviction of a serious grave and grave insults, excess or cruelty. Gave father/husband the right ti imprison wife/child for 'misbehaving. '/ 6. Reintroduces slavery - hardly egalite. 7. It protected the itnerests of the rising middle class yet also created a new aristocracy of wealth rather than birth. Also became a consul for life rather and ended elections 8. Napoleon introduces livre 1803. It was passbook cum identity card and a worker would have to carry it to travel throughout France - controlling peopels workers as could be kept tabs on. Required official permission to mvoe therefore undermning the freedom of the people. -Being this 'great reformer' helped to drive France back to another monarhcy, th eJuly monarch after a revolution in 1830. He focussed more on the practicality of government instead of the ideology that had prompted the revolution...

Did Jourdan's Law weaken the Directory?.

-In 1799 the gov was close fo collapsing in the provinces because: -Directory could not persuade local notables to accept offices. This meant they couldnt get people to fill jobs, shows a reluctance to be part of the gov body = lack of confidence. They dont accept directory as leader, no support to even run the country. -Local authorities often taken by royalists who refused to levy forced loans. Lack of communication between local authorities and gov. Also undermines directorys control. -NAtional Guard not large neough to keep orde r( directory v dependent) in the absence of regular troops so large areas not poiced. Discontent get away with X. -Gov commissioners killed as quickly as they were replaced. Losing support. HArd to mrule a country, huge amount of reluctance to do jobs how then. All was a result of brigandage -> November 1799 civil war in the Ardeche...

The plebisicte of 1800:..

-In order for the new constitution to be legal, it had to be accepted by French people (LAw of Brumaire) -7th February 1800 , a plebiscite was held. -Gave electors am onth to vote in their communes, for or agaisnt consittution,. -Official results : 3,011,007 in favour. 1562 agaisnt. However: -oVoting took place at many different times in different places. Inconsistencies in how it was carried out. -Ballot was not secret - get swayed, people worryign for themselves - intimidation. -Lucien (napoleons brother) as Minsiter of the Interior adjusted numbers before publication. -He almsot doubled the 'yes' votes - rounding up to 900,000 and included a further 500,000 votes to represent the unanimously favourable votes that would have been cast had they been inlcuded in the plebiscite...

.How did the Directory last from 1795 to 1799? (Longest a gov has lasted in French Rev).

-It was restoring rule of law. -Many key opponents were discredited. For insgance, few wanted a return to Jacobin power. SC didnt have much support. Directory didnt want to be associated with them anymore. -Rooyalists: Deeply divided between those supporting the Verona declaration and those wanting a new cons monarhcy. -Public = apathetic. Just dont'c are, jsut want some stbaility, dont mind whos leading. -Army supproted the Directory...

Result of the Vendemiaire uprising:..

-Most of those arrested were artisans and apprencies. -Repression that foillowed = light. Only two were xecuted. Dont want to be seen as going back to Terror. Dont need to either. -Sectional assemblies were abolished (local gov councisl in paris ) -National Guard udner control of Napoleon, new General of the Army of the interior. -Second time in 6 months the army had saved Thermidorian Republic. More pwoer...

Was the failure of the Directory inevitable? Foreign War with Britain (1794-1799):..

-Now that Britain's major allies were out of the war, it had become very isolated. Irish nationalists within Britain were also seeking to overthrow British rule. France believed they were now strong enough to invade Britain with their allies Spain and Holland. They also wanted to send a military expedition towards Ireland to support the nationalists. However, they needed safe passage across the sea to send an invasion army towards Britain. Their plans to achieve this were dashed in 1797, when the British defeated the Spanish fleet at Cape St Vincent and the Dutch at Camperdown. The war with Britain therefore continued. -Following these military defeats, the Directory became much more aggressive and began expanding their conquests. They began reorganising their foreign territories into satellite republics ('sister' republics that appeared independent but were really under French control). They created: • the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland (controlled the main Alpine passes to Italy) • the Roman Republic (after they invaded and the Pope fled to Tuscany), the Cisalpine Republic (Milan) and the Ligurian Republic (replacing the Genoese Republic) in Italy • the Batavian Republic in the United Provinces. They also gained a lot of land in Germany, such as the left bank of the Rhine. -Drawbacks: • The French look weak after being defeated by Britain twice. • The continuation of the war with Britain was a huge strain on France's economy as it used up huge amounts of their resources. • Furthermore, they lost more and more money with each new conquest they made in response to their defeats against Britain. Benefits: • The French response to their military defeats meant that soon enough France had attained a status of domination never seen before in Modern Europe. They had become an extremely powerful nation and force. -Overall, this was a failure for the Directory as their continued war effort and extensive conquests put a huge strain on their already precarious economy, which would have been very unpopular with the people, particularly the peasants. Therefore, not only did they lose two major military battles and plunge France into even more economic hardship, but they also would have lost significant popular support...

Law of 22 Floreal:...

-Persecution of the Royalists = severe after Fructidor. -Jacobins = 1 third of the seats -> Directory could be sure of majority. BUT -Directory persuaded the councils, by the Law of 22 Floreal, to annul election of 127 deputies, 86 = suspected Jacobins. -Directors chose most of the deputies There was little justification for this coup so why did it happenn? -Directory also backed by army = strong. Don't bother to demonstrate. -Paranoid = not v stable. internal threats. -However, they have a lot of power to enact a law of this magnitude. -Jacobins wouldn't have been very popular anyway due to history in terror, apathetic. -Too risky to let them keep the seats. -A way to reintroduce conscription since '73. which caused uprisings and rebellions....

Was the fialure of the Directory invetable? Economic and financial problems:..

-Previous regimes in France had printed more and more assignats in order to fund the war leading to their currency to become almost worthless. France was in a state of bankruptcy with the monetary crisis causing a rapid decline in purchasing power of the people. -Directory issued a new paper currency known as mandats territoriaux. This failed, caused the only legal money to be metal coils. 2/3 of the National debt was renounced by a one off payment to debt holders, loans to the government were converted into no interest bearing bonds. They cut expenditure and Ramel put in policies such as tax on trading licenses, land tax, tax on movable property and doors and windows. Also changed the method of collecting direct taxes, central control was introduced. Revived indirect taxes. -Short supply of coins (only a billion livres in circulation 1797 compared to 2.5 bill in 1789) caused deflation, making directory unpopular with workers and businessmen as they had to lower their prices. Value of the bonds failed aswell as the mandats territoriaux as both became worthless. However whelped liquidate the national debt and helped stabilise France. Ramels taxes were unpopular however helped the continual deficit, and helped him balance the budget. -Even though some of the changes failed and were very unpopular with the French people, the Directory was able to stabilise France, money to be metal coils. 2/3 of the National debt was renounced, and created a situation where the governments expenditure was equal to its income therefore causing it to be an overall success..

To what extent did the Thermidorian reaction lay stable foudnations for the revolution to continue/recover from the Terror?..

-Reasonable resposne but quite weak. -Quite permissive. -Coudl take firmer line esp with songs to reinvent themselves..

How did the Coup happen?.

-Sieyes wanted to move the councils to Saint-Cloud -> the JAcobins were numerous and could provide opposition. This woudl laso mvoe them away from the NAtional Guard and disconnect them from Paris -The Ancients persauded the councils to move -> they feared a plot of JAcobins. -Once there it became clear the only plot was the one being done by Sieyes -> council of 500 were furious. -Napoleon appeared with the troops to cries of 'outlaw' and 'down with the tyrant'. He was also physically attacked. -Deputies could have rallied together to conemn the plotters. -Napoleons brother Lucien came to save the day -> told the troops that his brothers life was being threatened by some deputies trying to assassinate him -> troops cleared the hall where the 500 were meeting = allow for a civil meeting..

The outcome of the Coup.

-Some hours after the hall ahd been cleared, a small group of councillors sympathetic to the plotters met and approved the aboslihment of the Directory. It had too much opposition. -Replaced by provsiional executive committee of 3 members: sieyes, Ducos and Bonaparte. -The directory had been challenged and overthrown by so few people. =Their authority and rule had been question. -So easily crushed due to amount of opposition -Coup was a success because it didnt caus full scale discontent. -News of coup in provinces -> no celebrating, mild opposition. People were apathetic. Oh, heres another government again. -15th December 1799 Napoleon presented new constitution of YEAR VIII..

Constitution of the year III 1795;..

-The aim was to return to the principles of 1789 which were: -Freedom of Speech -No censorship -Freedom of religion. - Removing privilege -Constitutional monarchy - Al men born equal. -All males over 21 who paid taxes could vote in the primary assemblies to choose leectors. However, real power belonged to the electorsm who were drawn from the ranks of the very rich. Going back to privilege? The electors also had ot pay taxes equiv to 15-200 days, limtied amount amount of people who could join. But well educated? -France was to be ruled by a new committe of five called the Direcotry who were: -Chosen by the Council of Ancients from a list drawn up by the five Hundred. To Hold office for 5 years. The council of Five Hundred: -All over 30 -Initiates legislation and passes it on. The Council of Ancients: -250 men over 40 -Approve or reject bills -No property qualifications for councillors -Elections to be held every year, when a third of members retired. The executive: -A directory of 5 , chosen by the Ancients from a lsit drawn up by the 500. -Hold office for 5 years, though one had to retire each year (randomly). -Could not initiate or veto laws. -They were powerful -> they appoitned ministers and were in charge of diplomatic and miltiary affairs...

Was the fialure of the Directory invetable? The Coup d'etat of Fructidor:..

-The elections of 1797 revealed a growing shift in popular support felt towards the monarchists. Of the 216 ex-members of the Convention, only 11 were re-elected. Monarchists won 180 out of the 260 seats being contested. It became apparent that the Directory was beginning to lose the support of the richer bourgeoisie who believed that a constitutional monarchy would offer more peace and stability. While the monarchists did not have the majority in the councils, the Directory could now only rely on third of its deputies. Monarchists would be able to obtain a majority once the conventionnels would have to give up their seats in the next election, this would allow the Monarchists to then legally restore the monarchy. Royalists began to show their strength when one of their supporters was elected president of the Ancients and one president of the Five Hundred (Carnot and Barthélemy). -The two remaining directors sought to use the army in order to prevent a return to the monarchy. On 3rd-4th of September 1797, troops surrounded council chambers and arrested Carnot, Barthélemy and 53 deputies. Two decrees were called: the first cancelled elections in 49 departments and removed 177 deputies without replacement (leaving many areas without parliamentary representation). The second decree agreed to deport Carnot, Barthélemy and the 53 arrested deputies. -The new Directory began to take action against émigrés and refractory priests, threatening either execution or deportation. The terror that followed was limited and succeeded in destroying the royalist movement, but whilst also alienating Catholics, providing more opponents to the Directory. -While the Directory was able to succeed in removing the royalist movement, the fact that the monarchists had been able to gain so much power highlighted how weak the Directory was and how the period of a parliamentary government was over. The Directory's brutal use of the army against its own government reminded people of the Terror and made the Directory lose support...

What caused the Vedemiaire uprising?..

-Verona Delcaration failed to attract mass support. -Convention ahd ealt with foiod shortages and inflation poorly = PArisians wanting to see the ned of the Covnention. -Two thirds law = A surprise. It suggested many of the old deputies would be returning = many against Covnention. Many royalists opposed this = hostility. 2/3 will always be the same , nor circulation of ideas. Limmited people can be reelected = less likely that people who reflect their monarchist ideas will be elected so not much representation. -Royalists believed a return to the Constitutional monarchy woudl be challengign udner a hostile convention. -Not just royalist uprising against the two thirds law -> economic origins too. ANger nd frustration...

The Vendemiaire uprising 5th October 1795:..

.-25, 000 royalists (not entirely) gathered to march on the Convention and seize power. -7800 government army confronted the crowd with cannnon. first time in a long time. -Led by Napoleon Bonaparte. -Cannon was filled with 'whiff of grapeshot'. aggressive response. -Over 300 killed - bloodiest journee. Not all were royalists, going back to Terror? gov cannot crush uprising without violene. Army gainngi power..

.From First Consul to Emperor:.

.-Assassination attempt (unpopular?) on Napoleon in December 1800 when going to the theatre. -Napoleon shaken but unharmed. -Senate anxious about the fragile nature of the regime dependent on one man. -Offered him consulship for life. -Napoleon accepted and decision approved by a plebiscite. -LEgion of honour was a high status organisation to bind powerful men to his regime through grantign titles and rewards = get support of influential people who could help him in his endeavours. -In 1804, lots of royalist plots and counter plots, including one to voerthrow and kill NApoleon, hereditary consulship for smooth succession and transition, before was imperial dignity to be heredtiary... -40% of the army voted 2 years earlier rejected the porposal of a consulate for life so the soldeirs were not polled this time. -His coronation was spectacular + Grand, he crowned himself, - creating his own identity. The pope was there..

Outcomes of the storming of the Bastille:

Commune of paris established: -15th July Paris electors set up a new body to govern the city. -Forefront of clashes between King and PArisians. -Sylvian Bailly elected mayor. National guard established: -10th July a CITIZENS MILITIA had been proposed. -Predominantly middle classes - excluding Sans-Culottes (urban workers) -Purpose to PROTECT PROPERTY against menu people and defending PAris against Royal troops. -National Guard 15th July - Lafayette commander.

Yes: He was a great reformer:...

Education: -Napoleon introduced the lycee in 1802 which promtoed the idea of eqaulity and meritocracy with scolarships. -Controlled the curriculum which created equality in the country in term of education eg in the countryside. -Intorduced the baccalaureat in 1808 which remains a part of the French education system today. -Imperial university created in 1808 to improve quality of education. It trained teachers, which helped boost education in a time of war, which was impressive. Civil code: -Napoleon recognided the legal rights of people who had bought land from the Church which helped him gain support -Maintained the abolition of feudalism -Removed clerical privileges -Partage emant there would be an equal division of inheritance. Concordat: -Ended the separation of the Church and State so Napoleon ahd more control over the Church as the clergy became civil servants. -Promoted religious tolerance: 'his attitudes towards jews put many subsequent European regimes to shame". This shows that he was fairly mdoern in terms of his attitudes towards religion in comparison with other countries. Economic reforms: -Formed bank of France in 1800 which still exists to this day. -Delegated pwoer over finances to two minsiters: Gaudin and Barbe-Marbpis who centralised tax collection and shifted to idnirect taxation which brought about financial stability. Revenue from idnirect taxes increased by 400%. Financial minsiters - professional . -New currency introduced, France de Germinal, in 1803, which was the msot stable currency in europe as shown by the fact that it lasted for 120 years compared to the assignat this currency was a major improvement. -Tax distribution is made more even due to new land registers -Tax raised to 250 million francs annually until 1913, which was 29% of the national income. This was a major improvement considering the fact that under the Directory, France was on the verge of bankruptcy....

Why was there gorowing discontent throughout France udner the rieign of Louis XVI:

Financial: -1785 revenue was 475 million livres comapred to expensidture of 587 million. Deficit of 112 million livres, almsodt a quarter of total income. -France is financially unstable and thus incapable of lookign after citizens through important investments such as trasnpirt, infrastructure and agricultural technology. -Discontent as citizens cannot advance meaning lack of oppurtunity to create larger income for things such as food - lack of socila welfare -> depleted workforce -> now who can pay their taxes? -1740 - 1783, 20 year war for France: War of Asutrrian succession and Seven year war, then American war of independence. American war cost 1066 million livres, achieved by Necker's loaning policy. -Cannot carry out financial reforms as the crown was not receiving msot of the money from taxes. The privileged classes, had an increase in property income so should have been taxed, and heavier too as they had the money to pay the taxes needed. -However, they would protet to this -> the Crown can not and will never get the adequate amount of money required -> exacerbates financial issues. -By 1783, all funds were empty, low public funds and confidence destroyed. The treasury was short of 160m livres for 1781 and 196m livres short for 1782. -> Inflation -> unemployment as workers becomeexpensive -> decreased work force -> no investments -> incredibly angry people. -Calonne attempted to introduce policies to help the economy such as replacing capitation with a single land tax, abandon controls on grain trade and internal customs barriers for freer trade and restoring national confidence for new short term loans. -Mostly affect 2nd estate finances -> refuses this -> no more additional money from the class who can affort it will go back to the Crown -> cannot spend and restore confidence. -Assembly of Notables did not let his reforms go through. said approval for motion is needed by the Estates General. Foreign Policy: -Seven years war with Austria as an ally. French forces in India an dNorth America experienced defeats from the British. A lot of Frances overseas territory was lost in 1963. -Worsened financial problems -> loss of territory = loss of resources to exploit - cannot improve their financial problems. -Death of French soldiers -> angry families = reduce in support for the crown = loss of workers = financial loss. -French revenge over Britain in American war of Indpendence -Provided America with financial + military support = victory. -Could not recover most of previously lsot erritory. -French honour restored. -Triggered French revolution. War cost A LOT . Worsened already existing financial problems. -French soldiers exposed to ideas of liberty and democracy = demand crown for them too = revolutionary ideas. Political: -Calonne replaced by Archbishpo Brienne 1787-89. He was a notable but the others weren't too cooperative with him. How could he push through reforms? -Carried on with Necker's plan. There were to be a New Central Treasury, Accessible laws, Educational Reforms, religious toleration, and reofrming army. -Paris parlement refused, only the Estates-Genral can consent to new taxes: King passes them anyway through 'lit de jsutice'. PArlement declare it illegal so Louis exiles them to Troyes on 15 Aug. -High handed actio = no control -> lack of cooperation and activeness - > no other choice = no control -> Arsitocratic revolt, the msot violent opposition the gov had yet faced. Riots in provincial capitals where parelements met ->Louis has lack of control -> nobles met in unauthorised assemblies to discuss action in support of parlements. -Assembly of clergy joined Parlements, breaking logn tradition of loyalty to Crown -> how far gone and out of control Louis is. -August 1788 Royal Trasury was empty. Brienne + Louis summon Estates general for 1 May 1789. 16 August 1788 Acknowlegded Crown was bankrup as he suspended payments from royal treasury. -Recalls Necker. -Shows limitations to royal power -> cannot impose government's reofrms on the state -> forces of opposition detect Crown's weaknesses -> failure to secure reform led to stagnation of gov -> worse ciupled with economic crisis. Econmoic crisis: -Frances economy largely based on agriculture. -However, productivity was low + conservative despite attmpts to improve it such as by borrowing English techniques. -Issue was in distribution of land.Inherited property divided between heirs of each generation = divided estates. -No fewer than 4 million small owner occupiers -> not owned in compact nits. At least 3 quarters of rented land leased to peasants. -Series of disastrous harvests. V frequent. 1770-1789, only 3 abundant harvests. -Ris in bread prices. -1726-1789 wheat prices increased by 60% , by 1788-9 increased to 88%. -Severe winter 1878-89, spending 88% of wages on bread. -Production and employment in textile industries, accounting for half of industrial production fell by 50% in 1789. Eden treaty 1786. -Textile production mostly by women in rural areas -> financial hardship -> increased. -Unemployment and cost of living both ris.e Unable to increase wages too -> stagnant and falling production .

For or Against war:

For: -Bring revolution to an end, unify Frnce against Austria. -Allows constitutional monarchy to gain control. -Eliminate/reveal traitors to King. -Show Louis' true allegiance. -Most royalists supported this, desire to return to normality (AR). -Prevent revolution in other countries. Against: -War would just be a distraction so ultimately the situation would be worse. -Financially difficult. Strain. -Unstable environment of war -> more rdical ideas. Potential for civil war. -Unclear if America and Prussia will adhere to declaration of Pillnitz.

How successfully did the Constituent assembly deal with the problems of reforming the French state? Local government:

Reforms: -Decentralised - 83 departments subdivided into 547 districts and 43,460 communes. -Communes grouped into cantons, where primary assemblies for elections were held. -Elected councils. -Right to vote to active citizens: Men over 25 who paid equivalent of 3 days labour in local taxes. If they couldn't pay they were a 'passive citizen'. -Paying 10 days laobur = 'Electors' 50,000 -Paying 54 days labour = Deputy in NA -This meant it was easier to control areas to carry out reforms and consolidate power. -Right to vote -> gave people a voice. Rrestructure the ounctry as a whole. -However, women and peasants were left out of voting. -But it there was more autonomy, a literal scrap of the ancien regime.

What was the main opposition fqacing the Driectory?..

Royalsits: - Emigres, the lack of a king. Verona declaration demonstrates sufficient support for a moanrch. Directors do not want a king back. -Constitutional moanrchists: The lack of a ocnstitutional monarchy, uprising to protest for a cons moanrchy. -Jacobins : the end of the terror , their platform has gone. -Dissastisfied masses (sans culottes too): The directory nto representing them or also not having a paltform to talk on. Bread prices. Gove + no logn term solutiion to long term problems...

Robespierre, was he a defender of the revolution???

Religion: -Created the 'cult of the supreme being' which he persuaded the Covnention to accept in a decree on 7th May 1794. -8th June 1794, R organised a large 'festival of the supreme being' in Paris . -He was disliked and distrusted as: CATHOLICS: Distressed as it ignored the Catholic doctrine, ceremonies and the pope. ANTI-CLERICALS: Thoguht it was a first step towards reintroducing catholicism. Thought R was setting himself as high priest of a new religion. -He was defending the virtuous ideology of the Revolution and Philosophes. -However, the public did not want this and so it shows R to be out of touch with the people. .. Sans-Culottes: -Lack okf popularity due to : 1. Execution of Herbertistes. 2. Dissoflution of popualr socieites. 3. End of direct democracy in the sections. 4. Raising of the maximum on prices in MArch which led to inflation and flal of assignat to only 36% of its original value. 5. Imposing the maximum on the wages. -Now even the SC were questioning the Terror's necessity. -The flal in wages due to the GM meant they fell by as much as helf. This heightened discontent amongst the wage earning SCs. -By Spring 1794, all foreign troops were off French soil and so many ordinary people questioned the need to apply the ruthless policies of the Terror -Dwindling value of the assignat. -R is setting more and more restrictive laws and is losing the support and no longer protecting the SCs. -He dissolved all popular societies, like Louis XVI, and began to restrict freedom of Speech. -BUT, it is necessary to take action against the Herbertistes who were planning an insurrection. R is trying to reduce the anarchy in france. Poltiical structure: -CPS and CGS remained unchallenged. April, CPS set up own police bureau, led by R, to prosecute dishonest officials. -CGS deeply resented R's interference with its own control of internal security causing the two committees to become rivals. -Many memebrs of the CPS were becoming suspicious of Robespierre esp following the introduction of the '' cult of the supreme being". Reasons for and against: -Spearheaded the revolutiona nd changed the face of France. -Was able to reorder society, even if that meant introducing the Terror. -Clearly made improtant changes wihtin France which would shape its hsitory until mdoern day. -HOWEVER, his Terror can be seen as only a pointless slaughter that caused the restoration fo the same corrupt regime that the Revolution overthrew. Aside from immense suffering the terror achieved little, making it difficult to say whether or not he was a defender or whether he became side tracked and dictator like instead.

Robespierre's proposals:

Robespierre put forward his proposals at a meeting of the JAcobins on 29 July 1792. He called for: 1. Abandonment of the Constitution of 1791. 2. OVerthrow of the monarchy 3. Establishment of NAtoinal Convention, elected by universal male suffrage, replacing the LEgislative Assembly. 4. A purge of the departmental authorities. -Frenzied state = easier for cceptance of more radical ideas. War, tuileries, vetoes.

Revolts in Paris - Events leading up to the storming of Bastille, 14 July 1789

-Population of Paris was facing difficult times. The price of bread had icnreased, many workers were paying 50% of their incomes on it. In August 1788 a laof had cost 9 sous but by MArch 1789 it cost 14 sous. In April 1789 rumours circulated that wages were to be lowered at a prosperous wallpaper manufacturer, Reveillon, to manage economic hardship. As a result, there was a rebellion, workers at the factory set fire to it which destroyed many jobs resulting in no wages for anyone... -50 people were killed or wounded by troops. This violent reaction was more than jsut an outcry aginst the rumours, it was catalysed by the social protest responding to high bread prices, loww ages and poor living standards. Crowds gathered on the streets to support hte National Assembly. -In June, journalists and politicians set up base at the home of Duc d'Orleans. Each night crowds gathered to listen to revolutionary speakers such as Camille Desmoulins. 11 July Necker is dismsised. There is now concern about what Louis might do to the Assembly. -As urban workers, they went to the Palais-Royale to hear Desmoulins speak , encouraged to arm themselves too. The king has been increasing his militia these past few months, he now feels strong enough to take back his power with 20,000 troops in the area. Thepoeple of PAris begin a frantic search for muskets and ammunition -> clashes occurred between the people and troops at Tuileries. -Gardes-francaises - an elite royal infantry regiment were called upon to withdraw from Paris where they were stationed. The king wanted to increase his militia around him to ensure he was protected in Versailles. -Some of the Gardes-Francaises disobeyed the king's orders, choosing to join forces with representatives in Paris. By 14th June, 5 out of 6 battalions of gardes-francaises had deserted and joined Parisians. -Fears grew of an attack by Royal Forces so barricades were thrown up across streets to impede progress - there were 5000 troops nearby. -News travelled to the King that the troops may not be relied upon to crush the demonstrations. So, he removed the troops from the streets of PAris to the Champ de Mars - a wide open space. -Here the troops di dnothing. The King does have thte issue about who he can rely on for protection especially because th egardes-Francaises have deserted him. At LEast he still has his private army of German and Swiss soldiers at Versailles. -Following the concerns of a Royal Attack, the people of Paris desperately sought arms. However the issue lay in the fact that most of the arms in PAris were under the protection of the military bodies so it was likely they would have to take it by force. The people went to Les Invalides - an old soldiers retirement home. -They seizes 28,000 muskets and 20 cannon. They didn't have enough gun powder tohugh so stormed over toi BAstille on 14th July 1789.

Why did the revolution become more violent?

Sans Culottes CPS + CGS Overthrow of Girondins Enrages, Dechristianisation, conscription +total war General maximum, Provincial repression!!!! Federalism

August Decrees:

What do they abolish and why does this matter in summer 1789? -They abolished tithes to the Church, venality, special , privileges, in equality in taxation sustem and other areas of discontent. these decrees aimed for and went beyond the original cahiers, influencing society more to see jsut how much change was actually needed. Following the abolishment of instituiosn like provincial estates, the NAtional Assembly now had to replace them with soemthing more effective. The NAtional Assembly had many tasks this summer, and with rising discontent- their task would be difficult to complete. What do they signify an end to: -The end to the ineffective ancien regime. This signified the end to long lasting and traditional ideas such as privilege of birth, buying jobs, end to mostly noble pwoer and the pivot that such injsutices would be tolerated no longer. It would be the begining of a fairer, more equal society. What potential do they propose for the future living in France? -Proposed a more equal society to live in, such as gaining privileges by skill and hard work rather than being born into it or buying the position. These Augsut Decrees aimed to quash the suffering between the classes. This was through ideas such as freedom of epxression,t axation to be borne by all in proportion to their means and freedom to property. Declaration of the Rights of Man: -condemned practices of the Ancien Regime and outlined the rights of citizens, as demanded in the cahiers of all 3 orders. Key points: -All men born equal. -Main rights: liberty, property, security. -Power (sovereignty) rests with the people. -Freedom of worship and expression -Taxation to be borne by all in proportion to their means. -Freedom to own any property Nationalisation of the church: -On Nov 2nd 1781, the NA agreed that all property and land owned by the church should be palced disposal of the nation (church land nationalised. ) -Result of gov in September facing serious financial crises. The church were one of the largest landowners in the country, the gov HAD to raise funds. -Bonds called ' Assignat' were issued and sold as well as the scale of church land to settle debts. Royal land also sold. These sales raised around 400 million Livres. Reaction of the Monarchy: -King did not share the general enthusiasm. -Louis opted for a policy of non-cooperation and refused to support the August Decrees or Declaration of Rights, he couldn't use force as he was doubted the loyalty of the guards. -This caused the Assembly to consider what rights the King should have. On the 11th September They decided he should have a 'suspensive veto', the power to suspend/delay all alws other than financial ones passed by the assembly for a period up to 4 year. Still no one considered abolishing the monarchy. -Makes sure he's still in power, but legislative power resides with the NA, placate him as executive power remains with him.

The Political clubs:

Jacobins: -Emerged from original meetings of a group of Breton deputies in 1789, name from Jacobin convent where they met. -They were a pressure group for radical ideas. Left wing specifically. -Entry requirements: 12 livres high admission fee and 24 for membership.= members drawn from wealthier parts of society. Politically active people only and most members were deputies so intellectual and highly political men of action. -Their ideology was based upon a combination of enlightenment and revolutionary practice, they rejcted a nation of monarchy. Wanted centralised gov to defend a republic -Maximilian Robespierre was the elader of these radical deputies. Danton and Brissot were also key members. -They met 4 times a week, acting as a pressure group for first patriot and the nrevolutionary ideas. End of 1793 there were over 2000 J clubs. 1790-99 movement invovled 2% ofpopulation (500000). =Enabled for the first time large members of people to become directly involved in political life. Cordeliers: -Counter-Revolutionary which emerged in 11790. -sponsored counter revoultionary propaganda. Politcally educating the common people, keeping an eye on actions of the deputies. -Low admission fees. Monthly subscription so its membership was large, many could afford to join and women were allowed. -They had an interest in national monarchy failing. Direct democracy, voters choose deputies. Recall of deputies on account for their actions. Right of insurrection if gov went against popular wishes. Were more radical than Jacobins. -Mostly middle class leaders -> Danton, Desmoulins, MArat, Hebert. Acting as bodyguards to protect popular eladers + democratic movement. -Took support from people in PAris. 1791, Cordeliers club and popular societies joined a federation and elected a central committee . Feuillants: -Former JAcobins opposed to republcanism, some members came from the societe de 1789 - an elitist constitutional monarchist pressure group founded in Jan 1790 as a direct resposne to the Jacobins. -Mostly bourgeoisie. -Eg. Lafayette, Mirabeau, sieyes. -Tried to influence the NAtional Assembly deputies by persuasion at dinners. By Aug 1791 after Champ de MArs massacre they were the dominant group and controlled the NA _> complete new constitution on how constitutional assembly should work. The Club Monarchique and the Emigres: -EMerged in 1790. Emigres were nobles who emigrted from France since the revolution began. -Sponsored counter-revolutionary propaganda, fostered links with the emigres and used charity to build popualr support. Encourage formation of simialr clubs such as Amis du Roi - working for a return to the monarchy of the AR. -Deputies, clergymen, nobility and upper bourgeoisie. -Politically far right, counter revolutionary. -HAd deputies of the NA. -At its height had 200 members. The Sans-Culottes: -In reorginsation of Paris in 1790 - divided in 48 sections and these became the power-base of the S-C. -Spur revolution. Put pressure on process of trying to make C. Monarchy work. -They were a political group of people NOT a political party. -Had the msot radical demands for revolution. -They stormed Bastille and forced Royal family to leave to PAris.

Timeline so far and how was Louis XVI authority undermined by the events of 1789?

1. Assembly of Notables insist Estates General should be called. 2. Exile Paris Parlement. 3. Day of Tiles (uprising of Grenoble Parlmenet) 4. Calling of Estates General for 1792. 5. France declred bankrupt 6. Estates General to meet 1 May 1789 7. Creation of National Assembly. King declares it void 8. National assembly locked out of hall for Royal Session. 9. Singing of tennis court oath. -Louis also bought soldiers (swiss and german), not much loyalty. Increasing the militia. -I protest to rumour of lowering bread prices, set fire to factory. So killed/wounded by troops. Increasingly politicised. -Neckers dismissal -> listen to Desmoulins speak and arm themselves -Decreasing authority + loyalty to the King. -Bastille represent Kigns power. Freeing them = symbolic.

Absolute Monarchy:

-1774 Louis XVI becomes King of France, after death of power. -Ruled as an absolute monarch from p. of Versailles (12 miles off Paris). Not in touch with the people, unpopular. Can do what he wants -Married Marie Antoinette who was Austrian, previous enemis A vs F. Mistruste. -Not many attened his coronation. Many complained of large amounts of public spending after previous riots. -As he's the absolute monarch all blame goes straight to him. In reality, however, hisi power was limited: -Louis XVI had been taught to take advice on improtant decisions and it was usual to rely on career administrators and courtiers for this. -Louis was bound by the laws and customs of France. -Louis needed the consent of the noble elite. -There were deep-roooted local and social privileges.

Which consequences of the King's attempted escape posed the biggest threat to the Constitutional Monarchy? Growth of Counter-REvolution:

-By early 1791, 1200 nobles officers had joined emigres. Threatened and vulnerable. -By end of 1791, 6000 had emigrted. in 1 year, dimishing fiath in revolution. In response, the assembly passed 2 laws : -1. The Non-jurors (refractory priests) were suspects (agaisnt the rev0 2. If emigres did not return by 1st January 1792 = declared traitors.

The National Convention: The Trial of the King:

-749 deputies in total. -47% laywers. -9% business and trade. -The Girondins (left, centre) and Monatgnards (left) were not prties in the mdoern sense. Not an agreed programme or common discpline. PArties regarded as a way to pursure sleifhs interest no tofcused on the common good. Difficult to say how many deputies in one party at each time. The Girondinds: -Believed in republic. -Hated privilege -Anti clerical -Wanted more enlightened/humane France. -Free-market econmoics -Wanted more power to the provinces. -Wanted to win the war. -HAd msot of the Paris press and much provincial support. Lsot some popularity ebbcause they did not fully back the august 10th Journee. The Monatgnards (Jacobins or the LEft) -Believed in a Republic -Hated privilege -Anti clerical -Wanted more enlightened/humane France -wanted tight control over wages - politcy of the 'maximum' -Favoured central control from Paris -Committed to the winning war but willing to make concessiosn to ordinary people. -Had supprot from PAris sections, political clubs and eputies in Paris -V popular with sans culottes

The Declaration of war:

-7th Feb Austria and Prussia became allies - intimidate France by threatening war. Confidence in own armies therefore expected little resitance from Frane because: -Weakened by internal division. -Mutinies in army and lsos of officers fleeing the cuntry. -Bankrupt French finances. -Austrian threats and Girondin attacks on the 'Austrian Committee' at Court. -King dismissed Feuillants and appoints a more radical government. -Young and imeptuous Francis II took to the throne when Leopold died -> Wanted war following rumours that MA might be put ont rial. -France actually declared war on April 20th 1792 -> Only 7 deputies against it. -Hoped to just fight Austria but Prussia then declared war on France in June.

The Financial Minsiters (Comptroller-General): Necker 1776-81

-A Protestant, Swiss bankers - so not official holder of the office of Comptroller General but performed the role. He was a millionaire, a reformer, and a controversial figure who acquired and promoted his reputation of being a 'Miracle worker'. -Raising money: -American War of Indpendence: France was involved in 1778. Necker raised 520 Million livres in short term loans (less than 20 years) at 010% itnerest. This made Necker very popular and his loans were seen as profitable forms of investment. They enaable him to finance a major war without new taxation and he avoided noble hostility and bypassed the parlements altogether. -However the loans deepened govt debt. -1781: Compte Rendu au Roi: balance sheet of royal finances which was pubilshed - for the first time ever, and caused a sensation. It aimed to attract more investment rand sustian confidence by demonstrating what a good state the King's finances were in, claiming that there was a surplus of 10 Million livres. However, it did not acknowledge the xtraordinary account, from which the bulk of the war was financed. -Some of the minor details of it of court expenditure were seized upon as examples of extravagant royal spending by enemies of the Monarchy. This lsot NEcker the support of the court and he resigned. Reforms: Reversed many of Necker's policies -Adminsitrative reforms - remove some financial abuses, abolished financial offices and attacked the role of private financiers. -Consolidated many disparate gov funds into one large central one, and tried to impsoe an unprecedented degree of day to day supervision of gov finances. -Recommended parlements be restricted to judicial functions and lsoe right to register decrees. #-However, Necker was attacked by contemporarie s(eg Calonne) who argued he damaged credit circles upon which he should rely. -May 1781, Necker was forced to resign: coalition of tax farmers, courtiers and minsiters brought him down. -1781-83, continued to borrow heavily. Intoduced the Third Vingiteme in 1783, but assured it would end 3 years after peace.

How successfully did the Constituent assembly deal with the problems of reforming the French state? Legal system:

-Abolished systems of diff laws i nthe north and south. -Abolished diff types of law courts e.g. parelements, siegneurial. -Lettres de cachet. Replaced with: -Justice of the peace - in place of sigeneurial court. -Criminal court- in front of jury as in England. -All judges elected by active citizens. -Penal code made more humane - the guillotine. -New structure given to replace the ancien regimes- real proacrive change, esp the kings Lettres de Cachet -Easier, more uniform, fair law in N and S -Fairer trials for different crimes. -Elected judges who had been lawyers for 5 years = qualified and accountable/credible. -Less corrupt and fairer, easier to enforce laws -Suits the new gov system beter, more union. -Howevr, relies on having trained/qualified people in ALL areas. So in rural areas, there are no lawyers, will habe to try to attract bourgeoisie to rural areas.

The Great Fear:

-Across France, towns and cities copied Paris and set up revolutionary committees and a NAtional Guard to maintain order and to prevent counter-revoultion by royalists. The King's intendants abandoned thier posts as royal authority collapsed. -The peasantry had not played a very important parts in the events of 1788-89 but they had been part of the discussions prior to the calling of the Estates general and their epxectations had been riased. Many peasants relied on aprt-time work and were suffering by the summer of 1789. As authority broke down inPAris and in the regions, so there was a wave of discontent. -Rumours spread that gangs of brigands had been hired by fleeing nobles to take revenge by destroying the harvest. Peasants armed themseleves and attacked the hated symbols of feualism. -Chateaux and documents recording feudal obligations were burned but few people, nobles or their agents, were killed. Many tighte barns, which held the grain taken by the Chruch as payment due from the peasants, were attacked. The main unrest was between 20 July and 6 August.

What happened next?

-Affter 10 Auguest the Insurrectionist Commune was in contorl of Paris. They forced the dpeuties of the LA to hand over Louis who was then imprisoned. The deputies were then forced to agree to a new election of a Convention. NExt came: -A new governing body - The Conventions. -An increase in terror - seen in the September massacres which occured due to fear of counter - revolutoinaries as well as war going badly. -Trial and execution of Louis.

The significance of the declaration of Pillntiz:

-After the flight to Varennes, the austrians and Prussians felt they had to make some gesture in support of Louis. They made this in the form of a public declaration . -It appeared to be a threat to interfere in French internal affairs. -enemeis of the kign saw it as jsutifying their mistrust of the King. -In reality- it was no real threat. -Austria knew powers like Britain would not get invovled. -In France, most ignored it -The Assembly did not debate it. -When constitution was passed, Leopold approved of it.

11 July 1792 Declaration of state of Emergency:

-All men capable of carrying arms were called for national service. -Commune ordered all citizens with pikes to join the NAtional Guard. -National Guard open to all ; distinction between active and passive citizens ended. -People now armed, prospect of uprising more likely. -PAris sections became republican 47/48. -Impression created that only the poeple coudl save the revolution, even if it meant bypassing the constitution.

The impact of the American Revolution and War of Independence:

-America was another source of ideas challenging the Ancien Regime. -Louis decided to enter the War of Independence in 1778. The American colonies had been in revolt agains tBrtish rule for 2 years and many in France were sympathetic to the colonists' cause of freedom (liberty) and democracy. -Some idealistic French Aristocrats like the Marquis de LAfayette, had already crossed the Atlantic to enlist in the American forces. -When they and the 8000 troops who served in America came home after 1783, they brought with them the renwed ideas of liberty and democracy, as well as the example and experience of the overthrow of an existing political authority and the building of a new order in tis place.

What was the Great Terror?..

-Centred in Paris 10th June - 28th July -Abolished provincial tribunals - all enemies now to be brought to PAris. -Approx 1594 men and women executed. The Law of Prarial - 10th June 1794: -Against enemies of the people - vague definition. -Purpose to secure more convictions at the Reovlutionary Tribunal. -Defendants not allowed a defence counsel. denying the accused any effective right to self-defense and eliminating all sentences other than acquittal or deat? -Robespierre provided the main policy link between the National Convention, the Jacobin Club and the PAris Commune and was responsible for policy on religion...

How the Enlightenment affected the 3 estates:

-An intellectual movemnt across Europe. -Promoted rationale, reason and challenging typically accepted views. -Dismissed superstition. -Critiqued the church but no anti-religion. -Philosophes. : Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau. -Rousseau believed in general will and that the big problem ins ociety was property. 1st Estate: -Criticised the Church, Voltaire believed in the right to religious freedom. -1st estate = banning and censorship of new ideas. Church is increasingly unpopular, it is hard to contain ideas and manage them. 2nd Estate: -Many members of nobility were greatly influenced by the Enlightenment. -Ideas of economic theories, systems. A free market? -Montesquieu part of the 2nd estate. -Fuelled innovative thoughts, how to make France better? -But not every noble liked it, philosophes challenged institutions nobles were part of. 3rd Estate: -The Philosophes' ideas attacked all assumptions the ancien regime was based on. It undermined old order and rule of the King as God's servant. Felt like they were being understood, there was hope. -Mainly the bourgeoisie was affected. -85% of pop. were peasants though. They didn't live in towns with salons, where the discussions took place. Not so involved yet with enlightement, little to no impact ohwever indirectly impaced them.

How could a decisions be made on the form of the Estates Genral?

-Another assembly of Notables was held in November 1788 to debate this issue. The Notables voted against 'doubling the third'. The decision on voting was left to the Estates to decide themselves. -Afte Rchristmas, Necker decided to double the Third Estate, but lef the Estates to decide voting when they were to meet in May.

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? The Vendee Rebellion:

-Anti revolution rather than counter-revolution because Opposed to the Revolution rather than wanting to restore the ancien-regime. -Introduction of conscription sparked this. The government ordered a levy of 300,000 troops in Feb 1793 -> uprising in MArch. -BUT there had been discontent before: -Peasants had been paying too much in land tax (mroe now than under the ancien regime). -Disliked the Civil Constitution of the Clergy = region was deeply catholic and many non-juring priests in the area. -The sale of church lands was bought by bourgeois landlords, who then raised rents. -This region was not v dedicated to revolution from the start. -Peasants tended to look towards nobles as their natural leaders and most were monarchistsso the uprising then got caught up in counter revolution . The two combined together were a large threat, confirms to the republic that there is a counter revolution within France. -The protestors murdered lcoal officials, constitutional priests and NAtional Guards. -In MAy 1793 the government had to withdraw 30,000 troops from the front ot deal with the rising. -however, the rebels were never a serious threat. They were ill-disciplined and better at guerrilla warfare than set-piece battles and unwilling to move from their local bases.

Restoring Government Authority:

-At some stage it was likely that the government and the SC woudl come into conflict. There was adminsitrative confusion in many departments in the autumn of 1793. The government could not tolerate anarhcy indefinitely as it undermined its authority yet it had to act carefully in case it upset its supporters among the SC -The first steps to tame the popular movement were taken in September 1793. The CPS decided that the generla assemblies of the Sections should meet only twice a week. In October the CPS passed a decree that government was to be 'revolutionary until peace'. This meant the Suspension of the Constitution of 1793. This was so there would be no laws to say they cant do xyz, not having to abide to anything. Justifies the terror. Also ened to tie up ends before implementing/creating the cons. The cons also created a lto of rifts ins ociety. -4th December 1793, Law of Frimare established a revolutionary government. This law gave the two committees full executive powers . -The chief officals of the cimmunes and departments who had been elected, were now placed under agents nationaux ( to monitor the enforcement of all revolutionary laws). -The Reps on mission, sent out by the Covnention in April, were now put firmly under the control fo the CPS. -All Rev armies, except that in PAris, were to be disbanded. These new policies ended anarchy , broke the power of the SC and provided France with its first strong govenrment since 1787. -However, it rejected the principles of 1789. The cons of 1791 and 1793 had established decetrnalisation, now this was reversed. Robespierre justified this by arguing that a dictatorship was necessary until the foreign and internal enemeis of the revolution was destroyed!!

The opening of the Estates General 5 May 1789:

-At the time of the elections, the three estates were asked to draw up a lsit of grievances and suggestions for reform, the so-called Cahiers de doleances. -The First estate was dominated by Parish priests. They wanted higher stipends (regular fixed sum of money paid for services ), access to higher offices of the Church, greter Church control of education and a limit to the toleration of protestantism. -The Second Estate was dominated by deputies from long-standing nnoble families who held conservative views. However, about a third were more liberal in outlook and were willing to give up their inancial privileges. They were divided over Third Estate demands for tax reforms and a mdoern constitution. -The Third Estate deputies were mainly lawyers, landowners and venal office holders. Thought the Third Estate included the mass of the people, the peasants ad workers were not represented and porportionate to their numbers. -When the Estates General met at Versailles, Louis failed to put forward a programme of action ofr disucssions. There was no mention of a new consitution, just unspecified talk of fairer taxation.

Why was it possible to overthrow the Moanrchy in 1792? Influence of foreign powers:

-Austria + Prussia ally + threaten war on France. -Brusnwick manifesto. -Add fuel to fire, get rid of monarchy before liberty. Are they working togetherwhen they are meant to be at war? -Huge threat = betrayed.

Ending the Terror:..

-Between July 1794 and 1795 the Conventin did the following: 1. Abolished the Revolutionary Tribunal. Got rid of unfair trials which were a major part of the Terror. 2. Released all suspects from Prison, start fresh. 3. Repealed the law of Prairial and closed the Jacobin Club. Loosened paranoia which was a main cause for the terror, moving away from extreme radical policies. 4. Called Reps en mission. Enforced policies of terror, reduce chos and increase control to repair society. #5. Dismantled CPS by 1795. The Thermidorians dealt with religious issues by separating Church and State (State doesnt have to pay ckergy wages now -. fianncial gains.). They restored tolerance of all religions and ended dechristianisation...

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? Assassination of MArat 12th July 1793;

-Charlotte Corday was a Girondin, arrived in Paris to kill JEan-Paul Marat. She wrote him al etter asking for his help to gain admittance to visit him. MArat was in his bath, once they were alone she stabbed him. -She was arrested at the scene and imprisoned then executed on 17th July. -This was proof that there were enemies in the country so they need to be stopped to the mechanics of Terror needs to be increased. -MArat was a great revolutionary, use this event to make a martyr out of him to encourage many mroe to join the Revolutionary cause.

Privileges and burdens:

-Clergy paid no taxes. The church made a voluntary annual grant of about 16 million livres, 5% of total church income. -Nobility exempt from the heaviest tax, the taille (land tax), and the corvees royales (labour service on the roads). They paid some newer taxes linked to income but were often able to avoid paying the full amount. They were exempt from military conscription although many volunteered to fight by buying comissions. -The bourgeoise, often richer than nobles, were frustrated because the nobles dominated the higher posts in the army and the Church and had tax privileges denied to commoners. Therefore a well-educated and propserous part of French soceity was increasingly resentful. -The peasentry had the heaviest burden. To the lord of the manor (the seigneur) they paid rents and taxes on their grain harvest and some had to do labour service. To the state they paid the taille and the gabelle (salt tax). They also did labour service on roads. They could be conscripted or have soldiers billeted upon them. They also paid the Tithe to the church. -For many, their main concern was to stay alive and this was dependant on the price of bread. Many richer peasants resented the burden of dues and taxes.

How successfully did the Constituent assembly deal with the problems of reforming the French state? The Church:

-Constituent Assembly wanted to create a church that was : -Free from abuses such as absenteeism and plurality. -Free from froeign (papal) control - independent of Rome. -Democratic -Linked to the new ssstem of government - primarily the department. -Linked more closely to the State in order to strengthen the Revolution. -August 1789 the Assembly abolished the tithe, annates and pluralism. It also ended the privileges of the Church, such as its right to decide for hitself how much tax it would pay. Most PArish clergy supported thesee measures. They also accepted the sale of Church lands, because they would be paid more than they had been udner the ancien regime. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy: -Created conflict. Approved on 12 July 1790. This emasure reformed the Catholic Church in France, and adapted the organisation of the Church to the adminsitrative framework of local Government. -dioceses were to coincide with departments, this meant that the number of bishoprics would be reduced from 135 to 83. There would not be only fewer bishops but fewer clergy generally, as all other lcerical psots except for parish priests and bishops ceased to exist. Some of the key terms of the CC of the Clergy: -Each department would form a single diocese. -There would be no reconigiton of any bishop appointed by the Pope but not approved by the French State. There was no intention hwoever, of ending the Catholic Church's position as the State Church in France. -All titles and offices, other tha those mentioned in the Civil Constitution, were abolished. -All priests and bishops were to be elected to their psots. -All elections were to be by ballot and by absolute majority of those who voted. -Priests were to be paid by the state. -There was to be no absenteeism b priests or bishops - no bishop could be aay from his diocese for more than 15 days consecutively in any years. -Most clergry oopposed the principle of election was unknown in the Church, but even so, the majority were in favour of finding a way of excepting the CC and avoiding a split in the Church. -They demanded the reforms be submitted to a national synod of the French Church but the Constituent Assembly would not agree to this, as it believed it would give the church a privileged position in the State once again, something which had jsut been abolished. The oath of loyalty: -As a Church assembly was not allwoed to discuss the matter, the clergy waited for the Pope to give his verdict. -He delayed coming to a decision, dealing with matters elsewhere .The Assembly grew tired of waiting and on 27 November 1790, declared that clergy msut take an oath to the Constitution. -This created a split in the clergy. In the assembly only two of the 44 bishops and a third of the other clergy took the oath. -In france as a whole 7 bishops and 55 % of the clergy took the oath. -When the Pope finally condemned the Civil Constitution in MArch and April 1791, many clergy who had taken the oath retracted it. -Those who refused to take the oath were called refractory clergy and removed from their posts. For devout catholics like Louis there was a clash between religion and the revolution therefore many now opposed it.

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? The overthrow of the Girondins:

-Danton and other Monatgnards have been calling for the Girondins to stop attackcing the Sans Culottes. However they continued to do so. By 26th May 1793 Robespierre calls for the 'people to place themsleves in insurrection agaisn tht Egirondin deputies'. -May 31st news of a Girondin rising to overthrow the local JAcobin club in Lyon reaches PAris. -2nd June 80,000 NAtional Guard surrounded the Covnention and directed cannons at it. -They demanded expulsion of the Girondins and a maximum price imposed on all essential goods. -Deputies were not allwoed to leave, force used against deputies for the first time. -Covnention is compeled to agree to arrest 29 Girondins and 2 minsiters.

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? The september MAssacres:

-Desperate state in France = Commune calls patriots to take up arms. -Thousands volunteer to defend Capital and the Revolution. -Concern of overcrowded prisons with counter revolutionary suspects e.g. priests and noblemen. -Rumours they were plotting to escape and hand city over to Prussians. -Marat called for conspirators to be killed. -MAssacre lasts 5days -1100 to 1400 prisoners killed out 2600. -Killers were sans-culottes and the Commune did not condemn them as this would have meant mobilising the National Guard and risking another Champ De MArs incident. -Only a quarter killed were priests and nobles, the rest were common criminals.

Louis XVI 1774-92

-Did not become a dauphin till eleven. -Intelligent, enjoyed geography and was adept in Italian and English but was a withdrawn, shy boy. -Married at 15 to the 14 year old Marie Antoinette. First child not born until 8 years later. -He did not enjoy the luxuries that went with the grandeur of monarchy. -Enjoyed hunting, poring over naval plans, ship design and lock making.. He was by nature, anxious and apprehensive and oppressed by a sense of duty. He did not command immediate respect as a person, was awkward and ill-at-ease on social occasions. -He was indecisive and uncommunicative with limited ability to analyse problems and situations. -Kind with a rough sense of humour. Religiously devout, strong sense of mission to protect he Church. -Modern monarch, taking interest in imporvements for his people and all affaris of state however he lacked ecisive character which was needed to steer France through the problems. Georges Lefebvre 1939: "Lacking in will; honest and well-intentioned...far from being a great mind".

By the end of 1793, the government had begun to overcome the problems that had threatened the Republic!

-Federal revolts: Crushed provincial repression -Limited food supplies: Food uspplies moving into towns and cities, Gen Max to contorl prices, SC keepign an eye on things. -Decline in the assignat: Value was rising! 22%->40% of face value. -Civil war in the Vendee: The defeats of the rebls att Chalet and Le mans. MAss execitions, military force. Scorched Earth policy (military strategy that aims to destroy anything that might be useful to the enemy ) The wa.r: French armies doing well, drove Spanish armies otu of Roussillon and Piedmontese out of Savoy. British defeated at Hondschoote in Setpember too and thr austrians at Wattignies in October. Lazare Carnote: Conscription and total war.

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? Lazare Carnot 'organiser of victory'

-Had trained as a military engineer. -Had joiend the Committee of Public Safety in 1793. -Studied the military porblems facing the Republic and reported back to the CPS. -He reorgansied the army, imposing order, re-established discipline, led by example in military engagements. Rallying support amongst people. -Following his measures the army in the North defeated enemy forces at Waattignies in Oct 1793 . A vital contribution to the success of the campaign.

Financial Problems:

-In 1774 Louis XVI's monarchy was heavily in debt due to the costs of foreign wars. -War of Austrian Succession (1740-48) costed 1B livres. -Seven years' war (17560-63) costed 1.8B livres. -Louis could ot pay off the debt. In the short term, the crown borrowed from international banks but in the long term this just made things worse. The decision to go to war in supprot of the American Colonies against Britain amde the financial situation worse. -The monarchy ahd a deficit of 40M livres. -Louis lacked the imagination needed for successful reform, so he depended on his minsters. However factionalism ensured the no minister lasted v long: Factionalism: -In the past when minsters were disgraced they were exiled from courts. Howevr after 1774 this practice lapsed and minsiters could stay, free to cause political damage. -Eg.Necker, once dismissed, mobilised opinion in his favour, while attacking the new minister Calonne. This was damaging to the system of absolute monarchy as it helped to erode government support at a critical time. -Marie Antoinette also caused political damage, largely through her extravagance (nickname Madame Deficit).

The flight to Varennes:

-Initially Louis accepted the Revolution and appeared willing to work towrds a cons monarchy. Two problems changed his position: -His religion -The realisation that he was a prisoner in Paris and thus his negotiating position was weak. -When the Royal family tried to leave PAris in April to spend Easter at St Cloud, crowds blocked them in. The National Guard ignored orders to clear their way. Louiss aw that he was a prisoner and decided to escape. -20 June 1791, the royal family left PAris in disguise and travelled East. They were recognised and stopped at Varennes and brought back. Louis had left behind a proclamation denouncing the Revolution. Effects: -Louis had shown he had not understood how popular the changes since 1789 were. -Many no logner trusted him. -Cons monarchy was in doubt. -Republicanism started to grow .

The Englightenment:

-Intellectual movement which spread across Europe in the 18th century. Writers and thinkers challenged a wide range of views that were accepted at the time abotu religion, nature and absolute monarchy. They considered the nature of society and men's relationships with each other, exploring ideas of freedom, liberty and equality. -The leading writers and thinkers in France were the philosophes. Mnay of them contributed to the mso timrpotant work o fthe French Enlightenment - They Encyclopaedia, edited by Diderot and published in 1750-72. -The msot influential were Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. They expressed a deep dislike of organised religion and discussed how social and political instuttions might be changed for the goods of the people. They questioned the institutions tof th eAncien rEgime but not NOT adovcate Revolution. -Montesquieu critcisied royal absolutism, but argued that it was the role of the aristocracy to limit royal pwoer, not hte people. -Voltaire criticised the Catholic Church and religious inolterance, but believed religion was necessary to preserve public morals. He also defended royal authority. -Rousseau went furthest, He argued that a despotic monarch could be overthrown by their subejcts and that sovereignty resided in the people, rather than jsut int he person of the king. -Voltair'es popualr novel, Candide, was blanned for blasphemy, and Volatire was imprisoned in Bastille. -Englihtenment ideas were often spread through the salons. An aristocratic hostess woudl invite a range of guests, nobles and borugeoise, to discuss art, literature and politics. On occasion, political decisionsw ere taken and deals made between the King's minsiters in salons. -The new ideas were also discussed in the increasing number of cafes and Masonic Lodges, and in the growing numbers of newspapers: there were 3 newspapers in 1700 but over 80 by 1785

Problems of the government:

-It was based in the Palace of Versailles, consisted of Louis, his advisers and minsiters. -Louis decided the overall direction of government policy and met his ministers individually to discuss the work of their department, rather than making decisions collectively... -As a result, it created the problem of ministers and "Court Factions" working against each other, not co-operating. Dealing with these issues was hard for a king who lacked good communication skills and a decisive personality. -Another problem was the wide variation in laws and customs. France had no single representative body covering the whole country. -All royal legislation had to be ratified by one of 13 REGIONAL PARLEMENTS. -France was a patchwork of different forms of adminsitration, differing legal systems, different taxes and different rules on who paid them. There was no SINGLE solution to any problem. -France split into 36 generalites, or administrative areas, each under the control of a royal official, an intendant. -The intendants were hindered by local law courts and parlemtns and seen as overly authoritarian. -What was needed was decisive modernisation and reform, but this coudl only come from strong leadership from the King or consistent support of able reforming minsiters. Louis was not able to deliver.

Who were the guilded youth..?

-Jeunesse doree: A young man dressed extravagantly as a reaction to the restrictions of the terror. -Also knowsn as Muscadin, relatively well off and dressed in a dandyish manner, who were the street fighters of the thermidorian Reaction in Paris in the FR -After the coup against Robespierre and the JAcobins of 9 Thermidor year II, they took ont her eamingin Jacobins and Sans-Culottes, and largely succeeded in suppressing them over the next year or two. -Eventually numebrs 2,000-3000 -Mostly consited of the lower middle classes, the sons of 'minor officials and small shopkeepers' and were quietly encouraged by the shaky new government. -Stimulated by Jacobin mobs, and wider urnest as the hard winter of 1974-5 saw increasing hunger among PArisan working class. -The Muscadins are considered to be part of the First White Terror in response to the preceding Reign of Terror of the Jacobins...

What were the chances of the cons monarchy succeeding?

-Little chance? Many distrusted the King after Varennes. -As no former member of the National Constituent Assembly could be a member of the new Assembly, the new deputies lacked experience. -There were divisions in Paris, a King who did not seem to believe in the constitution and wanted to leave France, and cinreasing threats from abroad. -However, the King did accept the constitution. There were few by October 1791 who wanted to end the moanrchy. -The new Assembly did contain many able men. In addition, the PAris crowds had been controlled by the NAtional Gaurd in July, which showed that oder could be maintained.

Which consequences of the King's attempted escape posed the biggest threat to the Constitutional Monarchy? The LEgislative Assembly:

-Louis reluctantly accepts the constitution 13th September 1791. -Constituent Assembly -> Legislative Assembly. -First meeting 1 October. -Optimism of 1789 had turned into suspicion and hatred of opposing parties. Why ahd there been such a change ina tmosphere in jsut 2 years? -The situation is more complex. -Increasingly politicised people. -Louis took so long to accept constitution. Split over many issues. August decrees, civil constitution of they clergy. -Still economic crisis. -Peasants -> great fear. -745 deputies elected. -Self-denying ordinance -> Proposed by Robespierre to ensure opposition doesn't dominate next assembly -> no member of the Constituent Assemblycould sit in the New Legislative assembly. -Elections 5th September 1791 -> under a quarter of active citixens vote. Loss of faith in whats happening . Whatever they say won't have an impact? -Very bourgeoisie- only 23 clergy elected, few nobles and businessmen. -136 Jacob + Girondin. -345 Indepdents. Can be swayed either way. -264 Feuillants and Cons Monarchists. Mirabeau wanting to finish the revolution.

Importance of financial problems:

-They revaled the weakness of the crown and opened the King and Queen to accusations of extravagance. They also led to attempts to involve the nation in reofmrs of finance, first by calling the special assembly of Notables in 1787, and then the consultative and leigslative assemlby of the differenct classes of France that had met intermittently beyween 1302 and 1614, the Estates General, in 1789. It was this that led to the revolution.

Why was it possible to overthrow the Moanrchy in 1792? Royal Decisions:

-Louis vetoed laws on the deportation of refractory priests + disbanding the King's guard, also a camp for 20,000 National Guards to protect Paris from invasion. -Louis dismissed the Girondin ministers on 13 June and appointed Feuillant ministers instead. People expected a military coup in support for the King . (G more left wing than F). -Girondin minister protested, got all other Girondin minsters dismissed. -Paris affected. Federes were meant to protect Paris from invasion + gov from coup by generals- worry Paris. -Undermining assembly to make laws. -Keep 'traitors' (refractory priests) -Shows he is not supporting the Revolution = traitor + is not needed anymore. -Dismissal -> too much pwoer to control, must be stopped, Royals do not want to step down. -Bringing in a less left wing party -> first step to turning revolutin over? -No federes = worry. -Coup in support of King = inspire to be further armed + get rid of monarchy before coup comes.

Inefficient tax system:

-Most royal income came from taxation. This was not enough because: -The nobles (richest), were exempt from most taxes. -Tax collection was both chaotic and incomplete because of all the regional differences. -Tax farming reduced the crown's income. The Farmers-General paid an agreed sum in advance for the right to collect taxes. what they collected above that sum was their profit.

What form woudl the Estates General take?

-NEcker said they were to meet according ot the forms observed in 1614. This would mean the estates would be equal in size and voting would be done by order. This form was popualr amongst hte first and second estates as it gave them the advanyage, easuer to outvote the third estate. -The Third estate opposed to this form of voting. The Third estate wanted to tbe DOUBLED in size so that they could have twice as many deputies. They wanted to 'vote by head'. This could favour members of the Estate General beyond the Third Estate as poor parish priests would be likely to support the demands of the Third Estate. -The Royal Princes tried to persuade the king against making these reforms. They argued that changing the 1614 forms would not act in his favour.

The attack on the Tuileries.

-Night of 9 August the Sans-Culottes set up revolutionary Commune. Amongst its leaders was Hebert. -The next morning several thousand of th eNational Guard (now open to passive citizens) and 2000 federes marched on the Tuileries. -The NAtional Guards defending the King joined the crowd, leaving only a thousand Swiss guards to protecct him. He sought refusein the Assembly. The king ordered the Swiss guards to cease fire: this lead to their massacre (600 killed_. 90 feders and 300 PArisians were killed/wounded. -Now Austria and prussia will get invovled even more. -The rising was a rejection of th eassembly as much as the king. -The Commune now imprisoned the King in the Temple, an old fortress. -They agreed to the election, bky universal male suffrage, of a ne wNational Convention that was to draw up a new constitution.

Opposition to the gov:... Danton:

-Of greater significance as he was a higher profile leader. Opposition of the Right. -Danton, former colleague of Robespierre, leading Monatgnard/Jacobin. -To heal the divisions in the revolutionary movement, the Indulgents (supproters of Danton + desmoulins who wished to see a relaxation of the terror_ wanted to halt the Terror and cetransliation impsoed in december. To do this, danton argued that war would have to end as it was laregly responsible for the Terror. -Danton suddenly became very wealthy. He was accused or bribery and corruption. Danton's friend, Desmoulins supported him in his desire to the Terror. In Desmoulin's newspaper Le Vieux Cordelier, in Decmeber 1793 he called for the release of '20,000 citixens who are called suspects'. -Danton had a large following in the Convention and was regarded as a serious threat byt the CPS. His call for peace, the CPS felt, would open a return for the moanrchy. -So, he was brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal and was executed with his follwoers , including Desmoulins....

Why was it possible to overthrow the Moanrchy in 1792? Increase in militant movements/ Rise of the Sans-Culottes/ Federes

-S-C Leaders of the Paris Sections responded to these events by holding an armed demonstration on 20th June, the anniversary of the Tennis Court Oath and of the flight tot Vsrennes. 8000 demonstrators, many of them NAtoinal Guards, poured into the Tuileries. -11 July under heavy pressure, Louis was forced to sack his Feuillant ministers and take back the Brissotins. Their first action was to declare a 'state of emergency' calling on every Frenchman to fight. -Federes Came to PAris on 14th July to celebrate + stayed on afterwards. -Were militant revolutionaries. National Anthem, allied with the Sans-Culottes. -5000 in Paris, calling for removal of th eKing + pressuring sections. Heightened tensions Revolutionary leaders at a stage where they need to spin the power they have to their advantage. -Paris increasingly politicised. -Girondins thinkt that they're the ones who can control this situation. -Robespierre's proposals. -Girondins peladed with King to be registered as ministers but ignored = too much control. -Whats the Kign actually doing if militant movements are on the rise. King is not leading this revolution but the NA.

The Trial of the King:

-Sans Culottes: Want trial an execution of the King -> held him responsible for the August 10th bloodshed. -Girondins: Want to prevent a trial -> suggest Louis' fate hsould be decided by a referendum -> Rejected and the King found guilty. -Marat: Appel nominal-> each deputy required to publically declare decision about whether Louis was guilty or innocent. -749 votes in the Convention -> no one voted Louis was inncoent. -693 voted he was guilty. -387 unconditional votes for death penalty. -288 votes for imprisonment. -380 votes to 310 against a reprieve -> reveals that there was a solid bloc of moderates in the Convention reluctant to supprot the execution of the King.

Food prices and poor harvestsL

-Series of disastrous harvets in 1781-2, 1785-6, 1787, and 1788-9. -1788 was a major disaster. Many areas in July experienced bad weather leading to the poor harvest. -During 1788, the price in Sous of 1.8KG loaf was rising each month, this went on into March 1789. -Large percentage of pop couldn't afford this -> starvation -> depleted labour force -> still have to pay taxes. -Rise in price -> less demand for manufactured goods (everyone needs jobs) -1726-1789: Wheat prices increased by 60% -1788-9: This was increased to 88%. -Production + employment in textile industries (Accounting for half of industrial production_, fell by 50% in 1789. -Textile production mostly by women in rural areas -> suffering financial ahrdships -> more -Wine market was also poor. -Unemployment + cost of living both rising. Unable to increase wages too (stagnant or falling production).

How taxation affected the 3 Estates:

-Taxation was chaotic and inefficient. -Tax farming -> Farmers generale were a company in collecting indirect taxes for the government, they paid the state the agreed sum and kept the rest for themselves meaning the King never got enough money to borrow for things like war and paying off debt. 1st Estate: -Tithes, gained a lot of money. -Exempt fromt ax -Parish Priests dont gain as much as bishops or abbots, tax that Church receieves mainly only went to them. 2nd Estate: -Likes security of guilds, protest agint Turgot. -Exempt from most taxes. -Main source of income is land, which had a lot of tax (taille). Feudal dues . -Payed less than the vingtieme. 3rd Estate: -Can not deal with the amount of tax to pay. Cannot develop as there was no chance to. reducing labour pool. -Tax on goods entering towns could mar the oppurtunities for the merchants who also added to the economy (bourgeoisie) -The bourgeoisie also had to pay a lot of tax though they were making most money for the gov.

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? The formation of the machinery of Terror:

-The Convention passes a range of measures between 10th March - 20th May 1793 designed to deal with problems facing the Republic. 3 MAin obejctives: 1. To identify, palce udner observation and punish suspects. 2. To make government more effective and ensure its orders were carried out. 3. To meet at least some of hte ocnomic demands by the Sans Culottes.

The Demonstration at the Champs de MArs 17 July 1791

-The Cordeliers organised a signing ceromnoy for a republican petition on the Champs De Mars. -Approx 50,000 people attended. -The NAtional Guard under the MArquis de LAfayette were called out to maintain order and fired on the crowd. Up to 50 people were killed and rest dispersed. In the aftermath, the Cordelies club's leaders, Brissot and Danton, fled and it was shut down.

Why did the calling of the Estates General present such potential for change in France in 1789?

-The EG were only called in times of crisis, providing a forrum for the exchange of idea.s -Voting by ORDER: challenges role of 3rd estate. -Each of the estates vote SEPERATELY on any issue. One vote only. -Any two estaes together could OUTVOTE a third. -This was the method of voting the last time the EG was called in 1614. -Voting by HEAD: -The bourgeoisie started to suspect the privileged orders wanted the power for themselves. -Third estate ordered twice as many deputies to be 50%. -Votes per person vs by estate. Come together. Nominate certain people, some amounts of vote each. Each individual head counted. All estates are euqal in size. Deputies: -Male taxpayers over 25 atened a primary assembly to choose 3rd estate deputies. -Draw pu cahiers. But everyone wants different things, diffferent provinces =different laws, people are affected in different ways thus producing v different cahiers. 1st Estate: Overwhelmingly elected Parish priests so who voted for the 3rd estates. -51/291 deputies were Bishops 2nd Estate: -Majority from old noble families but not much money. 1/3 were courtiers from versailles like Duc D'orleans. -Many poor and conservative. -90/282 were liberals, key role. 3rd Estate: -580 elected = educated ans well off -> deputies exoected to pay own expenses. -2/3 had a legal qualification. Good at arguing. -43% of 3rd estate were Venal Office holders( an office sold by the state to raise money) 35% lawyers. 13% trade + industry

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? The 1793 Campaign:

-The French were defeated by the Austrians at Neerwinden in MArch. The French commander, Dumouriez, had been defeated. -Upon defeat he made a deal with the Austrians to march on PAris, overthrow the Convention and restore the monarchy. -His army refused to follow, so he deserted to the Austrians. -The Girondins had previously spported Dumouriez, but his defection WEAKENED their position in the Covnention. -The French lsot Belgium adn the left bank of th eRhine. -His defectio made civilians question war if out commander/generals are so untrustworthy. -> spread distrust and paranoia. Lead to more extremism.

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? Federalism in the Provinces:

-The Girondins had supported revolts happening in the provinces agains th eJacobin Club... Although these did not have royalist routes, they were later associated with it. -The revolts stemmed from the desire fo rthe provinces to have mroe local authority thus rejectin the central state control that the Republic was drifting towards (which was a Montagnard policy). -The PRovicnes inr eaction to the purge of the Girondin deputies held uprisings across the country - a domino effect to demonstrate anger at the removal of the Girondin. -Cities in the provinces delcaring they are in a state of revolt until the Girondin deputies are restored. -The military crisis led to the Monatgnards turning on the Girondins followign their expulsion from the Convention for supporting revolts backed by royalists. Montgnards called these revolts federalism. -This highlighted how the country needs to be controlled with a tighter grip/ Clearly there are enemies of the Revolution throughotut the country and the Girondins eem to be behind it. This is evidence the Girondins need to be removed once and for all. -The first significant city to rebel was AMrseille- turned against local JAcobin Club. -Most serious revolt May 30th in Lyon. -Bordeaux responded to purge of deputies by declaring a state of revolt until Girondin restoration. -Disturbances in 60/83 departments, only 8 significant threats. -Federl armies = small (marseille 3500 men and Boredeaux 400 men raised_ and did not want to mvoe far from home. -Most serious disturbance in Toulon = great naval port -> gov cut offf food supplies. -To prevent starvation, the town authorities negotiated with the British and British troops entered town 28th August.

The Tennis Court Oath:

-The King declared that a royal session was to be held on 23 June. -On 20 June , the Third Estate found themselves locked out of their debating hall where the seance royale was to take place. -They met in a nearby tennis court. -Declared that the would never separate until they had given France a new consitution, -calimed the King could not disperse them. -The deputies demnaded change, challenging authority. -Pressure from MArie Antoinette to ignore the reforms -King says creation of NAtional Assembly is null/void 23 June. -On the 24th June, 151 clergy joined the NAtional Assembly -On 25th June, 47 nobles joined the National Assembly -27th June the King is forced to reverse his decision and ordersall nobles and clergy to join Natioanl Asssembly , and to vote by head. . Pacify them. -Meanwhile the King is considering using military force. -By late Jue nearly 4000 troops are stationed round Paris. -On 256 June 4800 extra troops were ordered into capital , and on 1 July 11,500 more. -The plan was to dissolve the National Assembly by force.

The significance of the stroming of Bsstille:

-The King had lost control of Paris, where the electors set up a Commmne to run the city. -Lafayette was appointed commander of the predominantly bourgeois National Guard. -The Assemby (which on 9th July had taken the name of the National Consituent Assembly) prepared to draw up a consitution, no longer under threat of being dissolved by the King. -Real power had passed from the King to the elcted represenatitves of hte people. Louis now had to share his pwoer with the National assembly. -Louis was no logner in a position to dictate to the Assembly because he coudl not rely on the army. -News of the fall of the Bastille spread through France and intensified acitivty amongst the peasantry. -The revolt of Paris led to the emigration of some nobles, led by the King's brother the cote d'Artois: 20,000 emigres fled abroad in two months. -Louis recognised the new revolutionary council - the commune - and the National Guard, and worse his hat his red, white and blue cockade of the Revolution.

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? Poltiical crisis- Repressive measures (more in response to the war so was the war the reason for introduction for the terror?)

-The Republic was having to deal with both internal and external threats, support of the poeple was therefore necessary. The Monatgnards (Want power in PAris) teamed up with the Sans-Culottes whilst the girondins faced growing opposition. -Despite having shared hatred of Robespierre and MArat, the Plain sided with the Monatgnards, favouring more repressive measures. -These repressive measures implied that in a state of emrgency, no governmetn can rule by normal means. It is also vital the bourgeoisie maintain control of the peopel and the Convention is resposible for introducing the necessary measures.

The Risings of Germinal and Prairial :..

-The Thermidorians got rid of price controls. This led to a fall in the value of the assignat and massive inflation. A poor harvest in 1794 led to a huge increase in the price of brea. -1st April (Germinal): 10,000 people marched against the Convention. The NAtional Guards remained loyal to the Convention, and the crowds withdrew. -20th May 1795 (Prairial): a more serious affair. A large crowd of housewives, workers and some National Guard units marched on the Convention. The Convention accepted a petition and set up a Food Commission. Then they used sevre repression to crush the revolt. The Sans Culottes had lost influence as a political force...

The Brunswick Manifesto:

-The commander-in-chief of the austro-Prussian armies issued a manifesto on 1 Aug 1792. It had a numebr of terms: 1. To ensure the welfare of France not ot conquer territory. 2. To restroe the liberty of Louis XVI and to his family. 3. That Paris set Louis free without delay. 4. That vengance would be had on Paris if the Tuileries palace was attacked.

The Proclamation of the Republic:

-The constituional monarchists in the Assembly no longer felt safe, and went into hiding. The Girondins were now in chagre . - A new minsiterial appointment was Danton, appointed Minsiter of Justice to please the Sans-Culottes, -In its final weeks, the Assembly passed some radical measured: -Refractory priests were to be deported to Guiana; an abolition of all feudal dues; hosue to hosue searches for arms and suspects; divorce was legalised. -Royal documents in the Tuileries confirmed that the King had maintained links with France's enemies. -21 to 22 Seotember 1792: The moanrchy was abolsihed.

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? The war of the First Coalition:

-The first coalition was a loose anti-French alliance created by Britain. Consisted of the NEtherlands, Spain, Naples, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Portugal and Piedmont. Lots of countries - powerful. -It emrged slowly between MArch and September 1793. -Very diplomatic = attarctive to countries agaisnt the French. -The great powers were alarmed by France's expansionist policies, epsecially Britain as they feared annexation of Austrian NEtherlands (Belgium) which contained goods ports which put Britain at risk of invasion. -The convention declared war on Britain and Holland on 1 Feb 1793. They declared war on Spain in March. -These countries were angry voer the execution of Louis. -France was not at war with msot of Europe. They tought there would be a revolutio in Britain but were mistaken -> both sides thought a war would be quick and easy = entered into it confidently. -This was more wars than planned. Less support = presumed traitors killed. -Enemies within and outside country now. -Anger civillians, less money to them. -Not even finished with Revolution. -Economci pressure. -Distrust revolution = nothing has changed.

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? Battle of Valmy:

-The first major battle won by Republican forces. On the offensive. Turning point for France in a state of war, now more of a threat and can win against Prussians who have best land army in Europe. -On 20 Sept 1792 at Valmy 52,000 French troops defeated 24,000 Prussians. -The new forces were effective - had been summoned in the decree of 11th July -> S-C volunteers were committed to the revolution. -Brunswick the Prussian commander in chief retreated to the frontier = French armies took offensive. -In NOvember th eAustrians were defeated at JEmappes and occupied most of Belgium . -The govenrment now wanted to extend its borders to the Rhine, Alps and Pyrenees (natural frontiers). This woudl mean Annexing territory. -This would threaten surrounding countries who could potentially declare war. Britain trading ports in Belgium feel threatened, will want to stop them. -In Nov 1792 the Convention issued the Decree of Fraternity -> promised to help people in other countries achieve their freedom. Essentially, no one should live under a monarchy. This puts other countries' moanrchys at risk. -Avignon, Savoy and Nice were added tot he republic by JAn 1793.

What was the imapct of the reutn of Necker?

-The people of PAris celebrated Necker's return, as they believed he could keep the price of bread down. -The parlements were recalled with all their old powers, and the meeting of the Estates General was to be brought forward to Janauary 1789. -Censorship was relaxed which had been tightened following the exile of the PAris parlement to Troyes. For instance, imprisoned jourunliasts were released, and political clubs were allowed to operate again.

The Terror:

-The period between MArch 1793 and august 1794 when EXTREME policies were used by the Jacobin government to ensure the survival of the Republic. -Purpose was to purge France of enemeis of the Revolution and protect the country from foreign invaders. -State imposed (jacobin not SC) measures. Top-Down system

The White Terror:..

-This was an attack on ex-terrorists and all who had done well out of the revolution. Yet ost of those who took part were not royalists - they jsut wanted vengeance. -In Paris i was limited to the 'gilded youth': middle class youths who dressed extravagantly and attacked Sans Culottes. -It was much mroe violent in the Vendee. A movement kown has Chouan, opposed to conscription, roamed the countryside and murdered government officials. -Gangs of youths killed as many as 2000 in the South-East in 1795...

Bastille 14th July 1789:

-This was the First Journee of the revolution. -The crowds stormed the Bastille, there was fighting on the streets. -De Launay and Flesselles (deceived the people about the arms stores) were both killed on the place de Greve and their heads were paraded on pikes. -To wage a street battle, Louis would have needed an army such as he did not have. -Paris was not the only palce in uproar, the whole country was rising up.

What was the Thermidorian Reaction?..

-Those who helped to overthrow Robespierre were kown as Thermidorians. ... -The plain ( party not particularly aligned with anything. group of independence. Sided more with the Monatgnards though ) now emerged to take control - did not want to see a return to the monarhcy. Two extrems: Monarchy and terror. -These menw ere joiend by former Monatgnards who had rejected their former views and values.

Concerns of the middle class Parisians:

-Those who took part in the storming of the Bastille were urban workers known as Sans-Culottes. The middle class were concerned bout their safety and security of their property. They wanted to ensure protection of their property.

The Financial Minsiters (Comptroller-General): Calonne:

-Took office, but 'all funds were empty, all public funds were low, all circulationw as interrupted, alarm was general and confidence destroyed'-Calonne Reforms: -Embarked upon programme of public expenditure to demonstrate government confidence. Spent on 'useful splendour': increased courtiers' pensions, bought chateaux of St Cloud and Rambouillet, spend on new navy at Cherbourg. -Borrowed 421,788,600 livres - 20% less than Necker. -Spent money on public works to stimulate economy (eg road building. -Carried out assessment of royal finances, but after 2 years the situation got worse . -Calonne said that since 1776, 1,250 million had been borrowed. -1786 total revenue: 475million Expenditure: 587 million Deficit: 112 million. Calonne's 'Summary of a plan for the improvement of finances': -Recast the tax system by abolishing the vingtiemes and replacing them was a permanent, proportional land tax, levied with no exemptions by new provincial assemblies. -Various fiscal reforms, rescheduling national debt over 20 years instead of 10. -Reforms according to views of physiocrats - freedom in grain trade, ending of all internal customs, uniform tariffs. -How would he enact these? Calonne kenw parlements would oppose reforms, Estates General too unpredictable, so he called a handpicked Assembly of Notables. The ideas was that these would not restrict Louis' power, and it would be difficult for the parlemtns not to reigster any agreed reforms. -This wa sa idsastrous move, it led to a political crisis which in turn led to a revolution

The Financial Minsiters (Comptroller-General): Turgot 1774-6

-Turgot was influenced by ideas of physiocrats. Reforms: -Removed price controls and abolished guilds and proposed a new property tax. -Recalled the parlements which had been disolved by Louis XV. This was a popular, conciliatory move that caused on furhter difficulties and the tax rises of the 1780s were met with little resistance. -He aimed to reduce large gov debt - managed to achieve this over next 2 years. -Believed in free trade and saw necessity for financial reform. -Obtained better terms with tax farmers. -Dimished courtiers' pensions. -Restores free, internal circulation of grain, but unfortunately this coincided with bad harvest and riots, so the policy was blamed for disorder. -1776 abolished guilds, and corvee (unpaid labour for roads) was commuted to a money tax: this was unpopualr with peasants. -Decentralised authortiy to give local councils, towns, and rural districts extensive powers in assessment and collectin gof taxes. Louis feared noble opposition to these ocuncils. -Turgot fell from favour due to court intrigue and resistance to his reforms. His ideas were effective, but unpopular as they attacked vested interests.

The Legislative Assembly:

-Udner the new constitution of 1791 the Legislative assembly replaced the National Constituent assembly that had been established on 9 July 1789. -electoins took place and the new deputies were well off, msotly bourgeoisie. Few were nobles and a few clergy.

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? The foudnations of Teror:

-War had been declared agaisnt Austria and Prussia - 20th April 1792. -Military crisis and indecisive actiosn of Louis (vetoes). Unqualified/not many genrals + lack of traiing. -Calls for democracy -> icnrease in militant movements (federes, members from citizens militia who mvoed to PAris around time of Brunsiwck manifesto to commemorate 14th July Bastille stormings and to protect people from B manifesto, and the Sans-Culottes. -Attack on Tuileries PAlacae -10th August 1792 -Republic declared - 21 to 22nd September 1792. -Louis executed - 23rd January 1793.

Opposition to the gov: ..Hebert

-Was a left wing opposittion and his followers. -His news paper Le Pere Duchesne demanded that mroe hoarders should be executed and property redistributed. This was v popualr with SC. -The Hebertistes had many supporters in the Cordeliers club, the Commune, the Paris reovlutionary army anf othe pop societie. -Robespierre disliked their political extremism, esp as they turned catholcis agians the Revolution. -Hebert called for an INSURRECTION March 1794 he was arrested with 18 supproters. -Accused of being foreign agents whow anted a miltiary dictatorship for a restored monarchy. -The populace was taken in by this propaganda. When he and his follwoers guillotined on 24 March 1794. Paris remained calm. The CPS took advantagedof this: -The PArisian revolutionary army was disbanded. -The cordeliers club clsoed. -All pop societies forced to disband. -Commune was purged and filled with supporters of Robespierre. -Reps on mission recalled to Paris.

Verona Declaration by Louis XVII:..

-Working towards creating a new constitution - constitutional moanrchists wanted a return to 1791 - limited monarchy -> seemed to offer prospect of stability. -Hoped to put Louis' XVI son on the throne - was imprisoned in the Temple but he died June 1795. -Louis XVI's brother, Comte de Provence (In Italy) proclaimed self Louis XVIII. 24th June issued Verona Declaration: -Reactionary document -> promised to restore ancient constitution (3 orders + parlements). -Pormised to restore stolen property rom Church and emigres = antagonised many who had benefited from abolition of tithe and seigneurial dues...

How the absolute monarchy affected the 3 estates:

1st Estate: -Church did not pay taxes. -King can't interfere with their rights + privileges. -Had own bodies such as the Assembly of the Clergy. -Exempt from all taxes except the vingtieme (an income tax) 2nd Estate: -In theory paid poll tax and the other ones. -Had privileges, King had to consult their council of Ministers to make laws. They had a lot of power. -4000 of the 2nd estate lived in Versailles. 3rd Estate: -Had to pay all taxes, which hindered their own development as what ittle money they had immediately went on taxes. -King was not in touch with his people, only 1st and 2nd estate -> firendly policies.

The meeting of the Estates General:

Cahiers of the 3 estates: -Surprising level of agreement across the cahiers of all the Thre Estaes particularly about social and political issues. -The Three estates accepted the principle of consitutional reform and welcomed a move representative government, in the guise of the Estates General. -The more radical Cahiers insisted that the Estates general meet regularly e.g. the third estate of PAris wanted to meet at 3 yearly intervals. -The Cahiers were more divided voting procedures. -The question of tax reform was jsut as divisive. The peasantry and urban workers were most concerned about disproportionate and rising lebels of taxation, particularly on salt (gabelle). -Cahiers suggest reforms through lists of grievances. -All wanted a king whose powers would be limited by an elected assembly to vote taxes and pass laws. Discontent of the Third Estate -> NAtional Assembly: -Proceedings opened 4th May 1789. -Only 800 out of the 1200 deputies elected -> elections poorly managed. -Visual distinctions - nobility in their fineryr but the Third Estate told to wear black. -Major problems lay in the actions of the king. -King accepted common discussion but was pressured into accepting the separate meetings of the Estates. The Meeting of the Estates-General: -The Third Estate demanded that the Estate-General shoudl meet as one body and vote by head. -The nobles rejected this in a vote 188 to 46 -The Clergy also rejected in a vote 133 to 114 -As a result, the Third Estate refused to carry out any business until the other two roders agreed to join them.

Why did the Revolutio becone more violent and extreme between 1792 - 1794? The CPS and CGS:

Committe of Public safety was led by 12 men, created on 6 April 1793 to co-ordinate the war effort. IT was a war cabinet initally dominated by Danton but coming to be led by more extrem revolutionaries like robespierre and Saint-Just. -Carnot, responsible for war strategy intorduced the 23 August levee en masse conscription. -The CPS also dispatched representatives en mission to the armies to improve morale and supervise the generals. In 1793-94, 84 generals were guillotined or shot and 352 were dismissed on suspicion of treachery or defeatism. Committee of General Security was compsoed of 12 deputies. Their function was to: -oversee state securit including police. -Prosecute foreign agents and counterfeiters of assignats -Report regularly to the NAtional Covnention. As the htreat of invasion and dfeat grew, the Convention and its Committees resorted the Terror.

Economic Terror:

Economic Terror: -The Generla MAximum: The Convention had given in to popualr pressure from Roux and the Sans-Culottes in July by passing a law that impsoed the death penalty for hoarding food and other supplies. On 29th September 1793 the law of the General MAximum was passed to control prices. It fixed bread prices and many essential goods and services at 1/3 above the prices of June 1790. Wages, which largely detemrined prices, were also fixed at 50 percent above the level of 1890. -IT set the common people agaisnt each other. PEasants hated it because the rate was often below the cost of production, whilst the SC wanted it so that they could afford to buy bread. When the SC went into the countryside with the armee revolutionaire to enforce the Maximum they clashed with the peasants. The conflict between town and city were exacerbated. -Government now in difficult position as farmers woudl simply stop sowing if they coudl not make a profit. The cooperation of the wealthy peasants, who controlled sot of the harvest, was necessary for the government as they were the municipal councillors and tax collectors who were expeted to oversee requisitioning. -When there was no lcoal revolutionary army in the countryside, the Maximum ahd to be impsoed by the rich. To meet the concerns of farmers and other producers, the government revised prices upwards in Feb 1974, which disgusted the SC. I the short term, the govs measures were successful. the towns and armies were fed and the assignat, worth 22 percent of its face value in Augsut rose to 48% in December 1793 .

Demannds listed in the Cahier:

First Estate: -Parish priests affected by poor harvests and bread prices. Tithe collected in form of grain + kept. Tigthe collectors better off, priests not benefit. -They didn't want any tax imposed without agreement of public. -They wanted a voting by head rather than order and to meet at fixed periods, accounts record on how public money was sent and sent back, -They wanted to abolish the corveee, proomte catholicism. Protesttants not recognised as citizens. Edict of Nantes. -Give youth education. -Were pro king and monarchy. Second Estate: -Mostly liberal, out of date gov. Only a third were nobles of court. -89% were willing to give up privileges. Willing to be taxed equally as long as property rights to be infringed. Glabelle tax to be reduced. -They wanted the EG to be Regulary reconvened at least every 5 years. Wanting voting by order. Also the exclusive right to grant subsidies. -They supported freedom of speech as long as authors name is attached to writing. -Didn't want to lsoe property and rights. -Support religion and church. -Believd commoners could hold military, venal and administrative offices if they ahd good skill. -They were pro monarchy. -King alone shoudl have executive power. -Didn't want arbitrary commands. -Wanted new laws to go through parlement or Estates general. Third Estate: -Suffered through poor harvests, 85% of their wages in 1788 on bread. -Wantred all yaxes to be affected by all estates and the entire nation should be consulted for any new taxes. -Wanted the Estates Genral to meet every 3 years without prejudice, half the representatives. Impending meeting of this, will be declared a traitor. -Wanted 3rd estates members to have access to justices in parelemnets, all men are equal in rights, no citizen arrested or punished without hearing. Property in invaluable. Authority in life except for law. -Believed legislative power belonged to the nation conjointly witht he King. Executive to be his alone.

The October days:

King's refusal to approve the assembly's decrees caused tension Louis decided to reinforce his guard e.g. summoning to Versailles the loyal Flanders regiment. -1st October: -King summoned the loyal Flanders Flanders regiment to versailles as a result of the tension caused from not giving support to the A decreees. -They were given a banquet with the King and Queen , at which there was an anti-revolutionary protest where officers trampled the tricolour cockade replacing it with the white cockade of the bourbons. -5th October: -Large food shortages. 7000 women marched to Versailles to complain and demand bread. 20,000 National Guard soon followed under Lafayette and protected the royal family and persuading the King to appear on the balcony and announce that he woudl go to Paris. A small group of women managed to break in and MArie Antoinette narrowly escpaed being captured. 2 guards killed.MArched to put forward grievances about the high price of bread. -Louis agreed to give them grain and to approve the A decrees and Droits de l'homme. -6th October: Royal family went to Paris at the demands of the people. Consequences of this: -Assembly were ignored and humiliated by the decisive action of ordinary Parisians. -Assembly changed title of Louis to subordinate ti the law, and his subjects now became citizens. -Shift of power towards plans and its increaasingly political population.

Supporters for the war:

Lafayette: -Wants war ro bring revolution to end as it was v unstable due to factions and political conflict. Unified shared enemy vs Austria. -Cons. Monarchist, stop rev getting out of control. -Wants Louis to lsiten to him, be prestigious by gougn to war + get his way. But also strenghten King's authority. Wants to be able to dictate his terms to both the King and thr assembly. Brissot: -Wants war, pro revolution. -After the flight to Varennes he argued for abolition of monarch and trial of Louis XVI . PErcieved the King hadn't accepted the constitution. -Thought the Court were plotting against the revolution. -War woudl reveal Louis' true allegiance and traitors to the Revolution. Leopold II, Ruler of the Habsburg Empire: -Dud not want aboslutism to return to France, poses a threat to him. -Collapse of French monarch would remove France as a potential rival. -Pro war, didn't want revolution to influence other countries. -Protect King ,restore monarchy + reforms. -Pillnitz delcaration, hope France will back down. Marie Antoinette: -Wants war so Louis can gain pwoer back through force. -Can kick out traitors + imprison. No war -> ideas will spread and will lose power. -She is workign with her brother so France's foreign policy can be run by Austrian committee. She has many alliances, 'leaking' to Austria or where emigres had fled to, weaken revolution. Rumous of secret agents being sent to kablenz (headquarters of the emigres).

Non-Supporter for war:

Maximillian Robespierre: -Doesn't want war, wants to help revolution. Believes war will destory the revolution. -Real threat comes from soldier like Lafayette. Believed they mislead the public. ; -Believed aim of European powers = to imidate France, not invade. Preidcted the foreigners are not goign to supprot French ivnaders

Why was it possible to overthrow the Moanrchy in 1792? Military Crisis:

Military crisis: -Marie Antoinette as scapegoat. -French army not prepared for war, out of 12000 officers, half had emigrated. -Desertion + revolutionary propaganda causes lack of men, destroys discipline of army. -Invasion in Belgium failed, murdered own commander. Units deserted. N France invaded, France defeated. -Whole country involved, especially pessnt soldiers who were underarmed nd so in danger. Effected whole country as it caused France to lsoe the war, but also Paris as the capital might be captured. -Resort to getting rural people to fight -> what are they fighting for. -Military defeat + desertion caused great tension + fear esp in PAris and that the capital would be captured. Thought royal family were not comitted to French victory, actions seem to be hostile towards the Revolution.

Political terror:

Political Terror: -The official Terror, controlled by the CGS and CPS, centred in Paris and whose victims came before the Revolutionary Tirbunal. -The Terror in other parts of France, under the control of watch committees, representatives-en-mission and the revolutionary armies. -By the end of 1973, the federal revolt had been suppressed by the regular army. Marseillle, lyon, toulon were taken and the Vendean rebls crushed. -Repression followed. From Jan-May 1794, troops moved through the area killing their animals.Women were raped and mutilated. When the 'pacification' was over, the Vendee was a depopulated wasteland. -The thousands who surrendered crammed the prisons. They could not be released in case they re joined the reblees, and were shot without trial - 2000 near Angers alone. In the 10 departments involved in the Vendee rebellion, revolutionary courts condemned some 8700 people, just over half of the 16,600 executions in France during th eterro. Msot were ordinary peasants, few were bourgeois. -Reps en mission and the revolutionary armies were often responsible for the worst atrocities. Their actions were fully supported and encoiraged by the government. At Nantes, the represenative carrier carried out the dreadful Noyade s(drowning) by placing 1800 people, nearly half of them women, into barges and sinking them at the mouth of the Loire. In Toulon 800 were shot without trial and a further 282 were sent to the guillotine by a Revolutionary Commission. -Lyon the second city in France was ordered by the CPS on 12th October 1793 to be destructed. Order was restored to Lyon with great brutality : 1900 victims were either mowed down by cannon fire in front of large pits during the mitraillade or guillotined. Total of 72% of the executions during the Terror, 12,000 victims took place in these rebel areas of the west and south east which covered 16 departments. What was the Law of supects? -September 1973, the Law of Suspects was passed. Under this law the government delegated some of its powers to lcoal revolutionary committees. These committees were packed with fanatical Montagnards and their supporters. -Anyone suspected of counter revolutionary acitivty and udnerming the Republic coudl be arrested and held without trial indefinitely.

Religious terror:

Religious terror: -Dehchristianisation was not an official government policy. The driving force behind this came from the SC in the PAris Commune, the revolutionary armies and the represetnatives on mission. They hated catholicism, which they felt had betrayed the revolution and formented the cause of counte-revolution. The convention was drawn with it. -It was a deliberate attempt by the First Republic between 1792-1794 to use the resources of the state to destroy Christianity as the dominant cultural form of French society. Like the abolition of the monarchy, the destruction of churches was a symbol of the revolutionaries' determination to destroy everything connected with the ancient regime. -The church was attacked in various forms. They were closed, bells na dsilver removed, roadside shrines and crosses were destroyed. -The Paris Commune stopped paying clerical salaries in May 1793 and in November ordered that all churches in PAris should be closed. Notre Dame became a Templeo fReason. Other areas of France rapidly folllwoed the lead of Paris so that by the spring of 1794 most of the country's churches had been closed. -Priests were forced to renounce their priesthood and many were compelled to marry. Estimates of 6000-20,000 priests gave up their calling. This attempt to uproot centuries of Christian belief was deeply resented in the villages. For many ordinary people outside the civil war zones, Dechristianisation, whcih left large areas of France without priests, was the aspect of the Terror that most afected them.

How successfully did the Constituent assembly deal with the problems of reforming the French state? Taxation and finance:

Reofmrs: -At first,sold and nationalised church land. -Persisted with direct and indirect taxes. -Old taxes e.g. Gabelle and tax farming abolished. -3 New direct taxes - contribution fonciere- universal land tax, contribution mobilliere - tax on moveable goods, patente- tax on commercial profits. -Le Chapelier laws: all to keep money flowing. -Abolish guilds, privelege with certain trades and trade unions - take power away, trade unions are v powerful. -Assembly needed money but a tax system could not be set up immediately so there was new taxation to signify reform even though heavy tax was still required. -Wider variety of jobs from abolishing guilds and trade unions. -Eliminate threat. -However, poor and needy not helped. -Not much of a change. -Peasants not happy, new taxes, took away a lot of independence.

Downfall of Robespierre..:

Robespierre's retreat from public life between 18 June - 26 July , when he attended the CPS only 2-3 times, and made no appearance in the Covnention, suggests that he may habe suffered a mental or physical breakdown. -His major error came on 26th July when he made a speech in the convetion ATTACKING collegues whom he claimed were plotting aginst the government. This wild attack, which ws not supported by any names, gave his enemies their chance to mvoe against him. There were many in this Voncentino who felt vulnerable, modertes like Carnot and extremists like Fouche and Collot. They now conspired against him to ensure his downfall. -27 July (9 Thermidor) R was shouted odwn by the convention who then voted for his arrest, and that of Couthon, Saint-Just, and HAnriot, Commander of PAris Nationa guard. -Confusion immediately followed as the Paris commune (still supproted him_), called for an insurrectionled by the NAtional Guard and ordered the gaols to release him. -The Covnention ordered his re-arrest and the National Guard to come to its defence and not that or R and his followers. -The sections failed to act in any signifcant number, Hanriots artillery untis only managed to pin down the Convention for a few horus, and R hismelf appeared reluctant to save himself. -His attempted suicide failed, and the rapid collapse of the sections in his favour rescued the Convention who secured R's conviction and exceution the enxt day on 28th July along with 21 others. -OVer 100 memebrs of the commune followed R to the scaffold over the next few days....

How did the CPS transition towards a dictatorship?..

Social control: -In May 1794, provincial revolutionary tribunals were abolished -> enemies of the repubilc now had to be brought to PAris to be tried by the city rev tribunal. -During the Great Terror, approx 1594 men and women executed. -10 June 1794- Law of Prarial -> no witnesses were to be called and judgement was to be decided by the 'conscience of the jurors' rather than evidence - justify terror. Defendants not allowed a defnece counsel. -Crushing of federalsit revolts. -Dechristianisation -Closed popular clubs Economic instability: -General maximum , to control prices. -food supplies moving into towns and cities. -Value of the asisgnat rising. Limtis to political power: -Law of Frimaire gave the committee executive powers .e.g policing + purging. -CPS -> control of militants + generals = furhter centralisation. -Suspended the consittution -CGS reponsible for itnernal security and surveillance. -Agents nationaux -> monitor the enforcement of all revolutionary laws. Opposition: -Left wing opposition came from former supporters. -Parisian revolutionary army disbanded. -Popular clubs/societies eg cordeliers were clsoed. -Commune purged. -Reps on mission recalled to PAris. -Danton + fellows executed. -Arrested Desmoulins wife for trying to icnrease opposition and gain support....

Economic problems:

The countryside: -Conditions across the French countrysude varied but foreign travellers, like the Englishman arthur Young, noted a great deal of rural poverty. -A longer term issue was land holding. When a man died, his land was divided equally among his heirs rather than going to the eldest son. The cumulative effect of this was smaller estates. By 1789, a quarter of french farmland was owned by small peasant farmers and much of the rest rented out in small plots. This led to subsistence farming, with no incentive to make improvements in methods or crops. Agricultural problems also adversely affected the woollen industry, which added to rural poverty. Towns: -Dramatic growth of towns in the 18th century. Towns grew because of the growth in indsutries, for example silk in Nimes, and in foreign trade, e.g ports like Nantes. This growth led to problems and tensions in urban populations. -Most of France's wea;thiest and msot educated lived in towns. These were the nobels and the oburgeoisie, a few manufacturers and skilled craftsmen who were organised into guilds. Besides them, therre were small property owners, shop keepers and artisans. However, the majority of the population of towns were unskilled workers and the urban poor. -Paris had grown in size in the 18th century and its poorer districts had become desnely popualted. They lived in overcrowded and unhealthy conditions. They depended heavily on bread and any sudden rises in prices would cause hardship and trigger public disorder. Bread riots were a common feature of urban life. There coudl also be attacks on unpopular employers, as in the riots against the wallpaper manufacturer Reveillon in Paris in April 1789.

The structure of the ancien Regime: Social divisions:

The first estate- the clergy: -Formed less than 0.5% of the population but the Church owned 1 tenths of French land. -Controlled almost all education, hospitals and poor relief. -Had powers of censosrhip and published government messages. -In many trowns the clergy dominated while in the countryside the parish priest was influential. -Differences in this estate: Archbishop of Strasbourg earned 400 thousand livres comparied to Parish priests earnign 700-1000 livres. -Though they earned 50 million livres from tihtes, most of this went to the bishops and abbots. The second estate- the nobility: -Roughly 120,000 nobles, less than 1 percent of the population but owned between a quarter and a third of French land. 3 Levels within the nobility: -The noblesse d'epee lived with the king in the palace at Versailles and were very wealthy, provided the king's advisers, ambassadors, intendants (high ranking official) and ministers and had access to royal patronage. -The Noblesse de Robe were nobles created by the monarchy selling legal and adminsitrative offices in return for hereditary title. In 1789 there were over 70,000 venal offices. -Most other nobles lived on country estates. Many not too wealthy and jealous of court nobles, were protective of their own status and privileges nd dependent on their feudal rights. The third estate: -Consisted up nearly 28 million people. -At the top were the bourgeoisie (middle class), who lived mostly in towns. By 1789, they were growing in wealth and numbers. -They owned most industrial and all commercial capital, about one-fifth of all private French wealth and roughly one-quarter of French land. Their ambition was often to become part of the nobility. -In the countryside were the peasants, over 80 percent of the population. The majority farmed at subsistence lebel and worked as labourers on the land, in industries or as migrant workers in towns. -In the towns were the small property owners, skilled owrkers and unskilled laobourers.

Summary so far:

What did the National Convention replace and why? -Replaced the Legislative Assembly, Jacobin leader Robespierre wanted to replace it with the NC which would be elcted by universal male suffrage. rising people were rejecting the assembly as it still ahd ties to the King. What radical measures were passed in the final weeks of the assembly? -Refractory priests would be deported to Guiana. -Abolition of feudal dues to win over peasantry. -House to hosue searches for arms and supects, who were then arrested. -Divroce legalised. Registrations of marrige, birth and eath now state responsiblitiy. -The Assembly wanted ot try and carry out all the things the Commune wantted. What triggered the Convention to declare France a Republic? -Folliwing the flight to Varennes, the commune met to decide if they should dethrone the King or not. royal documents (armoire de fer ) hsowed he was connected to many French enemeis and thus showed that Louis had been treacherous. Why ws the Convention distorted by fear & intimidation? -The people who showed royalist sympathies were disenfranchised, not allowed to vote so all 24 members elected were Jacobian, republicans or supporters of the commune. This was not fair, only if you had a certain view could you vote. The votes would not be representative of what all people wanted. What are the similarities between the Girondin (left, republic) and the Montagnards? -The Girondins favoured federalism and wanted a liberal economic policy but the Monatgnards favoured a strong central pwoer from PAris instead. They also wanted tight control over wages and prices by the government. Girondins thoguht of Robespierre as some sort of dictator and the Monsatgnards thought the Girondins were seeking support from the wing ring. ie. Royalists.

Terror cntd..

What motivated Jacques Roux? Who were the Enrages? -The Enrages were an extreme revolutionary group led by Jacques Roux which had considerable ifnluence on the Parisina Sans-Culottes. -In the summer of 1793 the economic situation continued to deteriorate. In Mid-August the asignat was below a third of its face value and drought reduced the grain supplies into Paris by 3 quarters. -JAcques Roux was a priest in one of the poorest quarters of Paris, he was hocked by seeing people starving in crowded attics. This revolution bought little material improvement to ehri standard o living. His followers were wage earners, casual labourers, and the poor and unemployed. He wanted the convention to deal immediately with starvation and poverty, they did nothing so he denounced it. Robespierre wanted to destroy him as he was threatening the Commune and the Conventio with direct action in the streets. Why was the armee Revolutinoaire formed? What was its purpose? -On the 4th September, a crowd gathered before the Hotel de Ville to demand bread and higher wages. The following day, urged on by Roux, it marched on the convention, forcing it to accept a series of radical measures. -The sections impsoed on the Convention the proclamation of 'Terror as the order of the day'. The Convention immediately authorised the formation of a PArisian armee. -The purpose was to confront the counter-revolutionary activity and organise the defence of the Republic. In total 56 other unauthorised armies were set up in the provinces between Sept an dDec 1793, and were used in about two thirds of the departments. -The purpose of these civilian armee revolutionires was to: -Ensure the food supplies of PAris and the large provincial cities. -Round up deserters, hoarders, refractory priests, religious 'fanatics', political suspects and royalist rebels. -Mobilise the nation's resources for the war effort by confiscating church silver and bells. -Establish revolutionary 'justice' in the areas of south and west, which had shown little enthusiasm for the revolution. -This operation of the PArisian army extended over 25 department. Its main task as to ensure the capital's food supplies by requisitioning grain in the major producing areas of the North.

The Terror:

What was the purpose of the Paris secionts? -They were adminsitrative parts of PArisian local gova and controlled the National Guard. Kept watch on suspects and assist representatives en mission in purging local authorities, 1793 often more importantt than local authorites as they sisue certificates of citizenship. -Exercise power through their own institutions, which were not responsible to the central gov. PArisian SC never wanted to replace the Convention and supported the gov on basic issues. What concessions were made to the SC? -A new constitutino was presented to the people on 24 June 1793, which recognised many of their aspirations, preceded by a new Declaration of Rights, which went much further than that of 1789. IT stated that the right of people to work, have assistance in time of need and be educated. The right of insurrection was proclaimed. All adult males were to have the vote and there were to be direct elections. -To fight the war effectively, the sections demanded conscription. This was part of the Levee en masse. -Econmoic concessions - the maximum legislation to fix prices, making the hoarding of goods a capital offnece, anti-hoarding laws. What was levee en masse and what did it mark? -Declared on 23 august 1793l marked the appearance of total war. IT stated that "UNtil the enemies of France have been expelled from the territory of the Republic, all Frenchmen are in a state of permanent requisition for the army". -There were nearly half a million conscript, unmarried men between 18 and 25, were called up to the army. They had to be bed, armed and trained, so all human and material resources o fthe nation were put at the government's disposal. e.g church bells were melted for cannon, and religious vessels, like chalices for coinage.