The Cold War

CR Organizations

• *SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference) w/ MLK Jr. heading it ◦ Goal = equal rights through nonviolent protest • CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) ◦ Encouraging AA to resist unfair treatment • NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) ◦ Created 1909 by W. E. B. Dubois ◦ Shepherded the legal challenges to segregation • Congress passes 2 civil rights laws (not landmark legislation, but still important) ◦ Civil Rights Act of 1957 and 1960 = first efforts of Congress since Reconstruction to assist African Americans in terms of their rights (voting rights in particular) ◦ Landmark civil rights law is in 1964, so a shadow in terms of importance

CR advances before 1950s

• 1947 = Jackie Robinson becomes the first black baseball player in the Major Leagues ◦ This is a huge development and arguably an important advance as any ◦ Everyone paying attention ◦ Branch Rickey (owner of Brooklyn Dodgers) wanted to break color lines and chose Jackie Robinson b/c he was a good player and able to keep cool ◦ In his second year, JR voted MVP (all white sports players voting) • 1948 = Truman desegregates the military ◦ Integration of the military worked better than ppl expected • 1949 = federal civil service becomes colorblind ◦ 1942 = no March on Washington and FDR (during WWII) makes federal jobs colorblind (this is now permanent)

Making of Communist China (Result)

• 1949 = Communists win the Civil War and create the People's Republic of China (Red China) • Nationalists retreat to Formosa/Taiwan, which is given China's seat on UN Security Council ◦ US had more friends than Soviets • Communist opponents are slaughtered or silenced ◦ About 50 million people killed by Zedong, but US pays almost no attention to this ◦ Some are killed, some are left to die with starvation • Truman Administration comes under heavy criticism ◦ Some of this is political

Israel: A New Nation (Result)

• 1949 = after ongoing combat the UN arranged an armistice • Ralph Bunche is the first AA to play such a major role in US diplomacy • Ongoing uneasy truce is arranged ◦ Some shooting but Israel survives neighboring attacks • Note: likely impact of WWII and the Holocaust ◦ Nations in the UN are more sympathetic to the Jews because of Holocaust • Note: David Ben-Gurion is the 1st Prime Minister of Israel

Korean War (background)

• 1950-1953 = The Forgotten War • Korean War is the Forgotten War b/c people hear many more references to Vietnam War than Korean War even though similar fatalities ◦ Korean War also gets lost in background of WWII b/c looks like a squeamish in comparison • Japanese control of Korea from 1910-1945 ◦ 1945 = US and Russia disarm Japan and Korea ◦ US and Russian forces are separated by the 38th parallel (USSR above, US below) • Unification talks collapse ◦ Both US and USSR had promised independence ◦ UN plan with a nationwide election to determine Korea's future ‣ Russia and North Korea refuse b/c they know ppl greatly prefer democratic government with more freedoms ‣ Only South Korea participates in the election, so UN recognizes SK as the rightful government w/ their President Syngman Rhee • Russian+US forces withdraw forces in 1948 and 1949 ◦ Russia leaves behind tanks and heavy artillery (outbreak of K war)

Montgomery Bus Boycott

• 1955 (Brown decision has been passed down but ppl thinking it only applies to education) ◦ Jim Crow Laws still in place in other situations ◦ Black ppl can ride buses but must sit in back instead of white patrons • Rosa Parks in Montgomery, AL ◦ Ppl questioning whether she was acting alone ◦ MLK just happened to be in Montgomery at the time? • Rosa Parks is in the front of the bus after a long day of work ◦ White patron comes and wants Rosa's seat, but she refuses ‣ The bus driver calls the police and Parks is arrested on Friday ◦ Young black pastor MLK helps to organize a bus boycott that begins the next Monday morning ‣ Churches are at the heart of the Civil Rights Movement ◦ No Black citizens are riding Montgomery buses (carpool, walk long distances) when Monday comes around

Sputnik (Russia)

• 1957 = Russians launch Sputnik into outer space and Americans were shocked (troubled) ◦ If Russians have the ability to launch a satellite into space, they must be able to launch missiles to the US ◦ Shows that Russians ahead of US in space race, and maybe they are too in weapons • Impacts American lifestyles and shows updates on foreign events

Korean War (fighting—Phase 1)

• 1st Phase = NK troops pressing deep into SK ◦ Trying to gain control of the entire peninsular but NK stopped at Pusan perimeter (major development) • War isn't going well for SK, but they are now being aided by UN/US forces and able to stop the advance at Pusan ◦ Every day more and more UN/US troops are arriving and strengthening SK (thousands coming from Japan-light duty-to being in war)

Korean War (fighting—Phase 2)

• 2nd Phase = major turnaround when General MacArthur launches a surprise amphibious in the NW corner of SK at the Inchon landing ◦ Described as bold, daring and takes communists completely by surprise • UN forces able to launch this attack without NK having any hint of it coming ◦ Like Normandy, there are limitations on when the attack could take place • Reality = MacArthur leads UN forces to the landing and within days the war completely turns ◦ UN forces lead to Seoul and liberate the capital ◦ MacArthur gives a speech in front of the legislative body and ppl rejoice • Militarily, communists find themselves trapped and suffering very heavy losses ◦ Trying now to escape SK • Inchon landing turns direction of fighting • Should UN forces pursue communists into NK? ◦ Say yes to this question ◦ Justification: UN can b/c no election cooperation, aggressors • "Commies are running, chase them" at 38th • UN forces going into NK and going favorably but as UN forces advance, there are utterances from Communist China and warnings that UN forces shouldn't advance toward China b/c will defend its sovereignty ◦ These China voices don't get much attention (MacArthur doesn't take them seriously b/c knows US/UN forces are better and atomic weapons)

Korean War (fighting—Phase 3)

• 3rd Phase = several million Chinese forces cross the Yalu River (borders China and Korea) • Chinese forces pour into NK and some don't even have weapons ◦ Millions of Chinese troops overrunning UN positions • UN forces pushed to the coast of NK and many get on ships for safe passage back to SK ◦ Chinese forces aren't unscathed (1 million Chinese casualties and many bombing attacks on them) • The war has changed tenor and UN forces flee to South Korea and then the fighting slows. Retreat is halted and enemy forces are gradually pushed back up to 38th parallel

NATO (Response)

• 5 European nations' leaders meet in Brussels and form the Brussels Pact (England, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg) ◦ They are pledging assistance to each other (if one is attacked they will all support them) • After the Berlin situation, members of Brusssls Pact conclude that their pact will have no effect to the Soviets ◦ Make it clear that they want the US to join ◦ End up with 15 nations forming NATO ◦ England, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg ◦ Norway, Denmark, Italy, Iceland, Poland ◦ US, Canada, Greece, Turkey, West Germany ◦ An attack against any one of the 15 would be an attack on all of them ‣ All 15 nations would respond militarily in response to an attack

U-2 Incident

• A US plane is shot down while flying over the Soviet Union ◦ Soviets highlight this development and proceed in an accusatory manner that US has spy planes over USSR ◦ Eisenhower immediately explains after that it was a weather plane that got lost • Soviets produce the pilot and he acknowledges it was a spy plane ◦ Soviets demand an apology, and then the summit breaks down and they never meet up in Paris ‣ "The Chill is back in the Cold War" ◦ Eisenhower doesn't apologize because he is aware that the Soviets are involved in all kinds of espionage activities • (*)Frances Gary Powers = pilot and son was defending his father

Cold War Definition

• A largely non-shooting struggle between the free world (West—US) and the Soviet Union and her satellites (nations which revolve around Soviet orbit) (East—communists) for control of the hearts and minds of people and by extension for the control of nations ◦ US control of nations = people being able to determine their own features • Soviet Union and her satellites live behind the iron curtain ◦ First voiced by Churchill in speech he gave in Missouri ◦ Label of iron curtain stuck immediately • Life behind the iron curtain ◦ Little communication/secrecy ◦ One-party governments ◦ Little or no descent ◦ Arguably most important, little or no immigration ‣ One of the biggest freedoms is freedom to leave, but ppl in USSR didn't enjoy this freedom for the most part ‣ Some ppl (Jews going to Israel) were allowed to leave USSR, but in that case had to turn over all their possessions and pay to leave

US unprecedented forgiveness

• A nation dragged into war with such death and suffering, then turned around and treated the nations that brought suffering with such grace • US forgave enemies and treated them nicely ◦ Supplied them, kept them alive, basically rebuilt West Germany and Japan ◦ End up becoming major economic powers • Usually winners take over losers and treat them badly

CR background (Jim Crow)

• After Reconstruction, Jim Crow Laws implemented in the South ◦ Reconstruction 1865-1877 ◦ Jim Crow Laws bring in segregated facilities ◦ Some ppl wanting to challenge legality of Jim Crow Laws ◦ Railroad cars even segregated • Matter is litigated 1896 in Plessy v. Ferguson ◦ SCOTUS approved "separate but equal facilities" ◦ Say that it meets requirement of Equal Protection Clause ◦ Schools, libraries, parks, drinking fountains, movie theaters were separate but definitely not equal ◦ 8-1 decision (7/9 of SC Justices were from the South) • For most African Americans, realities were better after Civil War, but under segregated set up and violent threats (KKK), it was better during slavery

Fair Deal (executive order)

• After resistance from Congress, Truman issues Executive Order 9981, which desegregated the military (very significant development) ◦ Did this even after Congress' rejection b/c Truman is Commander in Chief and has considerable authority over what happens • Related reality = the Korean War is the first war where black and white soldiers fight side-by-side ◦ Many military commanders opposed this ◦ Some were racists, some didn't want them in the same units b/c of racial divisions and less trust and support ◦ Everything worked out with cohesion much better than anticipated in KW though

1950s Transportation

• Biggest news is the decline in the railroad industry ◦ 1900 = railroad industry #1 employer in America ◦ Some railroad business lost by automobiles in 1920s • Trucking industry is taking over railroad industry ◦ With the highways, trucks can deliver Door to Door and have much more flexibility ◦ Airplanes do as well, but not #1 ‣ Use of jet engines • Cars and commuter buses take ppl Door to Door as well

MBB (result)

• Boycott continues and almost 1 year later the SCOTUS acts unanimously in striking down the related Jim Crow Law in Alabama (b/c of Equal Protection Clause) ◦ Doesn't seem as dramatic on heels of Brown case ◦ Victory in connection w/ Montgomery bus boycott is a victory in connection with nonviolent protests ‣ Since nonviolent protest worked, it becomes the cornerstone of the Civil Rights Movement (civil disobedience) ◦ Montgomery bus system is received b/c get riders back (most black passengers)

Berlin Airlift (Setting)

• Brought the world to the edge of nuclear war • Berlin is in Eastern Germany and also split in 4 sections • Russians announce that they are cutting off Western access to West Berlin ◦ There can no longer be travel or trade between WB + WG ◦ Highways, air travel, railroads are shut down • Russia wants West Berlin to be absorbed into the Soviet Empire/Bloc ◦ Will Allies risk another world war for a couple million ppl in West Berlin? • Russians are forcing this and potentially bringing the world to nuclear showdown ◦ Reason = East Berlin dominated by the Soviets and Soviet government has many restrictions imposed on the citizens ◦ West Berlin is characterized by free enterprise and can make their own decisions, so this embarrasses the Soviets because WB much more prosperous ◦ Only intensifies in years to come

1950s Features (values)

• Church attendance reaches its peak • 1950s = "under god" added to the pledge of allegiance ◦ "In god we trust" is added to coins • Explanation for apparent growth in terms of religion = fear of communism ◦ Ppl think that in a moment, it could all end ◦ Ppl more mindful of potential brevity of life • Evangelists ◦ Billy Graham having gospel crusades with tens of millions of ppl attending (on tv) • In early 1950s, ppl started their school days by praying (dates back to Puritans) ◦ School prayer reading ended and crime rate increased in 1960s ‣ Maybe true or just religious Mr. Thompson

Fall of the Berlin Wall

• Collapse of the Soviet Union marks the end of the Cold War • Split up into various republics • No US celebrations after Cold War b/c Gorbachev probably would've responded badly

Differences: communist theory and practice

• Communist theory ◦ Basic element of society is the commune ◦ In communes, responsibilities and benefits are shared ◦ Everyone has the same basic status • Communist practice ◦ Doesn't even follow communist theory ◦ Having dictators (USSR, China, Cuba) ◦ The last leader premier of USSR Gorbachev...reporters felt comfortable asking him questions ‣ Asked when real communism is coming ‣ When all ppl are educated correctly

Truman Doctrine (Result)

• Congress appropriates $660 million in the form of military and economic aid to both Greece and Turkey ◦ This results in the Soviets backing off ‣ Relent in pressuring Turkey ‣ Threat of communism to Greece recedes • This represents a definitive break from US for 120 years being guided by the Monroe Doctrine (includes the commitment to not interfere in European affairs—don't get involved with us, we won't get involved with you) • Greece and Turkey very thrilled for US involvement ◦ For decades after, Turkish sailors saluting US ships because so grateful

Red Scare 2 (legislation)

• Congress passes the National Security Act = places the 3 military branches under the DOD (Department of Defense) in an attempt to consolidate Army, Navy, Air Force ◦ National Security Council is created = give daily briefings to the president ◦ Creation of the Joint Chiefs of a staff = Sec of Defense and heads of each branch ◦ Creation of the CIA (Soviet equivalent is the KGB) ‣ Focus of the CIA is on foreign threats ‣ FBI focuses on domestic threats

Taft-Hartley Act

• Congress passes the Taft-Hartley Act w/ 4 major provisions • (1) forbids the "closed shop" where if you get a job, you are automatically a member of a union • (2) Union officers were required to take a non-communist oath (swearing they're not members of the Communist Party) • (3) no Union contributions to national political campaigns ◦ ND Congress passed Wagner Act, so unions were pro-Democratic and supported Dems mainly • (4) provides for a 60-day cooling off period ◦ When a union contract is up, the president can invoke Taft-Hartley ◦ This means that they cannot go on strike for 60 days and but also cannot be shut off for 60 days (can be extended to 90 days) ◦ This is particularly important for preventing airline strikes

From war to peace (GI)

• Congressional passage of the GI Bill of Rights (Servicemen's Readjustment Act) ◦ Passed in 1944 before the war ends (anticipating it will) • It is kind of a thank you to the soldiers for sacrificing their lives and putting their lives on hold ◦ Also advances economic situations after WWII though • (1) money for schooling = veterans are able to go to college under government fu ding • (2) low interest loans for veterans • (3) unemployment benefits for 1 year for soldiers ◦ Many coming home and probs wouldn't find work right away, so they got a short-term cushion

McCarthyism (general)

• Definition = an approach which is quick to press charges of disloyalty/communism, typically without substantiation (substance to back allegations) • Founder = Senator Joseph McCarthy ◦ McCarthy uses his his accusations as a ticket to reelection ◦ Makes accusations that there are many communists in the State Department, and ppl like this b/c they are happy someone is finding the truth • Method = McCarthy charges that 157 ppl in State Department are communists in front of media and many ppl ◦ Ppl then ask who is on the list of these ppl ◦ McCarthy's assistant tells him information about the reporters to attack them instead of providing answers ◦ Charges that the reporter checked out 6 books about communism at the library and how to spread Marxism ◦ Reporter then fired immediately after b/c ruins their reputation • Appeal = someone has explained or is getting to the problem ◦ Says he has names and can explain all situations

Revolts in Soviet Bloc (Poland)

• Demonstrations in Poland ◦ They occur, but no troops come in to gun down the orchestrators (no deaths)

1952 Presidential Election (general)

• Dems had been President for 5 consecutive terms • Republicans select moderate "Ike" (earlier sought by Dems in 1948) over conservative Robert Taft in pursuit of the middle vote b/c Ike was a moderate ◦ Ike was a war hero, so Americans trusted and respected him ◦ Previously nonaligned • Richard Nixon (VP candidate) = "Checkers Speech" ◦ Ppl accuse Nixon of improperly using campaign money ◦ Early example of media out to get Nixon ◦ Ppl say Nixon needs to be removed from the ticket ◦ First time = using television correctly as way to save his place on the ticket ◦ 1952 on national tv = Nixon says he did nothing wrong except he did keep a cocker spaniel Checkers ◦ Charges are basically dismissed • Dems select Adlai Stevenson = "egghead" b/c said he was very smart but just in another world

Korean War (analysis)

• Did the US win, lose, or draw? ◦ Korean War was a limited victory (also limited war) ‣ Accomplished initial objective of freeing SK and driving out communists ‣ Didn't turn out to be the decisive victory predicted before Chinese involvement ◦ Communists get a black eye (Russians) were the aggressors and don't get away with it ◦ No use of atomic weapons and not a huge war ◦ BUT we didn't gain anything and lose many troops in the process ◦ Korea was still 2 nations also • One reason peace talks didn't resolve = many North Koreans captured in SK wanted to stay behind in SK, but NK insisting all prisoners be returned ◦ Showing many North Koreans were fighting because they had to and wanted to escape NK

Red Scare 2 (HUAC—Hiss)

• Dramatic episode involving HUAC = Alger Hiss is questioned ◦ Hiss was FDR's right-hand man (top advisor) at Yalta ◦ By the late 40s early 1950s = Yalta had a horrible reputation and ppl thought of it as USSR getting the chance to take over Europe ◦ Hiss is believed to be communist or a sympathizer ◦ Hiss is very intelligent and has cultivated a good relationship w/ the media ‣ At hearings, he handles everything that comes his way and does well • But then, HUAC calls Whitaker Chambers as the next witness ◦ Chambers is a former communist (found communism appealing in GD) ◦ Chambers testifies that Hiss gave to him classified documents for transmission to the Soviets (would mean Hiss is a Soviet agent) ‣ Nixon got Chambers to testify ‣ Media hated Nixon b/c he outsmarted Hiss (media darling) ◦ Whitaker takes the committee to his farm in Maryland, leads them to a carved out pumpkin and takes out a lot of microfilm that examined state department classified information that Hiss had access to • Hiss escaped many large sentences because statute of limitations ran out ◦ Couldn't escape perjury though and ends up in prison ◦ Hiss's conviction reinforces the notion that communists are in high places and places of high influence

Features of CW (economy, espionage, subversion)

• Economic competition ◦ Both sides competing in particular for underdeveloped nations...convince them to take on our approach because will be better off • Espionage ◦ Both sides attempting to undermine/mess up the other side ◦ Spying, trying to get info, get edge in the competition ◦ At one point, US decided to upgrade its embassy in Moscow and spend millions of dollars on it ‣ Then inspect it and find hundreds of tiny bugging devices all over and had to tear it down and rebuild it • Subversion ◦ Trying to mess up the other side ◦ If there were significant strikes in US, there was the assumption that ppl working with communists to promote this ◦ Rioting in US cities in 1960s, it was assumed Soviets trying to promote them

Ike Administration (goals)

• Eisenhower believes the executive branch is too strong (unusual) and wants a balance between executive and legislative branches ◦ Ike is a principled man and doesn't want someone to have too much power ◦ Probably in response to FDR • "Modern Republicanism" vs. "Dynamic Conservatism" • Balance the federal budget ◦ Military cutbacks were the #1 step ‣ "More bang for the buck" ◦ 3 of 8 budgets were balanced

Ike Administration (New Approach—person, approach, aid)

• Elected 1952 • Truman Doctrine isn't erased, but it is adjusted (so is containment policy) ◦ Sec of State associated with this approach is John Foster Dulles • Adjusted approach = peace as we need to roll back communism (we need to free ppl from communism where it exists) ◦ US cannot be content with trying to just limit communism ◦ Containment is a loser's policy (it is not enough) ◦ Rationale = the Cold War is in part a moral struggle (good vs bad) ‣ US trying to advance good/Liberty • Policy of containment is inadequate but still used • Increase aid to non-communist nations who are threatened ◦ Increasing commitment to containment

Israel: A New Nation (Response)

• England had to pull away from Turkey and Greece and likewise deferred the issue to the UN, and UN recommended separate Jewish and Arab states (rejected by Arabs b/c don't want any Jewish state in Palestine) • May 14, 1948 = England formally leaves Palestine and Jews proclaimed the nation of Israel ◦ US extends immediate recognition to Israel ◦ Most powerful nation in the world supporting Israel, so Abrab states declare war

Peace Attempts (UN Formation)

• Even in summer 1941 (before PH) FDR and Churchill talking about what will happened after the war...at Atlantic Conference • Formation of the United Nations ◦ Inspired by League of Nations ◦ Drawn up in San Francisco in April 1945 (soon after FDR's death) ‣ Shows prowess of US after the war • Senate vote UN 89-2 in only 6 days of deliberation after they deliberated about LON for years and never ratified ◦ Isolationism is historic and it seems US accepted that isolationism isn't an option anymore ◦ Nationwide acceptance of failures of isolationism ◦ Only 48 states at the time because Hawaii and Alaska are still possessions so only 5 Senators abstain • Note: stumbling block removed at Yalta ◦ In determining who gets how many seats at UN, Stalin insists USSR gets 16 states b/c 16 Soviet republics, but reduced to 2 (+USSR) so kinda 3

1946 midterm elections

• Every even year, ⅓ of the Senate and all of HoR up for election ◦ Congress has been controlled by Dems ever since 1930 ◦ Republicans have a slogan "Had Enough?" ‣ Had enough of high prices, shortages, strikes? ◦ Republicans regain control of both houses for the first time since 1930 • All kinds of legislation has been passed by Dems (New Deal) in Congress, so now with Republicans in control in significant majorities, they will try to undo the Wagner Act ◦ Wagner Act strengthened organized labor

Peace Attempts (UN Structure)

• Every member nation in UN is part of the General Assembly ◦ Discuss problems like attacks in the Middle East • Real power lies in the Security Council ◦ 15 members...10 rotate but 5 permanent (US, England, France, Russia, China) ◦ Recommend actions against aggressors after hearing reports from General Assembly ◦ MOST IMPORTANT = any of the 5 permanent members have the veto power and can veto recommendations (I forbid) • Others: multiple organizations (UNICEF)

Approach to New Deal legislation (policies)

• Expanded Social Security = 7.5 million ppl added ◦ 9+ a few years earlier • Created Health Education Welfare (consolidated several ND social programs) ◦ Moderate expansion of federal government • Built St. Lawrence Seaway ◦ Provided electricity, facilitated transportation between Atlantic Ocean and Great Lakes (accessible to ocean-going vessels = 2nd Mediterranean Sea) • **Interstate Highway System ◦ Billions of dollars for interstate highways ◦ Part of the reason for this was military ◦ Needed ppl to be able to pour out of cities quickly in case of Soviet threats

1950s Suburban Explosion

• Explosion of suburbs in the 1950s that continues beyond ◦ Much more dramatic then than in 1920s • Baby boom phenomenon (outgrowth of prosperity in itself) ◦ Ppl get married earlier and have more children b/c can afford to ◦ Millions of babies born from 1945-1960 ‣ WWII veterans come home and start families ◦ Celebration of "family togetherness" ‣ 1930s and WWII placed great strains on families ‣ Ppl w/ children now much more appreciative of the benefits • Larger families have the desire for bigger homes and fresh air in the suburbs ◦ Many city residents who have money move ◦ 4,000 in 1950s and 40,000 by 1970s • Ppl buy up land and build up houses in large numbers ◦ William Levitt heads this mass production of "cookie cutter houses" ‣ Producing homes in rapid fashion • Affordability of homes ◦ Since homes are mostly the same, they can be put up quickly, so they were affordable • Ppl moving into cities then become minorities and are not well-off ◦ The tax base declines, schools decline, even more ppl move into the suburbs

Eisenhower Doctrine

• Flows from the Suez Crisis - Eisenhower announces that the US will provide armed assistance to any ME nation that is threatened by communist aggression ◦ This is basically a corollary to the Truman Doctrine (goes along with containment but extends specifically to the Middle East) ◦ Before #1 priority was WEurope ◦ Congress prioritized money with Eisenhower Doctrine and before long US sent forces into the Middle East to protect Lebanon and Jordan from communist pressures

From war to peace (prices)

• Focus is on economic realities • There was a period of transition after WWII ◦ Country is going away a bit from military spending and struggling with what will happen ◦ Like WWI • For at least a couple of years, prices rise significantly ◦ Mainly because (1) there is a high level of demand because ppl now have more money since made more during WWII (lasted 2-3x WWI) ◦ (2) on the supply side, there are limited consumed goods b/c not producing cars and refrigerators ◦ (3) government lifts wage and price control instituted during WWII, so prices will seek their own levels ‣ Government is not artificially limiting them • Gradually, situation improves as supply increases and transition from wartime to peacetime production

Suez Crisis (actual tensions)

• Forces of 3 countries then move in to retake control of the canal (England, France, Israel) and gain control of the canal ◦ Soviets are very upset about this because they're on the "sideline" but Eisenhower is also furious about this ◦ England and France acted without consulting with the US ‣ We have been their protector and given them atomic umbrella • Soviets under Khrushchev tell E+F that they better pull out their forces or risk atomic bombs being launched against London and Paris "like they're hotcakes" w/ one right after another • Good news = UN does its job and creates a solution so that all involved parties are sent in to supervise the situation along the Suez ◦ Suez Crisis weakens England's stature in international affairs

Sputnik (response)

• Government will have to respond ◦ Federal government for the first time gets involved in education ◦ Article 1 Section 8 lists the powers of Congress and federal gov ‣ Doesn't list education, so it was the matter for state and local governments • Congress appropriates significant amounts of money to update science facilities in high schools across the country ◦ Advance scientific knowledge • Federal government makes loans available with NDEA (National Defense Education Act) to students who want to go to college but can't afford to • American education at all levels are envious around the world ◦ Americans received more Nobel prizes (from 1946-1964) than Russia, Germany, England combined

From war to peace (PP)

• Gradually Rising purchasing power ◦ By the late 1940s and into 1950s, Americans experience tremendous prosperity (just like 1920s) • Increasing purchasing power because (1) wartime savings ◦ Ppl still have a lot of money • (2) higher wages after WWII b/c active labor unions ◦ Unions play a role in increasing wages

CR background (migration, types)

• Great Migration (WWI-1970s) = mass movement of black Americans from south to north ◦ Moving in WWI north to factory jobs ◦ Accelerates during WWII ◦ Blacks are moving into northern cities, and there is competition/conflict, which causes whites to move to the suburbs • 2 kinds of segregation = Jura segregation (by law) and de facto segregation (in reality...not by law) ◦ Black intellects "in the South, you can get as close as you want as long as you don't get too high. In the north, you can get as high as you want as long as you don't get too close" ◦ South = blacks and whites accustomed to being with each other but scared of blacks rising educationally/economically ◦ Opposite in the north (resistant to blacks living in the same neighborhoods but ok if they succeed)

Red Scare 2 (HUAC—general)

• HCUAC (House Committee on Unamerican Activities) • A lot of ppl in Congress aren't satisfied w/ Truman's response ◦ Truman was anticommunst but probs wasn't as concerned • Purpose = investigate threats to America ◦ Film industry (movies) gets the most attention from this ◦ Ppl perceive reality based on movies and have the power to form opinions for ppl • HUAC hearings were very intense • Reality = liberals tended to dominate Hollywood ◦ Many ppl in arts and theater are liberal and free-thinking and non traditional

Development of Soviet Bloc (Yalta)

• How did communism expand so quickly in the years after WWII? • The day WWII ended, only communist nation was USSR ◦ Within a few years, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Albania, Bulgaria, East Germany are all communism • Part of this answer is Yalta ◦ Stalin promised at Yalta that there would be free elections in the rest of Eastern Europe ◦ What happened? Stalin didn't abide by his agreement ◦ Communism is able to prevail in Eastern Europe b/c the day that WWII ended, Soviet troops were in all of those countries ‣ Stalin never removes Soviet troops so that Soviets can install communist governments in Soviet Bloc/satellite nations

Revolts in Soviet Bloc (Hungary Uprising)

• Hungary Uprising (November 1956 — week before US presidential election) ◦ This is the real test • Ppl of Hungary go to the streets and protest because they want to escape communism (ppl in Eastern Europe are unhappy w/ Soviets) ◦ They are pulling out of the Warsaw Pact • November 1956 = Soviets send in troops and tanks to crush the rebellion ◦ Hungarians plead for help (mainly from the US) ◦ They have a state radio and ask for Americans to intervene, but they receive no help ◦ The US doesn't want to risk nuclear war over Hungary • 2,500 Hungarians are killed and 700 Russian troops die ◦ The revolt is crushed and the US was not willing to risk WWIII • US talks about rolling back communism but doesn't follow through ◦ Reveals that implementing the more offensive approach is much more difficult

Little Rock Controversy

• Implementation = key confrontation occurs in Little Rock, Arkansas ◦ Early on, BOE in Little Rock does the right thing and declares in fall 1957 that blacks will enter the high school • Governor of AR (Faubus) says that the black students will not enter the high school and sends in the national guard to make sure that the 9 black students do not enter the high school ◦ President Eisenhower then says in a national speech that Brown v. BOE is the law of the land and must be obeyed ◦ 101 Airborne Division (battle of the Bulge) pours into Little Rock and guarantee the safety of the 9 students ◦ Students facing taunts and threats ◦ Troops go to class with the students and in 3-4 years many minority students go to the Central High School without issues • Faubus then wins the next election for governor, so most of AR still supports segregation (significance of Ike's opposition) • Resistance in the South against (some May have had merit based on constitution, but a lot just didn't want schools integrated) ◦ Federal gov powers over education were questioned ◦ Can make case that Equal Protection Clause relates to education • Many ppl pulled children out of public schools and into private schools to resist integration • Not immediate implementation, but eventual ◦ Ike's use of 101 Airborne Division showed the decision would actually be enforced

1952 Presidential Election (outcome)

• Issues: ◦ Growth of federal government (intrusion into ppl's lives) ◦ Corruption ◦ Korean War = Ike promises to go to Korea to try to win peace negotiations • Outcome = one-sided victory for Ike (Truman leaves office very unpopular) ◦ Possibly Democrats were in power for "too long" ◦ Truman becomes more popular over time • "Long coattails" = he is able to bring with him many Republicans in the House and Senate ◦ Republicans win control of the House and Senate (last time until 1994)

1950s Overall Production (JKG)

• John Kenneth Gailbrith = "economy of abundance" to describe US economy ◦ First time in human history that there is a nation that is able to produce considerably more than it can consume ◦ Average American family spent 60% of its income on food and housing ◦ Overwhelming majority of ppl have had at best 100% for adequate food and and resources ◦ Americans having 40% to spend on luxuries • Americans are prospering, and their jobs involve fewer hours ◦ Work week from 50 hours to 40 hours ◦ Millions of workers learn that they will get paid vacation (begins in 1950s b/c of heightened prosperity) • Greater sense of financial security (most ppl receive Social Security, pensions from jobs, life insurance, mortgage insurance, bank deposit insurance) • Bottom line = in 1950s for the first time, average life expectancy exceeds 70 years of age (still includes many infants that don't survive) ◦ In 1950s, polio vaccine and pneumonia vaccine (conquer them) ◦ Large medical advances ◦ Cancer, heart disease, automobile accidents are leading death causes

Korean War (armistice)

• July 1951 (early on in the war that ends 1953) = peace talks continuing without resolution and fighting continues ◦ Fighting slows down and UN is able to remove communists from SK again • 1952 = Republican candidate Dwight Eisenhower says during his campaign that he will personally go to Korea if elected for peace settlements ◦ Ike goes to Korea but unsuccessful in peace talks • July 1953 = an uneasy truce is signed with Korea divided near the 38th parallel (original placement) ◦ 38th parallel becomes a DMZ • When the war is concluded (but not actually any formal peace agreements signed and some outbreaks after) 54,000 Americans have died in Korea War

Camp David (1959)

• Khrushchev meet Eisenhower here in hills of MD not too far from DC ◦ At one point, seems like Ike and Khrushchev are laughing and smiling and getting along ◦ Good news = Khrushchev agrees to remove the 6-month deadline ◦ Not everything is resolved, but this is very encouraging • Not everything goes smoothing: Khrushchev wants to visit Disneyland in CA and Walt Disney was very pro-American and says NO b/c "too much of a security concern" but it is well known that he just doesn't want to entertain a communist dictator ◦ Shows atmosphere in US • Spirit of Camp David = Optimum and confidence that we were going to increasingly solve our differences and create a situation where 2 superpowers could coexist peacefully • Khrushchev also agrees to meet Ike again in Paris in May 1960 ◦ This never really happens though because of the U2 incident just days before

1950s Farmers

• Largely familiar story (farm technology keeps advancing) ◦ 1950 = 20 million farmers ◦ 1960 = 15 million farmers • Farmers we did have became much more productive ◦ 1 farmer in 1960 produces twice the amount of wheat as one 10 years earlier ◦ The farmers are feeding a great part of the world ◦ Farmers are so productive that they produce surpluses, which leads to lower prices

CW in Action (Middle East—Iran)

• Low-level situation in Iran right after WWII • USSR had troops in Iran and announced their intention to evacuate Iran, but they didn't do it ◦ US was put in the position to remind Russians that they said they would withdraw ◦ Gradually implemented, but concessions of ISSR getting control of some Iranian oil companies • Shows push and pull of Cold War and US response to Soviet behavior

MacArthur-Truman Controversy (backlash)

• MacArthur publicly voices his desire to invade China and sends a letter to a congressman that is published in newspapers ("there is no substitute for victory") ◦ Early 1950s = many Americans have the notion that US has never lost a war, so words resonate with Americans • Truman appears before members of the media before dawn and announces that he is relieving MacArthur of his command ◦ Truman won't say "firing" b/c MacArthur is an American hero ◦ This is very controversial b/c most of nation supports MacArthur ◦ Truman may not have really had a choice b/c MacArthur's public opposition to Truman cannot be tolerated ‣ Truman is commander in chief too and responsible for all troops' lives ‣ MacArthur is Truman's subordinate

Truman Doctrine (Setting)

• Major development that has many implications • Communist threat to Greece and Turkey

Making of Communist China (Keys)

• Many Chinese frustrated with the corruption (misuse of power) of Nationalists ◦ A lot of nepotism (giving high level jobs to family members) ◦ Inflation and additional problems • Russians aid the Communists • Congress considers but rejects massive aid to the Nationalists (wants them to win) ◦ Give them money and supplies but not troops ◦ Recall that US priority is in Western Europe ◦ Disagreement about whether use of troops would have mattered

McCarthyism (decline)

• McCarthy is becoming more reckless (drinking more) • McCarthy's assistant (Mr. Shine) is drafted into the army ◦ McCarthy accuses the military of "coddling communists" and drafted to cover up communism • Army-McCarthy hearings = televised and for the first time millions of Americans seeing these hearings, which lead directly to decline of McCarthy ◦ Makes many reckless accusations ◦ "Have you no decency sir?" • After these hearings, some time passes but then McCarthy has lost credibility and ppl criticize him ◦ McCarthy is censured by the Senate ◦ McCarthy is described as a crazed man who ruined careers of innocent people, but eventually USSR collapses and in 1990s KGB files reveal Hiss, Rosenbergs, and other ppl he charged were on the Soviet payroll

Appeal of Communism

• Most fundamentally: the promise of economic advancement ◦ Take on communism, and you will be better off ◦ This especially appeals to the poor because with communism there is the notion of redistribution of wealth ‣ Ppl at the bottom will end up better off (everyone gets education, housing, jobs) • Idealism attached to communism ◦ Many ppl like the notion that there are no rich or poor (equality) ◦ No one seeming to be more notably advanced than others • Reality that the Soviets trumpeted the notion that they were the wave of the future...part of a worldwide cause ◦ Karl Marx preached/taught that there was a certain inevitability in terms of the advance of communism ◦ When Nikita Khrushchev 1950s/60s talked about communism being the wave of the future: said to US ambassador to UN "when your children are grown, we will bury you" ‣ Saying the future would live under socialism, and ppl took this seriously b/c there was evidence that supported this position • Military power ◦ Soviets were an advanced military power and had mayday parades of their missiles and military hardware

1948 Presidential Election (general)

• Most notable reality = clearest example of an upset ◦ Almost everyone assumed Republicans would win ◦ Chicago Tribune: "DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN" and printed hundreds of thousands of copies, but obviously incorrect • The Democratic Party split 3 ways • Republicans run Dewey for the second time • Truman wants to be nominated by the Dems ◦ Dems want Eisenhower to run as the Democrat • Democrats look like they're in trouble ◦ 2 groups break away from the Dems ◦ Dixiecrats = southern Dems who are most unhappy w/ Truman's civil rights approach ‣ Conservative Southern Democrats ‣ Leader = Strom Thurmond ◦ Progressive Party = headed by Henry Wallace (former VP under TR) who was convinced that Truman was too combative in relation to the Soviets ‣ Thought that Soviets weren't entirely to blame for the Cold War

Brown v. Board of Education (decision)

• Most ppl say "Brown reverses the Plessy decision" ◦ What SCOTUS does is say that the fact that realities have changed ◦ Education is much more important in lives of citizens in 1950s as opposed to 1896 when small percentage of ppl went to and graduated from high school • The decision is unanimous and a game changer ◦ Unanimity brings more powerful consequences ◦ All saying that schools must be desegregated ◦ Warren schools must desegregate "with all deliberate speed"

Union strikes (examples)

• Most publicized = strike of GM workers ◦ The Union UAW (United Auto Workers) go on strike for 113 days ◦ Huge deal affecting the auto industry and others who benefit when these employees are employed • Steel workers also strike (steel for automobiles) ◦ 750,000 steel workers go on strike ◦ Both strikes are successful with significant wage increases • United Mine Workers (UMW) associated w/ WV, OH ◦ 400,000+ UMW workers go on strike for 40 days ◦ President Truman declares a national emergency b/c ppl need coal for heat ‣ Schools, hospitals, homes ◦ Truman orders troops in to keep the mines open

Disposition of Axis Powers (Germany)

• Most serious foe • Germany is divided into 4 sectors after WWII ◦ Discussed at Yalta and Potsdam ◦ Occupied by USSR, US, England, France ‣ Some wondered whether France would be included because succumbed to 3rd Reich, but Churchill insisted • East Germany controlled by USSR is the largest sector (reached Berlin first) ◦ Then US, England, then France • Berlin is by far the largest German city ◦ It sits kind of in the middle of East Germany and it is divided ◦ In the heart of East Germany it is also divided in 4 sectors • The anticipation had been that the 4 sectors would eventually combine into 1 Germany ◦ Later realized USSR had no intentions of this ◦ USSR basically taking over East Germany and adopted into Soviet empire (satellite) • Germany is disarmed and has no military (given recent history) • US sends in large amounts of food, medicine, and supplies to many suffering Germans ◦ Much of Germany's infrastructure has been destroyed (railroads) ◦ Even when there is food, it is difficult to distribute it

NATO (Result)

• NATO becomes the cornerstone of US foreign policy (huge commitment) and first time since Treaty of Alliance with France ◦ The defense of Western Europe is seen as key to defense of the Free World • It is around this time that USSR tests their atomic weapons ◦ US equips NATO nations with atomic weapons (aid bases in the countries where they can give to them on short notice) — atomic umbrella • Reality = we have identified Europe as our primary concern ◦ Some commitment to Asia, but not primary concern ◦ At the time, Europe was much more advanced economically ◦ Some unhappy reactions in Asia b/c US not as committed to them • 82-13 vote in the Senate to approve NATO ◦ Shows transitioning ideas of US • US forms NATO, and several years later nations of Soviet Bloc form the Warsaw Pact ◦ People concerned about where the US is in relation to Soviets

Making of Communist China (Civil War)

• Nationalists ◦ Chiang Kai-shek (US choice) • Communists ◦ Mao Zedong • There is a civil war and truce for war against Japan, so it stops • Then Civil War resumes in 1945 and Nationalists did most fighting against the Japanese, so they are severely weakened • ¼ of the world's population becomes communist (now including China)

Suez Crisis (background)

• Occurs within a week of the Soviet crackdown in Hungary (both in early November and on the eve of a presidential election) • The Cold War is a largely no shooting struggle where East and West compete for loyalty and commitment (Egypt is one of these nations) ◦ President Nasser of Egypt is very shrewd and understands the CW dynamic (Soviet/US competition) ‣ Egypt is a very underdeveloped country (3rd World nation) • Nasser wants to build up the Egyptian standard of living and economy, so he is in pursuit of a huge dam on the upper Nile (actually in the south) ◦ Nile River always overflows at the same time each year (helped Egyptians make calendar) ◦ Egypt doesn't have the funding or technology to create the dam ‣ The dam would control floods, control waters to use it for irrigation and advance agriculture, hydroelectric power

NATO (Setting)

• On the heels of Berlin airlift and Russian aggression, many Europeans concerned whether they can resist the Soviets • Many ppl in Western Europe aren't equipped with nuclear weapons and are scared of the Soviets ◦ This is based off of occurrences in previous years (including Eastern European nations being incorporated into Soviet Bloc and Berlin Airlift) • Soviet blockade of West Berlin was very concerning for many because they were cutting them off

Making of Communist China (Background)

• Open Door Policy was the prevailing arrangement with countries having equal access in relationships with China ◦ This is after spheres of influence and boxer rebellion • Chinese nationalists sought to unite the country and even joined by Communists in 1920s ◦ Many wanted to make China for the Chinese, but cooperation didn't last

Israel: A New Nation (Setting)

• Palestine had been administered by England since WWI (England had a mandate from the Treaty of Versailles and supervising developments here) • Large Jewish and Arab populations (steady stream of Jewish immigrants before, during, after WWII) ◦ Tension attached to this b/c most Arab residents in Palestine are angry about the Arab influx ◦ Balfour Declaration contained the promise of a Jewish homeland but nothing else happened since this • Special concerns regarding Jerusalem (Jews, Arabs, Christians)

Brown v. Board of Education (background)

• Plessy v. Ferguson was the law of the land for almost 60 years • Brown vs. board of education of Topeka, Kansas ◦ Series of cases leading up to this case ◦ Step by step, NAACP (with white supporters) able to lay the groundwork for the case so that there was a lot of confidence in a favorable decision • Linda Brown = black elementary school-aged girl who is ready to go to school but can't go to the local school and has to go to the black school a mile away ◦ Father challenges this and case makes it to SCOTUS ◦ Black attorney Thurgood Marshall (1st black SCOTUS justice) represents Brown ◦ Earl Warren (Chief justice) writes the decision of the case • Most critical: "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal" ◦ Inherently = by their very nature ◦ If you have a separate school for white and black students (w/ same supplies) black students still being denied equal opportunity ◦ Psychologists testify effects of human behavior

Red Scare 2 (background)

• Post-WWII version of the Red Scare • (1) communism is on the move ◦ Russia remains communist, Eastern European countries become communist, NK, China • (2) Americans and people around the world are getting bad reports from ppl who lived under communism • (3) natural fear of communism in America b/c ppl believe Communism threatens basic civil liberties (freedom of speech, religion) • (4) a spy raid is uncovered in Canada ◦ It is found out that USSR spies are operating in the US

Communism vs. Capitalism in history

• Ppl have usually fled communist societies in large numbers • Many communist nations forbid ppl from leaving b/c knew that many would leave ◦ Berlin Wall put up to keep ppl in b/c going to free Germany if possible • Why are ppl in US promoting communism? The thought that US would do it right ◦ Avoid the tyranny and oppression

Truman Doctrine (Response)

• President Truman decides on policy if containment, which if implemented there would be many implications for ◦ Truman appears in front of a joint session of Congress ‣ Last time before this was Wilson when asking for tax changes and then war declarations • The US will support free people's attempting to resist aggression so that they (free ppl) can decide their future, not the aggressors ◦ This means US committing itself to containing communism to its current limits/borders • State department employee and scholar about USSR and expert on Russian history = George Kennan ◦ He has written that the Soviet Union, not unlike their predecessors, will attempt to advance and engage in aggression ◦ They will push and push, but Kennan's view is that if US stands up to the Soviets (like a bully), the Soviets will back down ◦ We have to first convince them that we have the resources to do defeat them ◦ Kennan believes the USSR will eventually collapse from within because of economic shortcoming • Truman announces policy of containment and voices this to congress b/c requires substantial financial commitment

Peace Attempts (UN Purpose)

• Promote international peace • Settle international disputes • Suppress "acts of aggression" and use of "peace-keeping forces" ◦ UN has used force to settle disputes • Promote human rights • Attempt to solve world problems ◦ International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank to help less developed nations

Peace Attempts (UN Reality)

• Reality for decades = UN divided into 2 camps ◦ US and allies vs. USSR and allies ◦ Since they both have veto power almost nothing gets done because one always vetoes something • Attempt to destroy atomic weapons ◦ US develops nuclear weapons, USSR coming close to an atomic bomb ‣ Scared of what this means for the human race with such devastating weapons • What appeared to be an early opportunity to eliminate the threat of nuclear/atomic weapons was passed on ◦ A lot of CW tension could've been minimized if agreed on something • Mankind has the potential to destroy life very easily with atomic/nuclear weapons ◦ Churchill voiced the opinion that development of atomic weapons presented the #1 step to world peace in history ◦ Anticipating that nations wouldn't use atomic weapons because likeliness of power of these weapons

Berlin Airlift (Result)

• Russians finally give in and lift the blockade ◦ Formal creation of 2 separate states ◦ West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany—US, France, England) and East Germany (Soviet—German Democratic Republic) • Truman is more appreciated after his office terms are over

1956 Presidential Election

• Same candidates as 1952 • Issues: economy (recession of 1953-54...military spending cuts were a factor) ◦ Dixon-Yates power plant K (private development of power vs. TVA) ◦ Military...AS sought end of draft, hydrogen bomb testing ‣ Ike emphasized record of peace • International pre-election events ◦ (1) Hungarian revolt crushed in 1956 ◦ (2) England and France regain control of Suez Canal ◦ Advantage to the candidate w/ military experience (Ike) • Slogan: "Everything is Booming Except the Guns" • Outcome: Ike wins very comfortably ◦ Republicans lose Congress ◦ Ike has "short coattails"

Marshall Plan (Response)

• Sec of State George Marshall proposes billions of dollars of US aid for the immediate survival and long-term economic recovery of Europe ◦ This proposal amounts to around $13 billion (20x already spent on Greece and Turkey) • This was not automatically approved because so much money ◦ When Czechoslovakia becomes the most recent country to turn communist, this gets the attention of Congress and they pass the Marshall Plan

1950s Features (general)

• Similar lifestyles ◦ So many Americans have similar experiences ◦ 16 million WWII veterans coming home at the same time • Television comes into the picture ◦ 3 stations NBC, ABC, CBS in Philly ◦ Same style, speech, story lines ◦ Most popular tv show = "I Love Lucy" ◦ Since everyone watches the same shows, same culture ‣ Growth of suburbs ties into this • High level of motivation (after trauma associated w/ GD and WWII, ppl had a fresh appreciation of opportunities available) ◦ 1963 = SAT scores reach their peak ◦ US schools are envied by the rest of the world • Entertainment b/c ppl working fewer hours and have time and money ◦ Leisure, sports, tv, movies • Elvis Presley ◦ Goes along with entertainment and prosperity

Marshall Plan (Setting)

• Simple truth = millions of Europeans are hurting in the years immediately following WWII ◦ levels of disease, unemployment, starvation, difficulties with economic recovery, bad weather • 2 European countries (Italy and France) have elections where communists are slowly gaining more seats ◦ Communism seeming more attractive to many

Latin America (general tensions)

• Simple truth = relationship with LA rn is troubled (not disastrous but not healthy) ◦ US is in kind of a tough spot b/c many ppl in LA resent US interference but also some LA ppl complain about perceived neglect and not doing enough ◦ 1960 = only 3% of our foreign aid goes to LA, so many ppl want more involvement • There are situations in LA when US ends up supporting dictators ◦ Oftentimes dictators in LA are staunchly anti communist ◦ Some countries are arguably only able to withstand communist advances under control and power of dictators • There are intellects who say one major difference between dictators and communist leaders is that in some situations dictators if not pressured will back down ◦ Give ppl more freedoms if no threat to the dictator (different from communism)

1950s Youth Culture

• Simple truth that we've never had so many young ppl ◦ Label "teenagers" for the first time ◦ Young ppl are very visible due to numbers and money to be made ‣ Sell records, magazines, jeans, tshirts • New form of music unique to young ppl = rock 'n' roll ◦ Elvis isn't the first rock musician, but the most popular ◦ Elvis was ahead of his time in the sense that (from Tupelo, MS and spent time in Memphis, TN) he played to both black and white audiences (civil rights) ◦ "American BandStand" tv show = helped Elvis popularity and millions of young ppl watching each day...hosted in Philly ‣ Dick Clarke was the longtime host of the show. Helped rock be acceptable to all people (young and old). Committed to black and white entertainers

Revolts in Soviet Bloc (USSR power struggle, general)

• Stalin dies in 1953 (godless, mass murderer) and there is a power struggle behind the scenes ◦ New premier = Nikita Khrushchev ‣ Survives the power struggle • The world is watching intently to see his approach in foreign affairs (aggressive?, ease CW?, new policy?) ◦ He spoke out about Stalin's excesses (surprising) • In many speeches he says — we very much disagree with you Americans, different system and commitments, but we're all living on one planet and need to get along ◦ Talks of peaceful coexistence (inspiring hope in the US) ◦ Less likely nuclear warfare • Naturally, ppl really want to find out how he is and for the ppl in communist bloc (Eastern Europe) • These mark the end of the lull in the Cold War ◦ The result of the New Approach is not so easy

Development of Soviet Bloc (buffer/FDR)

• Stalin says that "after 2 world wars, Russia required a buffer zone of friendly nations" ◦ Russia invaded by Western Europe by Napoleon, WWI, WWII ◦ Stalin then says "any freely elected government in these countries will be an anti-Soviet government, and we cannot allow that" • Churchill is much more concerned about Stalin and USSR than FDR ◦ FDR thinks he can work with Stalin and control him, but Churchill sees Stalin as a new Hitler in terms of how he wants to take over and there have been blood baths in USSR of Stalin putting millions to death

Marshall Plan (Result)

• The Marshall Plan was an overwhelming success • Eastern Europe offered the same aid as the West, but they denied it • Individual needs were met as large quantities of food, fuel, money, machines sent to Western Europe to help millions of ppl ◦ Prosperity returned to Western Europe and even got them over prewar levels ◦ Marshall plan not 100% responsible for new success, but does provide foundation for the recovery of European economies • Related development = appeal of communism recedes

US Role in Cold War

• The US makes or has made a dramatic shift: US proceeds/transitions from isolationism as prevailing foreign policy in 1920s/30s to the responsibility of being the leader of the free world ◦ US concluded that isolationism didn't work (WWII) and maybe even facilitated WWII • There was an abiding awareness that there was no one else ◦ If communism/tyranny was to be prevented, US was the only nation with the resources and powers to effectively combat communism ◦ England would've been the nation to take the lead in the past, but devastated by WWII still at the time ◦ US was #1 country in defense of the free world, so nations automatically looked to the US • The leader of the free world is Harry Truman ◦ When FDR died, many Americans were in grief ‣ Led US for almost 13 years, so only President many ppl knew • Americans were scared whether Truman would be able to effectively lead the US ◦ A man who failed in a men's clothing store is now our President ◦ At least didn't go into bankruptcy or anything though

1950s Criticisms

• There a lot of ppl who are nostalgic about the 1950s ("Happy Days") ◦ Prosperity, ppl on the same page, proud to be Americans • Others see 1950s not as good old days, but women (especially moms) confined to the house and kitchen ◦ Many ppl had a lot of children, so mother caring for the children while men out at work ◦ Civil rights movement getting underway b/c ppl getting angry with Jim Crow laws • 1) many ppl look at the 1950s as being very bland and homogenous ◦ Cookie cutter suburban homes looking the same ◦ Everyone dressed up at movies, airplanes • 2) preoccupation with approval ◦ A large measure of conformity in the 1950s ‣ 1960s were a rebellion against this ◦ Fear of communism had to do w/ ppl not wanting to stand out and draw attention to themselves ‣ "Keeping up with the Joneses" in 1950s ‣ Family living in suburban community and next door a mom pulls in with a new station wagon, so then the new neighbor buys a new one too • 3) studies and article critical of how much time ppl are spending watching tv ◦ Not sure of the effects of tv watching yet

Red Scare 2 (atomic secrets)

• There are reasons why people are concerned during the Red Scare • Russians are able to explode an atomic device years before US anticipated ◦ Found out why = English physicist Klaus Fuchs is investigated for turning over atomic secrets to the Russians ◦ Provides testimony during his trial that implicates Julius and Ethel Rosenberg (Defense Department employees) ◦ Rosenbergs are investigated, charged, executed for turning over atomic secrets to Russians ‣ Like Sacco and Vanzetti, there are protests but it was clear they were guilty (especially from Ethel's brother's testimony) • Sometimes ppl leak secrets to get more money

Latin America (US action)

• There is a communist revolution in Guatemala and the communists are overthrown ◦ The US is involved in this overthrow of communists • US provides financial help to neighbors with InterAmerican Bank • Fulgencio Batistsa had been dictator of Cuba and was anti communist and US had a good relationship with him ◦ 1958 = Fidel Castro leads a rebellion (mobilizing forces in countryside) and gradually increases until Castro is able to overthrow Batista "in the name of the ppl" • Speculation that maybe Castro will be better for US (more Democratic gov?) ◦ As Castro consolidates control of Cuba, it is clear civil liberties are being denied ◦ Opposing ppl are imprisoned, some are executed ◦ Castro is imposing a communist gov in Cuba • US response to Cuba = US imposes a trade embargo that basically still exists now ◦ In just a few years, a million some Cubans make their way to the US (many settle in Florida)

MacArthur-Truman Controversy (general)

• There is a major (famous) disagreement between MacArthur and Truman ◦ In the disagreement, it is all about what US response should be to China's entry into the conflict ◦ They meet many times (smiling in front of the cameras but behind the scenes they vehemently disagree) • MacArthur insists taking the war to mainland China and basically welcomes Chinese intrusion ◦ Thinks it is a chance to overturn Communist China ◦ MacArthur voices interest in dropping atomic bombs on China • Truman has a very different mindset and doesn't want Korean War to expand into China ◦ At the heart of Truman's resistance is the fear that if take war to China, USSR will get involved (have atomic weapons)

Features of CW (fighting, propaganda, science)

• There was occasional intense fighting ◦ Situations when CW became hot ◦ Vietnam War, Korean War, Afghanistan • Propaganda ◦ Both sides trying to convince ppl of the benefits of their approach and lifestyle ◦ This propaganda played out in the media and the UN ◦ Transmit radio broadcast from Western Europe into Eastern Europe ‣ "Voice of America" also going through iron curtain • Scientific competition ◦ Involving the development of weapons (who can come up with the most devastating ones) ◦ If there is a nation that is clearly superior to others in terms of military capability, then it has leverage ◦ Space Race

Disposition of Axis Powers (Italy)

• Treated leniently by comparison to Germany ◦ Italy surrendered to the US so they weren't at war with us (Germans resisted occupation of Italy) • Italy is not occupied (tens of thousands troops in Germany) • Some loss of land for early position in WWII • Army is reduced, not eliminated • Italians benefit from US aid

Berlin Airlift (Response)

• Truman is advised in high profile meetings to abandon West Berlin after intense debate ◦ Concluding Russians by now probably have nuclear weapons ◦ Truman overrules his advisors • Truman decides we will engage in airlift of supplies to West Berlin ◦ Notable undertaking given the number of ppl in WB ◦ Plane lands every 3 minutes for the next 15 months to 2.5 million ppl • This decision is risky because Russians could shoot down the planes (flying over Soviet-controlled air space) ◦ Some planes are shot down • England also joins US in the airlift to WB (BIG DEAL)

Union strikes (Truman)

• Truman is pro-Union and pro-labor, but there are limits ◦ Railroad workers went on strike (railroads still a major part of the economy even with growth of automobiles) ‣ Commercial air traffic is just emerging ◦ Truman announces he is placing the railroads under government control ‣ Congress can regulate interstate commerce, so allowed • Railroad workers continue their strike and walk out ◦ Truman gives a no-nonsense speech and announces that he will draft into the military all striking gov employees ◦ Before speech ends, he is given a note and told that all strike talks are ended • Economically right after the war, there is tension and difficulties ◦ Why Churchill's party lost

Red Scare 2 (Truman response)

• Truman is under pressure to do something b/c so many are concerned ◦ Sets up a Loyalty Review Board = investigates all federal government employees to find out their loyalties ◦ 2,000 ppl resign (they know they have connections to communism; others reign out of principle b/c don't want to be invaded) and 212 ppl are fired

Fair Deal (background)

• Truman launches this after being re-elected on his own ◦ Square Deal (TR) ◦ New Deal (FDR) ◦ Truman takes on the label that gave others success • Truman's Fair Deal wasn't really backed by Congress ◦ Congress rejects many of Truman's proposals, even though Dems controlled Congress ◦ There were enough Republicans and conservative Dems to block the proposals • Truman wants repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act (Importance of organized labor) • Truman wants to raise taxes on high income earners • Truman wants a National health insurance program • Truman wants significant civil rights legislation ◦ Desegregate the military ◦ Anti-lynching Bill through Congress

1948 Presidential Election (Result)

• Truman was a fighter/moxie and he famously goes on a whistle-stop campaign. He travels 22,000 miles by railroad with average of 10 stops a day across the US ◦ Abilene, Kansas stop where he gives a speech and get a lot of publicity ◦ At each stop, he gets a lot of press ◦ US still dealing with some shortages and inflation and blames "Do Nothing Congress" for economic struggles b/c not being responsive to his proposals • Truman wins! ◦ How could pollsters be so wrong? Did not take a large enough and unbiased polls b/c Reader's Digest Poll didn't extend to Dems not able to read ◦ Telephone polls weren't accurate b/c Dems most likely to not have telephones

Happy Days

• Tv show in 1980s about the 50s • Ppl look back unfavorably at the 1950s now ◦ Women in the home, segregation, but prosperity

Cold War in Action (Asia—Philippines)

• Tydings-McDuffy Act in place which commits US to Philippine Independence 10 years after they create an acceptable constitution • July 4, 1946 = Philippine independence • US pulls out of the Philippines, and US witnesses the activity of Communist gorillas in rural areas ◦ Some communist attacks that Filipino government has to deal with ◦ Cooperation with US government and Filipino government and healthy relationship ‣ US has the right to occupy 2 considerable Air Force bases

Korean War (outbreak—UN)

• UN exists to deal with such situations, so UN condemns the invasion (act of aggression) ◦ UN Security Council decides to act in defense of South Korea ◦ SC dispatches UN peacekeeping forces to SK ‣ The fighting forces are majority Americans ‣ Commanding officer is MacArthur b/c was already positioned in Japan (near Korea) • Russia could've vetoed SC support of South Korea ◦ Russia was at the time boycotting the UN b/c UN had recently given Taiwan China's seat in SC ◦ Russia not in position to veto military action in defense of South Korea

Korean War (outbreak—general)

• US and Russians have pulled out most forces in Korea after an inability to achieve unification and some Russian tanks remain • June 25, 1950 = nation receives word that Communist forces pouring over 38th parallel into SK ◦ Speculation about why? Communists want to control entire peninsula ◦ Framework of CW: this is a clear act of aggression ◦ Soviets were involved in this and encouraging it at the very least (providing resources/equipment) • There have been a number of setbacks for Soviets prior to 1950 ◦ Russians are aggressors in Berlin airlift and then backed off and didn't get away with the aggressive behavior ◦ Marshall Plan instituted in Europe and growing disparity in quality of life btw Eastern and Western Europe ◦ Soviets want to achieve victory after the setbacks

CW in Action (Middle East—Greece/Turkey)

• US and USSR emerge as the 2 superpowers after WWII, and USSR soon starts to pressure Turkey by saying that for their humanitarian needs, they need bases that will allow them to proceed from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean ◦ USSR looking for freshwater ports or ports that don't freeze (only Russian port on the Pacific is Vlotavostik and so far north that the ocean freezes) ◦ Russians also push for the seizure of Russian provinces ‣ Straits Bosperous and Dardanelles link Black Sea to Aegean Sea and then to the Mediterranean • Greece is bordered by Albania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria which are all communist ◦ During WWII, communists in Greece tried to take advantage of instability to take over Greek government ◦ Unsuccessful, but Greece fearing communist takeover after WWII • Greece and Turkey looked to England as a protector and ally, but England announces to US that they can't hold this burden anymore after economic difficulties following WWII ◦ This represents the foundation of the Truman Doctrine

Disposition of Axis Powers (Japan — general)

• US occupies Japan under the command of MacArthur ◦ Soviets pushed for joint occupation of Japan b/c joined the war like 5 days before Japanese surrender ◦ US said no to this because did all the fighting • Japan is disarmed and loses any remaining possessions • Japan is dependent on US food and supplies and US sends billions worth of it to help Japanese during postwar period ◦ US feels guilty for bombing Japanese cities all day and atomic bombs • US occupies Japan for months/years ◦ US eventually withdraws from Japan in 1952 ◦ Japanese were gracious of Americans for being so lenient, so Americans were now happy to be here • US wants Japan to build their military today as opposition to Korea and China

Baruch Plan vs USSR Plan

• US proposes a solution with Bernard Baruch (delegate) in the Baruch Plan ◦ Calls for the banning of atomic weapons (can't build more and destroy existing supplies) ◦ Even US would destroy their supply ◦ UN inspection of any and all facilities of all countries • USSR don't accept US plan and propose their own ◦ Early evidence of CW division ◦ Would not allow inspection of their own facilities ‣ Proceeded in secretive manner ‣ Very little interaction out of the Soviet sphere ◦ Soviets probably had no interest in an effective way to eliminate atomic weapons ‣ If had choice between world without atomic weapons and a world where just US and USSR have them, they would choose the latter

Disposition of Axis Powers (Japan — Constitution)

• US works with Japan for a Constitution • Free elections • Required existence of political parties ◦ Make sure that different views and approaches are implemented ◦ Not everyone is of the same ideology ◦ Not in US Constitution • Existence of labor unions ◦ No situation where just a few head are in control of the entire economy ◦ Not in US Constitution • Women's suffrage is instituted ◦ Against the norms for Japanese ◦ US was a major proponent of women's rights • Japan will never again be a military power

Suez Crisis (negotiations)

• Understanding CW competition, Nasser approaches US w/ confidence that US will give money to Egypt (we do) • Nasser then approaches USSR for a better offer (bargain for more money) ◦ Then, Dulles says that if Nasser wants to go to Soviets, then US is out of the picture • Nasser didn't anticipate this and is very upset, so he takes dramatic action ◦ Sends Egyptian forces to the Suez Canal (military action) and takes control of the canal from British and French ◦ This is a huge deal because Western Europe needs access to the canal in order to access Middle East oil ‣ England and France are dependent on ME oil

1950s Economy

• Unemployment = 4-6% (not perfect, very healthy) ◦ Lowest ever is 3% • Inflation rate = 0-3% ◦ When the economy is expanding, normally there would be expected higher unemployment rise in prices • 1945-1960 = GNP rose about 250% (about 16.7% each year) ◦ Tremendous growth • By the mid 1960s = 5% of the world's population generated 50% of the world's goods and services (AMERICA) ◦ US did benefit from not having WWII on US soil ◦ Free markets and free enterprise also contributing ◦ Best educational system at the time ◦ Energy resources US has available (foundation of every nation's economy) ◦ Very strong work ethic as a nation

Union strikes (general)

• Union strikes (occurred after WWI too) • During both wars, most workers and unions took on no-strike pledges ◦ When war ends, workers are saying that they properly stayed on side lines, but now need to take care of themselves ◦ Prices are so high too (their money doesn't go as far) • 5,000 strikes in 1946 (like 1919)

Berlin Crisis

• Very important...1949-1958 = almost 3 million people move from communist EGermany into WGermany ◦ Many are moving from EBerlin to WBerlin and then either stay there or then move to WG ◦ This is very embarrassing to the Soviets because no one moving to EG (ppl moving to freedom) ◦ Khrushchev finds this situation unacceptable and troubling ‣ Announcement: "the Allies have 6 months to get out of West Berlin" • Berlin is again a focal point of the world (will there be a war w/ WB surrounded by Soviets?) ◦ Good news = Premier Khrushchev agrees to visit the US and inspires a lot of hope that maybe improved relationships and Berlin Crisis could be resolved

Latin America (US commitment)

• Visit to LA by US VP Nixon. He visits countries in LA to show concern for our neighbors and to improve our relationship with them ◦ Visit goes smoothly but a bump in the road ◦ Demonstrators in Venezuela approach Nixon's limo and rock it back and forth to attack Nixon (was scared) • US #1 priority is combatting advance of communism • The US works with other nations in the hemisphere to create OAS (Organization of American States) to settle disputes and provide mutual protection ◦ OAS eventually adopts a resolution against communism ◦ US definitely plays a major role in this

Ike Administration (New Approach—nuclear, MS)

• We rely more on nuclear weapons ◦ Sec of State Dulles openly talks in terms of "massive retaliation" ‣ Not hide from, but publicize our willingness to use nuclear weapons if necessary ◦ The approach of Brinkmanship = willingness to go to the edge of nuclear war ‣ Consistent with George Kennan (after study of Russian history) = he knows that someone has to stand up to the Soviets to stop them • Dulles and Eisenhower are committed to an overall cutback in military spending but also outdo Soviets in weapons ◦ We are going to spend more on nuclear weapons, but much less on conventional weapons (non-nuclear weapons) ◦ Fewer conventional forces (men, training, medical care, pensions = $$) ‣ "More bang for the buck" = more spending with nuclear weapons (spend less money but have more explosive power)

Post-WWII War Crimes Trials

• What will we do about the individuals who did so much damage and showed such disregard for human lives? • Former trials are held in Germany at Nuremberg Trials ◦ Some of the perpetrators are dealt with ◦ Broadcasted on the radio • Purpose = make sure that German ppl understand what their county did ◦ These trials result in the execution of 12 German leaders who wer wmoste active in genocide ◦ Some death camp leaders and Nazi officers also fled Germany to escape punishment and went to US, Brazil ◦ Hundreds of officers and soldiers were sentenced for jail terms of varying lengths ‣ Guilty of crimes against humanity ◦ Lasted into the 1950s • At other trails, 7 Japanese leaders were executed ◦ Among these, wartime Premier Tojo • Wasn't preexisting to hold these trials, but obviously necessary to punish the heinous atrocities

Approach to New Deal legislation (general)

• Why important? Ike is the 1st Rep Pres since ND legislation • Overall, Reps sought to maintain key programs b/c have become part of the country and high approval ◦ Eisenhower still warns of "creeping socialism" = unlikely Russians will take over US, but could happen if Americans bit by bit get accustomed to federal programs and handouts • Generally moderate policy approach (between Hoover and FDR) ◦ Alliance with moderate Democrats • Note: CA Gov Earl Warren appointed Chief Justice of SCOTUS ◦ Will take part in many landmark cases ◦ When AG, he requested relocation of Japanese Americans ◦ Comes to be known as an agent of change as CJ SCOTUS

Fair Deal (laws)

• (1) increase in the minimum wage (Fair Labor Standards Act created it) • (2) Social Security benefits are extended to more of the population (another 9 million ppl) • (3) proposal and ratification of the 22nd Amendment (2-term limit) ◦ The dust has cleared on the heels of FDR's 4 terms ◦ Ppl have thought about and decided that it's a bad idea to let a president serve more than 2 terms. Ppl weren't mad at FDR, ppl just realized it could be dangerous ◦ Limit of how long someone can be President is 10 years ‣ JFK was assassinated in 1963 and then LBJ served half of JFK's term, so he could've been able to run for president twice

1950s Overall Production (general)

• #1 = increased energy capacity ◦ US produces oil and then also imports starting 1953 ◦ Nuclear power plants = 1st in 1957 ‣ Clean energy helps to expand production • 1950s = beginning of use of computers ◦ Can do multiple operations ◦ First operating computer at Penn (took up whole room) • Automation (automatic manufacturing) increasing so much that ppl concerned over ppl's ability to take jobs • Average work week is shortened ◦ Produce more in fewer hours • Workers are finding out that they're getting 2-3 weeks paid vacation (Begins in 1950s)