The Elements of Style: Chapter 1
do not join independent clauses with a comma
-use a semicolon (best method) -create 2 separate sentences using periods -use a comma if a conjunction is inserted -exception: a comma is preferable to a semicolon when the clauses are very short and alike in form, or when the tone of the sentence is easy and conversational (ex: man proposes, God disposes)
form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's
-add 's to for the possessive singular of nouns -follow this rule no matter the final consonant -exceptions are the possessives of ancient proper names ending in -es and -is, the possessive Jesus', and such forms as for conscience' sake, for righteousness' sake (ex: Moses' Laws, Isis' temple) -pronomial possessives (hers, its, theirs, yours, ours) have no apostrophe -indefinite pronouns (one's, somebody else's) use the apostrophe -its shows possession while it's means it is
do not break sentences in 2
-do not use periods for commas -it is okay to make an empathetic word/expression serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly (ex: Again and again he called out. No reply) (the author must be certain that the emphasis is warranted)
enclose parenthetic expressions between commas
-ex: The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot. -if the interruption to the flow of the sentence is slight, the commas may be safely omitted -never omit one comma and leave the other -dates usually contain parenthetic words/figures (ex: February to July, 1992) (ex: April 6, 1986) (ex: Wednesday, November 14, 1990) (it is customary to omit the comma in: 6 April 1988) -a name or title in direct address is parenthetic (ex: If, Sir, you refuse, I cannot predict what will happen) -the abbreviations etc., i.e., and e.g., the abbreviations for academic degrees, and the titles that follow a name are parenthetic and should be punctuated accordingly (ex: letters, packages, etc., should go here) (ex: Horace Fulsome, Ph.D., presided) -no comma should separate a noun from a restrictive term of identification (ex: Billy the kid) (Junior is restrictive, ex: James Wright Jr.) -nonrestrictive clauses are parenthetic, as are similar clauses introduced by conjunctions indicating time or place (ex: the audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more interested) (ex: in 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquired by France) -restrictive clauses are not parenthetic (ex: people who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones) -same rules apply to participial phrases and appositives (ex: people sitting in the rear couldn't hear) (ex: Uncle Bert, being slightly deaf, moved forward) (ex: Our oldest daughter, Mary, sings.) -when the main clause of a sentence is preceded by a phrase or a subordinate clause, use a comma to set off these elements (ex: partly by hard fighting, partly by diplomatic skill, they enlarged their dominions to the east and rose to royal rank with the possession of Sicily)
in a series of 3+ terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last
-ex: red, white, and blue -called the "serial" comma -exception: the names of business firms omit the last comma (ex: Little, Brown and Company)
place a comma before a conjunction introducing an independent clause
-ex: the situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape -two-part sentences of which the second member is introduce by as (in the sense of "because"), for, or, nor, or while (in the sense of "and at the same time") require a comma before the conjunction -if a dependent clause or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed after the conjunction (ex: the situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly, there is still one chance of escape) - when the subject is the same for both clauses and is expressed only once, a comma is useful is the connective is but, not is the connective is and and the relationship is close/immediate (ex: I have heard the arguments, but am still unconvinced) (ex: he has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent)
a participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject
-ex: walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children (the subject is he and the participial phrase refers to him) -participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same rule if they begin the sentence (wrong ex: a soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the defense of the city) (right ex: a soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the defense of the city)
Use a dash to set off an abrupt break or interruption and to announce a long appositive or summary.
-stronger than a comma, less formal than a colon, and more relaxes than parenthesis -only when a more common mark of punctuation seems inadequate
Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an amplification, or an illustrative quotation.
-tells the reader that what follows is closely related to the preceding clause -should not separate a verb from its complement or a preposition from its object (wrong ex: Understanding is that penetrating quality of knowledge the grows from: theory, practice, convection, and humiliation) -join two clauses with a colon if the second interprets/amplifies the first (ex: there was no directness and dispatch about animal burial: there was no stopover in the undertaker's foul parlor) -a colon may introduce a quotation that supports or contributes to the preceding clause (ex: the squalor of the streets reminded her of a line from Oscar Wilde: "We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars.") -use a colon to follow the salutation of a formal letter, to separate hour from minutes in notation of time, and to separate the title of a work from its subtitle or a Bible chapter from a verse (ex: Dear Mr. Miller:) (ex: 10:45 A.M.) (ex: Practical Calligraphy: An Introduction to Italic Script) (ex: Nehemiah 11:7)
use the proper case of pronoun
-the personal pronouns, as well as the pronoun who, change forms as they function as subject or object (ex: will Jane or he be hired, do you think?) (ex: the culprit, it turned out, was he) (ex: we heavy eaters would rather walk than ride) (ex: who knocks?) (ex: give this work to whoever looks idle) -use who when you would say he (ex: James is the candidate who we think will win [we think HE will win]) -use whom when you would say him (ex: James is the candidate whom we hope to elect [we hope to elect HIM]) -a pronoun in a comparison is nominative if it is the subject of a stated or understood verb (ex: Sandy writes better than I. [than I write]); in general, avoid "understood verbs by supplying them (ex: I think Horace admires Jessica more than I DO) -the objective case is correct for the following examples (ex: the ranger offered Shirley and him some advice on campsites) (ex: they came to meet the Baldwins and us) (ex: let's talk it over between us, then, you and me.) (ex: whom should I ask?) (ex: a group of us taxpayers protested) -use the simple personal pronoun as a subject (wrong ex: Blake and myself stayed home) (right example: Blake and I stayed home) -the possessive case of pronouns is used to show ownership. it has two forms: the adjectival modifier, your hat, and the noun form, a hat of yours -gerunds (verbs used as a noun) usually require the possessive case (ex: mother objected to our driving on the icy roads) -a present participle as a verbal takes the objective case (ex: they heard him singing in the shower)
the number of the subject determines the number of the verb
-words that intervene between subject and verb do not affect the number of the verb (wrong ex: the bittersweet flavor of youth-its trials, its joys, its adventures, its challenges- are not soon forgotten) (right ex: the bittersweet flavor of youth-its trials, its joys, its adventures, its challenges-is not soon forgotten) -use a plural verb for the phrase "one of..." (ex: one of those people who are never ready on time) -use a single verb after each, either, everyone, everybody, neither, nobody, someone -with none, use the singular verb when the word means "no one" or "not one" (ex: none of us is perfect) -a plural verb is commonly used when none suggests more than one thing/person (ex: none are so fallible as those who are sure they're right) -a compound subject formed of 2+ nouns joined together by and almost always requires a plural verb (ex: the walrus and the carpenter are sure they're right) -certain compounds, often cliches, are so inseparable they are considered a unit and take a singular verb, as do compound subjects qualified by each or every (ex: the long and the short of it is...) (ex: every window, picture, and mirror was smashed) -a singular subject remains singular even if other nouns are connect to it by with, as well as, in addition to, except, together with, and no less than (ex: his speech as well as his manner is objectionable) -a linking verb agrees with the number of its subject (ex: what is wanted is a few more pairs of hands) -some nouns that may appear to be plural are usually construed as singular and given a singular verb (ex: politics is an art, not a science)
