The Long 19th Century
According to the communist manifesto, what role has the state played in the class conflict?
According to the communist manifesto, the state has played a major role in the class conflict. Class conflict between the oppressed and their oppressors has always been present throughout history, and the state represented the oppressor. Almost always, the ideas of the state have been the ideas that have dominated society. Marx and Engels also said that the government of the state reflected and defended the interests of the industrial middle class. In their communist manifesto, Marx and Engels also projected the creation of a classless society resulting from the conflicts between the bourgeoisie (state) and the proletariat. Everything would be better now, Marx and Engels predicted, and capitalism and the state would wither away.
Describe the working conditions of a factory? Why did children make up such a large percentage of the workforce? How were they treated?
After the institution of new industrial factories, many factory workers faced treacherous conditions, both emotionally and physically. They were faced with up to 16 hours a day of work, 6 days a week. There was no minimum wage, nor security of employment. While conditions were horrible everywhere, they were particularly bad in cotton mills, due to the stench, heat, and dust. Coal mine conditions weren't much better, as there were many dangers like cave-ins, gas fumes, and explosions, which resulted in death, lung failure, and body deformation. In general, many workers faced the dangers of unhealthy air, and getting their limbs caught in machines. The burdens of the Industrial Revolution faced many, and women and the poor were no exception. After the number of children (to be mentioned later) employed went down, women took over, despite being payed at most half of what men received. The poor were also abused, and the Poor Law Act established workhouses where the jobless poor had to live. These workhouses were designed similar to prisons, to make a repulsive discipline. These workhouses obviously had horrible conditions. Children were abused as well, and were exposed to the miserable conditions of factories. They made a large percentage of the work force, because many owners liked certain aspects of child labor. For example, children had a more delicate touch as cotton spinners, and their small size helped them crawl under machines. However, the main reason was that kids were more easily broken to factory work, and they presented a cheap method of labor. Kids as little as 7 years old worked in cotton mills for up to 15 hours a day, 6 days a week, making as little as 1/6 of what a man would make (which still wasn't much). An especially horrible form of child labor was pauper apprentices, who were orphaned apprenticed to factory owners looking fr cheap sources of labor. As a result of severe discipline, long hours, and lack of recreation and food, many became deformed. In conclusion, the working conditions of a factory were horrible to men, women, children, and the poor. Parliament finally made some amends, but they were insufficient, and strikes and unions became more common.
According to Marx, what shapes history?
Although Marx admired the German philosopher Hegel, he disagreed with Hegel's opinion on what shapes history. Rather, Marx thought that the course of history was determined by material forces, not ideas.
Economic Imperialism
An extension of imperialism was economic imperialism, which was also present in the late 1800s in Europe. This was associated by the desire of the European states to directly control areas where raw materials were abundant, rather than just trade for them. However, various European industrial powers did not simply invest in places their own countries had colonized; they invested wherever they could achieve the most profit. Surprisingly, in comparison to industrialized Europe, much of the conquered territory seemed nothing more than wasteland to the countries that had conquered it. In fact, the cost to administer these "wastelands" was higher than the economic profit. This fact was only justified by the national prestige that resulted from colonization. For the most part, the effects of imperialism were an economic increase for the conquering countries, as well as increased national prestige, and worse conditions for the areas being conquered.
Economic liberalism
An extension of liberalism was economic liberalism, of which the underlying belief was laissez-faire. This stated that the state should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces, especially supply and demand. Basically, the government should not interfere in economics or in the economic liberty of the individual. Instead, it should simply protect individuals, build public works, and defend the country. Economic liberals believed that this would boost society's general welfare. Thomas Malthus enhanced this concept by writing that poverty and misery were the result of the law of nature, and that nobody (no government) should interfere with its operation. David Ricardo expanded on Malthus's ideas in his essay. Ricardo developed the iron law of wages, where he argued that arbitrarily raising wages would not be beneficial, only perpetuating a vicious cycle that led to overpopulation, starvation, and misery. The effects of economic liberalism was that the government gradually slowed down its interference with natural economic forces.
Social Darwinism
As science became more popular in the late 1800s, many began to look to science to find out more about their society. Social Darwinism derived from scientific Darwinism, a concept that said that species compete for a limited amount of space, and that only an organism well suited to its environment could survive and reproduce. Over a long time, the traits that help an organism survive are passed on, while the traits that create disadvantages die out. However, in the late 1800s, many followers of Darwinism drew parallels between Darwinism and society, creating a racist concept known as social Darwinism. This concept stated that society's fittest were those at the top of the socioeconomic pyramid, while the unfit were at the bottom. The social Darwinists wantepthe laws of natural selection to function freely, so that everyone in society would find their rightful place. To ensure that these laws functioned freely, they proposed to curtail various privileges to the unfit. As time passed, there was a growing racial aspect to social Darwinism. Ernst Haeckel is known for ranking man's races, placing Aryans (European whites) at the top, and Africans and Jews at the bottom. Soon, eugenics came in to play as a way to keep the German race pure. Eugenics was the use of science to improve the human race. The way that this was achieved was by breeding society's fit with other fit members, and preventing the unfit from breeding. This was founded by Alfred Ploetz, who called for racial hygiene. The effects of social Darwinism were horrible, as they increased racism and xenophobia and led to more racism, perhaps inspiring Adolf Hitler and the Nazis.
Principle of Legitimacy
At the Congress of Vienna in 1814, the leader Metternich strongly stood by the principle of legitimacy, thinking that in order to restore peace and stability, it was necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs and keep traditional institutions. This had already been done in France, Spain, and Italy. This principle was evident when the congress decided that a new Polish kingdom would by established with a Russian monarchial dynasty ruling. The effects of this principle were that many traditional institutions and monarchs were restored. It also led to the principle of intervention.
What allowed the Italian revolution of 1860 to succeed, where as that of 1848 failed? What had changed?
Attempts at revolution in Italy in 1848 had failed. So, in the 1850s, Italian citizens began to advocate for expulsion of Austria, seeking Piedmont (a northern state) for leadership. This became a reality when Camilo di Cavour became prime minister. Italy's success in the 1860 Revolution can be partially credited to his strong leadership and decision. He expanded Piedmont's economy through construction, expanded credit, and promoted investment. This resulted in an improved economy and increased revenues which were then used to get a large and powerful army. Cavour also used diplomacy/alliances with other countries to help the revolution succeed. First, he allied with France, who helped Cavour subdue Austria. At the same time, nationalists took control over Italy's northern states, who agreed to join Piedmont. In southern Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi led Italian revolutionary efforts. Garibaldi yielded with Cavour's ideas, and Italy's government was finally centralized.
Describe the ideology of conservatism. How did Metternich's role at the Congress of Vienna reflect that ideology?
Conservatism was a modern political philosophy that was especially popular among influential members of society like Metternich, Burke and Maistre. In general, most conservatives, as the name implies, were inclined to uphold a traditional approach, valuing an ordered society, and traditional religion. They also respected political authority, but hated revolutionary acts, denying liberal demands and nationalistic aspiration. They valued the community more than individual rights. This philosophy came to be supported by many, including governments, aristocracies, churches, and monarchs. Metternich's role at the Congress of Vienna certainly reflected this ideology because he firmly believed in the principle of legitimacy, stating that the only way to restore peace/stability to France was by restoring the legitimate monarchs and traditional institutions.
Communism
Communism was a political theory made popular by Karl Marx, created around 1847. The theory advocated war between classes, and also promoted publicly owned property, and fair distribution of wealth and opportunities. Marx and Engels published the Communist Manifesto, a document projecting the creation of a classless society resulting from the conflicts between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Everything would be better now, Marx and Engels predicted, and capitalism would wither away. Some more principles of communism included abolition of property and inheritance rights, heavy taxes, free education, and general egalitarianism. While they are controversial, there's no denying the immense effects of communism. To some, it created a more just society, as property and opportunities were fairly distributed. However, it denoted various personal liberties as well, stripping individuals of opportunities to excel, and their possessions reflecting their hard work. This political theory is still in effect for some countries today.
Socialism
European citizens (British) were faced with horrible working and living conditions in the early 1800s, during the Industrial Revolution. This led to socialism, an ideology that later came to be associated with Marxism. However, socialism was originally the product of political intellectuals who wanted to introduce equality into social conditions. They valued cooperation over competition. These utopian socialists did not like private property, nor the competitive nature of capitalism. They thought that they should eliminate these burdens, and reorganize society. They thought that the means of production should be controlled by the community, and distributed fairly. One of the most famous socialists is Fourier. Socialism had tremendous effects on Europe, as it led to Marxism, which is associated with communism, which is still practiced by some countries today.
Liberalism
Despite the dominant conservative forces in the first part of the 1800s, there were many powerful change movements that were prominent throughout Europe, including liberalism. Liberalism stemmed from various events of the 1700s, most notably the Enlightenment and various revolutions. The underlying belief was that all people should be as free from restrict as possible, and that the government should interfere as little as possible. Liberalism continued to develop with the progression of the Industrial Revolution, because the middle class began to agree with it. Liberals believed in equal civil rights for all, but unequal political rights. Most liberals shared common political views, as illustrated in political liberalism. These beliefs included the assurance of civil liberties/basic rights, like equality before the law, freedom from arbitrary arrest, and freedom of assembly, speech, and press. Political liberals also argued for religious toleration, and separation of church and state. Basically, they desired a constitutional monarchy, with checks and balances imposed. Another extension of liberalism was economic liberalism, with an underlying belief of laissez faire, the belief that the state should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces, especially supply and demand. Basically, the government should not interfere in economics, or in the economic liberty of the individual. This principle was enhanced by Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo. One of the most important liberals in general was John Stuart Mill, who wrote a book advocating for the liberty of the individual, stating that opinions should be protected from government censorship and the tyranny of the majority. He was also a women's rights advocate. In conclusion, liberalism was an extremely important movement for change, as it influenced many European citizens and promoted the ideas of liberty, in general, economically, and politically.
Civil Code
During the Old Regime, France had around 300 different legal systems, and efforts during the revolution to unify France were unsuccessful. Finally, in 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte created the 7 codes of law, most importantly the Civil Code. This code preserved many revolutionary ideals, most notably equality (no unfair opportunities/treatment). Also, individuals possessed freedom of profession and religion, and serfdom/feudalism were abolished. Property rights were protected as well. However, the Civil Code limited the rights of women and children, abolishing the law making divorce easier, the law limiting father's power over their children, and the law allowing children to inherit property equally. Also, women were given less importance in court.
Giuseppe Mazzini: Young Italy
Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian liberal nationalist who lived for the first 3 quarters of the 1800s. He had many revolutionary ideals and actions, and because of this, he was exiled to Marseille. Motivated by the failures of other revolts, as well as his personal desire to form a new society, Mazzini founded Young Italy in 1831. The collective goal of this society was to create a united Italian republic. So, the 2 main pillars of the organization were unity and a republican government. Mazzini stressed the importance of unity/nationality, and establishing a sense of nationalism, as sympathy and alliance would result from this. The program was based on the revival of Italian citizens, both morally and spiritually. Another goal was to educate the people regarding their role in politics. In order to achieve these values, Mazzini said, Europe must be completely reorganized. He demanded the repulsion of the treaties of 1815, and argued that the map of Europe should be remade, as without this altercation, social ideas could not be achieved. His liberal views were also evident, as Mazzini advocated that people should possess freedom of speech and the power of self-interrogation. Finally, he proposed an alliance to replace the current absolutist league, and proposed a balance of power system. A few years after its creation, Mazzini expanded the program throughout Europe, and eventually 50,000 people were part of it. However, the organization eventually crumbled, as their revolts failed. Also, the combination of lack of popular support, divisions within the group, the groups inability to fight off Austria, and finally the success of counterrevolutionaries eventually led to the decline of Young Italy. The effects of Young Italy were an increased concentration of liberal ideas and actions in Italy and throughout Europe.
Imperialism
Imperialism was a movement that occurred in Europe in the late 1800s that was characterized by Europe conquest for overseas colonies. There are many causes for imperialism, some of which are economic. For example, many European countries sought colonies that gave them coaling stations and ports. However, other states sought colonies not for economic reasons, but rather to prevent other states from acquiring them. Another cause of imperialism was nationalism, as colonies represented prestige. Patriotic fervor was used to inspire imperialism. Yet another reason was religion, as many Christian missionaries sought to convert. Economic imperialism stemmed from the desire of European states to directly control areas where raw materials were abundant, rather than imply trade for them. Europeans sought to colonize Africa especially near the turn of the century, due to its abundance in natural resources. Like many patterns of conquer throughout history, the effects of imperialism were that it made European states richer, and the colonized communities of Africa and Asia poorer, and its citizens miserable. Europe came to dominate much of these 2 continents. Another specific effect of imperialism was the prevalence of social Darwinism, racism, and xenophobia.
In his dealings with the RCC, how did Napoleon manage to placate both the Church and the French revolutionaries.
In 1801, Napoleon made a Concordat that appeased both the RCC and the revolutionaries. The agreement stated that Catholicism was too be preserved and supported by the state. Napoleon agreed to open negotiations to reestablish the Catholic Church in France, although Catholicism was not reestablished as the state religion. This clearly benefitted the Church/Pope, as Catholicism was preserved. Also, it allowed the Pope to depose French bishops, but he still couldn't appoint them. These clergy were then paid by the state. Finally, this agreement allowed the RCC to hold processions and reopen seminaries. However, the Concordat benefited the French people and the revolutionaries as well, as it made the Pope acknowledge the accomplishments of the Revolution, and it ensured that the RCC was no longer an enemy of the French government. There were economic incentives as well, as the Pope agreed not to bring up the church lands confiscated during the revolution, reassuring those who acquired church property that they could keep it. Finally, this agreement gave the people freedom, because they were not forced to practice Catholicism.
Balance of Power
In 1814 at the Congress of Vienna, diplomats tried to form a balance of power. This was a system regarding territory and limits in order to make sure that no single country could dominate Europe. This was evident because they gave some Polish territory to Austria, and Prussia, yet they allowed Russia to rule it. Then, the balance of power was evident with France. Even though it had been weakened, France was still a strong power. So, the diplomats built defensive barriers preventing French expansion on all sides of France. These barriers included the creation of the Germanic Confederation. Finally, the congress shrank France's borders, and forced it to pay a tax and to accept an occupational army for 5 years. The effects of this order of balance of power were that there wasn't another conflict in Europe for nearly 100 years, and that no single country dominated Europe.
David Lloyd George
In England, after the liberals got control of the House of Commons, they knew they would have to bring about social reform, otherwise risking losing the support of the workers. This idea was promoted by David Lloyd George, a well-spoken chancellor from Wales, who lived from the mid 1800s to the mid 1900s. His liberal views largely resulted from his sympathy for the Welsh coal miners and the way they were treated. Anyway, in the early 1900s, Lloyd George helped abolish laissez-faire, and enact various social reforms, including the national insurance act, and a policy that gave a pension to injured or retired workers. In order to pay for these changes, Lloyd George proposed to increase taxes on the rich, despite the views of the House of Lords. However, in the early 1900s, the liberals managed to abolish the checks and balances power of the House of Lords on the House of Commons. So, Lloyd George's plan was successful, and the wealthy were more heavily taxed. His active involvement in domestic and foreign affairs also contributed to the transformation of liberalism in Great Britain.
What is more important to Mill, the individual or the society? Why?
In his work On Liberty, it is clear that Mill values the individual over society. He takes a liberal approach in his writing, defending the freedom of the individual, while occasionally criticizing society and government. Mill argues that the individual should possess liberty of thought and feeling, and conscience, and absolute freedom of opinion/sentiment on all subjects. He then says that silencing human expression (an opinion) is evil, and that the only cause where interfering with individual liberty is acceptable is in cases of self-protection. Mill also mentions that if society issues unjust mandates or imposes its own ideas and practices, then it practices a social tyranny. Finally, Mill points out that even if everybody except for 1 person has a certain view on something, silencing that 1 person would not be justified, as it may have been that one person who was correct.
What is the goal of Young Italy? How does Mazzini propose they will reach that goal?
In the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini was exiled to Marseille on account of his revolutionary ideas and actions. There, he founded the Young Italy organization, a group whose collective goal was the creation of a united Italian republic. The movement was based on the revival of Italian citizens, both morally and spiritually. The program was to have a popular character, and it was intended to educate Italian citizens regarding their role in politics. Another goal of the program was to promote nationalism, as sympathy and alliance would result from this. In order to achieve these values, Mazzini said, Europe must be completely reorganized. He demanded the repulsion of the treaties of 1815, and argued that the map of Europe should be remade, as without this altercation, social ideas could not be achieved. His liberal views were also evident, as Mazzini advocated that people should possess freedom of speech and the power of self-interrogation. Finally, he proposed an alliance to replace the current absolutist league, and proposed a balance of power system.
What led to the 1830 French Revolution?
In the early 1800s, liberal views were becoming more and more common. The new elections in 1830 gave the French liberals another victory. So, King Charles X decided to take action first, creating censorship on the press, reducing the electorate, and destroying the legislative assembly. Basically, these edicts resulted in increased concentration of the power of the crown. The liberals immediately responded with a rebellion. Their motivation stemmed from their anger towards these edicts, but also from media sources that galvanized then. Other factors that contributed to the revolution were terrible working/living conditions for workers of lower classes, as well as an economic crisis which led to unemployment and violence.
Describe Metternich's principle of intervention? What was its overarching goal?
In the early 1800s, various political revolts were occurring in Spain and Italy. Metternich was particularly bothered by these revolts because he thought they could threaten Austria's domination of the peninsula. So, around 1820, he declared the principle of intervention, which abolished from the European Alliance states that had endangered other states by their own revolution. It also permitted the powers of Europe to send armies into countries where there were revolutions to restore legitimate monarchs. Britain did not agree with this principle, but the Quadruple Alliance disregarded their opinion, and send Austrian troops into Naples, crushing the revolt, and restoring the rule of the monarchs. Then, these troops moved north to crush the rebels in Piedmont. A few years later, France invaded Spain, destroying the revolts, and restoring the monarchy. This policy of intervention was successful, as it stopped revolutions and restored order as well as traditional values. However, even though the British couldn't prevent the interventions in Europe, they managed to stop the alliance from interfering with the revolutions in Latin America.
What factors led to the Russian Revolution in 1905? Why was the revolution a failure?
In the late 1800s in Russia, Sergei Witte brought about massive industrialism. He created over 35,000 miles of railroad, and also instituted a system of protective taxes. Then, Witte convinced Tsar Nicholas II that foreign wealth was necessary for industrial growth. This resulted in growth of Russia's steel and coal industry. Like many other European countries, industrialization resulted in miserable working and living conditions for the workers, arousing strong discontent among them. This resulted in socialist parties, who were soon forced to go underground and become revolutionary. They tried to overthrow the tsarist autocracy, while establishing peasant socialism. They then engaged in political terrorism, attempting to murder various government officials, and in the early 1900s, full-blown revolution came. War with Japan simultaneously led to political upheaval at home, as many Russians grew unhappy. The middle class wanted liberal systems, nationalities were angered that they were being dominated by an ethnic Russian population, peasants were angry about their lack of land, while laborers were mad about their abysmal working and living conditions. Basically, everyone was unhappy. Additionally, there were major food shortages due to the breakdown of the transport system. Due to all these causes, many workers protested to the tsar, when troops opened fire on them, enhancing their anger and the revolution. This led workers to call strikes and form unions, councils to revolt, and peasants to burn down their landowners' houses. Eventually, the government surrendered, and Nicholas II gave civil liberties and created the Duma, a legislative assembly satisfying the middle class. Despite the initial success, constitutional monarchy did not last for long. Tsar Nicholas II did not like reform, and he was quick to limit the power of the Duma. After the assassination of his advisor, he once again relied on the army and bureaucracy to rule Russia.
Dreyfus Affair
In the late 1800s, France's Third Republic was split over whether to embrace the republic, or restore a limited monarchy. Then came the Dreyfus Affair, which helped sway France to make their decision. Alfred Dreyfus was a wealthy and powerful Jew, who was declared guilty of treason, despite evidence of his innocence. In fact, all signs pointed to a Catholic being guilty. However, the predominantly Catholic lawmakers refused a new trial, and many used this case to promote anti-Semitism. In response to public indignation, leaders finally called for a new trial near the turn of the century. The Catholic was not punished, but Dreyfus was pardoned. The Dreyfus affair had many effects, both domestically and throughout Europe. In France, the Dreyfus affair resulted in governmental change, as the radical republicans emerged victorious over the conservatives. This resulted in reduced power of the church, and separation of church and state. The effects of the Dreyfus affair were also present in Austria, as the affair convinced a Viennese journalist (who eventually became the founder of Zionism) that assimilation alone did not protect Jews from anti-Semitism. As a result, he started the Zionist movement, arguing that the Jews needed their own country. Obviously, this movement was very important, as it has shaped our world.
Congress of Vienna
Just before the death of Napoleon, France's 4 major enemies formed the Quadruple Alliance, and planned to defeat France and then keep peace after the war. The alliance managed to restore France's Bourbon monarchy in the form of Louis XVIII, and they also planned to meet at a congress in Vienna in 1814 to negotiate a peace treaty. This was the Congress of Vienna. The leader of the conference was the Austrian foreign minister, Metternich. The congress made great progress. Metternich strongly stood by the principle of legitimacy. He believed that in order to restore peace and stability to Europe, it was necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs and keep traditional institutions. This proposed law was not always followed. An extension of the principle of legitimacy was conservatism. Conservatives were inclined to uphold a traditional approach, valuing an ordered society, and believing that tradition was the best guide to order. They respected political authority and organized religion. They hated revolutionary acts, and frowned upon liberal demands, and nationalistic aspirations. Another idea of the congress was balance of power, a system regarding territory and limits to make sure that no single country could dominate Europe. Various defensive barriers that prevented France's expansion were introduced. This principle was successful, as no country dominated Europe for nearly 100 years.
Karl Marx
Karl Marx was a German philosopher who lived from from the early 1800s to the late 1800s. Marx got a good education and received a degree in philosophy. He wanted to become a teacher, but couldn't get a job due to his atheism, so he decided to pursue journalism and started working for a liberal newspaper. Once the newspaper was suppressed for its radical views, Marx moved Paris, where he met Friedrich Engels. Engels would become very influential, as he contributed his knowledge of working conditions and his financial assistance to Marx's own ideas. Marx had witnessed capitalism (Industrial Revolution), and was troubled by the poverty and oppression that was present. So, he became dedicated to responding to the struggles of capitalism and industrialization. In the mid 1800s, he and Engels joined the Communist League, a group of socialist revolutionaries. He and Engels then published the Communist Manifesto, a document projecting the creation of a classless society resulting from the conflicts between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Everything would be better now, Marx and Engels predicted, and capitalism would wither away. While this was his most famous work, Marx also had some other prominent ideas. He advocated dialectic, or the idea that everything evolves and historic changes result from conflict between antagonists. He also claimed that the course of history was determined by material forces. Finally, Marx advocated for communism, a political theory where property and opportunities were publicly owned, and fairly distributed based on people's various needs. Marx then joined the International Working Men's Association, an organization promoting the interests of the working classes. However, this organization ultimately failed, and the fate of socialism was in the hands of socialist parties. The effects of Karl Marx were tremendous. He introduced Marxism, which paved the way for socialism and communism, ideas which are still present in today's society.
Louis Phillipe
Louis-Philippe was Charles X's cousin, who took over as France's constitutional king in 1830. He would rule until 1848. He came to be called the bourgeois monarch due to his favorable nature and actions towards the upper middle class, who in turn provided political support for his rule. Louis-Philippe altered the constitutions in order to benefit the bourgeoisie, and financial qualification for voting were reduced. However, they remained quite high, signifying that only the wealthy members of French society could vote. There was a lot of conflict present during Louis-Philippe's rule, some of which stemmed from the discontent of the lower class, with their limited rights and horrific working and living conditions. On top of that, there was an economic crisis, which created unemployment and led to violent outbursts. Furthermore, legislature was divided as the Party of Movement wanted changes, while the Party of Resistance thought that no changes were necessary. The Party of Resistance won, and Louis-Philippe then worked to suppress ministerial responsibility, and help benefit rich tradesmen and manufacturers. The results of Louis-Philippe were that the rich got richer, and the poor got poorer.
Why is capitalism doomed? What conditions do Marx and Engels believe will bring about the end of capitalism?
Marx and Engels thought that capitalism was doomed. They acknowledged that the oppressed and their oppressors have always been in conflict, and they predicted that the proletariat (industrial working class) would emerge victorious and proceed to form a dictatorship where they would revamp the methods of production. The power of the state would disintegrate, and the result would be a classless society. This shift to a classless society would signify that there's no use for capitalism. So, this shift would bring about the end of capitalism.
Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte lived from the mid 1700s to the early 1800s. He was born Italian, but quickly shifted to French values, changing his name. There is no doubt that he impacted the French Revolution, but how he did so is debatable. Many say he brought the revolution to an end, while he was also a "child of the revolution." Anyway, he was well-educated, and started of as a minor lieutenant. He studied the campaigns of great military leaders, and soon became a captain. Then, he was promoted to brigadier general, and then major general after saving the National Convention from a Parisian mob. After marrying, he was made commander of the French army in Italy, where he turned immature soldiers into a professional army (he is known for managing his men well). He also managed to defeat the Austrians, and returned to France a hero near the turn of the century. He was given command of an army training to invade England, but Napoleon cleverly proposed indirectly striking Britain by taking Egypt/India (source of Britain's wealth). However, sensing defeat, Napoleon abandoned his army and returned to Paris. Then, he participated in a coup, and soon became the dictator of France. He was named the 1st consul, and directly controlled all executive authority of government. He created a Civil Code, stabilizing and centralizing France. Then, he was made consul for life, and crowned himself the emperor, which resulted in a government that was becoming more and more autocratic and dictatorial. After his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon was exiled.
How did Napoleon centralize the government?
Napoleon centralized the French government by rationalizing its bureaucracy and administratively revamping France. He kept the 83 departments made by the National Assembly, but he replaced the locally elected assemblies with prefects, who were responsible for supervising all aspects of domestic government. While appointing, Napoleon only took ability into account, not status. This was how he rationalized France's bureaucratic system. Napoleon then administratively reformed France by making tax collection far more efficient; he made professional collectors collect taxes. Finally, he made a new aristocracy.
How was nationalism a powerful force in the nineteenth century?
Nationalism was a very powerful instrument of change in the 1800s. It grew from an awareness of being part of a community with common characteristics, like customs and language. Then, nationalists came to believe that this community constituted a nation, which then should become the focus of an individual's primary political loyalty. However, nationalism's popularity only came during the French Revolution, when nationalists thought that each nationality should possess its own government. This was evident in Germany and Hungary, and their desire for unity. Despite its benefits, many conservatives frowned upon nationalism, and attempted to take away such radical idea that might ruin the existing political order. For example, they feared that a united Germany or Italy would disturb the balance of power created at the Congress of Vienna. Despite these views, many nationalists and liberals allied with each other in the 1800s. This alliance occurred because liberals thought that liberty could only be achieved by those who ruled themselves, and because nationalists thought that once everyone obtained its own state, all nations could be linked together, and freedom should flourish. The ideology of nationalism is controversial. There are debates on whether it was beneficial or not, but there's no denying that it was a powerful force in Europe throughout the 1800s, as it resulted in advances in unification.
Count Otto von Bismarck: Realpolitk
Otto von Bismarck was born in the early 1800s in Prussia. He's known for guiding Prussia's unification of Germany. He originally worked for Prussian civil service, but he then retired. However, in the mid 1800s he started to miss power, and reentered pubic life. Soon after, he served as the Prussian delegate and ambassador. Bismarck was a consummate politician, as well as an opportunist. He was a moderate, and only sought war when there were no other alternatives, and when he was confident in his side's ability. He's also known as the ultimate realist, as he founded Realpolitik, a political system based on rational and practical thought, rather than idealistic ideas. In 1862, he resubmitted his army appropriations bill to parliament, as well as an appeal to Germany's liberals. Once again, his opponents rejected the bill. However, Bismarck paid no attention to their decision, and went on to fulfill the components of the bill, which included collecting taxes and reorganizing the army. Furthermore, he blamed the liberals. For the next 4 years, Bismarck governed Prussia under his system of Realpolitik, while mainly ignoring parliament. Eventually, he was drawn into various wars. The effects of Bismarck was the practice of Realpolitik (rational thought, not idealistic), and the unification of Germany.
In his proclamations to the troops, how does Napoleon raise the morale of the army?
Primarily, Napoleon gave exciting speeches to his troops, seeking to galvanize them into fighting better. He described to them the outstanding victories they'd already had, and mentioning that there was so much more to achieve. One of his most famous speeches was to his troops in Italy. Napoleon engaged in psychological warfare, where he used nationalistic language to improve his troops' courage and performance.
Metternich
Prince Metternich was the Austrian foreign minister, who was also the leader of the Congress of Vienna. He lived from the late 1700s to the mid 1800s, and was a smart diplomat, but also quite cocky about his intellectual ability. He believed in conservatism, and "destroying the revolutionary seed." As the name implies, he was inclined to uphold a traditional approach. He liked an ordered society, and traditional religion. He hated revolutionary acts, and denied liberal demands and nationalistic aspirations. A similar idea that Metternich advocated for was the principle of legitimacy. This principle stated that the restoration of legitimate monarchs and the maintaining of traditional institutions were the only way to restore peace and stability to Europe. Finally, Metternich supported the principle of intervention, which allowed powers of Europe to send armies into other countries where there were revolutions, in order to restore the rule of legitimate monarchs. Metternich was a very influential man, who helped "put out the flame" of the revolution. More effects included that order and legitimate monarchs were restored, balance of power was present, as was an inclination to respect conservative/traditional approaches.
How did Bismarck unify Germany?
Since the Frankfurt Assembly's failure to unify Germany, Germany continued pursuit of unification. Prussia took the lead in this quest, and King William eventually appointed Count Otto von Bismarck as prime minister, a man who would come to be known as having unified Germany. Originally, he worked as a civil service, but Bismarck eventually got bored and retired. However, in the mid 1800s, Bismarck desired power once again, reentering public life. He became a Prussian diplomat and ambassador, and he was very experienced and clever in diplomacy. Despite popular belief, Bismarck did NOT unify Germany through an organized, determined plan. Rather he was an opportunist, or an ultimate realist, and a moderated who waged war only when presented with no possible alternatives. His unification continued when he resubmitted a bill to parliament, and expressed his opposing opinions towards the liberals. Even though his opponents rejected the bill (again), Bismarck went ahead and pursued the agreements of the bill anyway, blaming the liberals. These agreements were the collection of taxes and reorganization of the army. For the next 4 years, Bismarck continued to ignore parliament. His method was unjust and arrogant, yet it still proved successful in unifying Germany.
What led to the 1848 French Revolution? What was the end result?
Some think that the 1848 French Revolution was simply aftermath of the 1830 French Revolution. However, there were some new causes. For example, France's lower class was hit with an extreme industrial and agricultural depression, resulting in 1/3 of Parisian workers were jobless. Additionally, the government refused suffrage rights to the middle classes, while bribery and corruption were present. Louis-Philippe and his government failed to make proper reforms to these problems. Adolphe Thiers led a group of protestors, and Louis-Philippe was finally dethroned. Then, a provisional government was made, with a constituent assembly. New principles included universal male suffrage and national workshops. However, the government came to dislike this idea, due to the financial resources it required. So, the radicals and the moderates were growing further and further apart. The results were the number of jobless workers enrolled in national workshops went up, France became broke, and the workshops were closed. Many were unhappy with this decision, and workers revolted in the streets, until the government demolished the workers, killing many, and deporting many more. Finally, the new constitution established a republic with legislature and a president elected by universal male suffrage. The final result of all this was that Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew became president, and was soon named emperor.
Look at the Civil Code. What revolutionary ideals are evident? Missing?
The Civil Code was the most important of 7 codes made by Napoleon. It maintained revolutionary ideals like a uniform legal system, equality, and protection and avocation of both property and individuals. The most important revolutionary ideal maintained was egalitarianism; all citizens were equal in the eyes of the law, and there were no tax exemptions or unfair opportunities. Also, individuals possessed freedom of profession and religion, and serfdom and feudalism were abolished. Finally, Napoleon protected property rights, while also fulfilling the interests of employers. However, the Civil Code limited the rights of women and children. It abolished laws that made divorce easier, laws that limited father's power over their children, and the law allowing children to inherit property equally. Also, women had less power in court.
Agricultural Revolution
The agricultural revolution was an event that occurred in Britain during the 1700s, and served as one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution. It transformed agriculture, due to changes in methods of stock breeding and farming. This increased the amount of food being produced, meaning that British farming could feed more people at lower prices, while simultaneously limiting the required labor. It also meant that even ordinary British families didn't have to devote most of their income to food, allowing them to purchase manufactured goods. Finally, a steady and consistent diet meant that people were less vulnerable to disease and starvation, boosting Britain's population. One notable aspect of the agricultural revolution was crop rotation, a farming concept based on the realization that if certain plants have grown on the same fields for enough seasons consecutively, they'll drain the soil of nutrients. So, crop rotation would switch out which field produced which crop, increasing farming efficiency and boosting agricultural as a whole. The overall effects of the agricultural revolution were an extreme boost to the British economy, and the welfare of its citizens. Also, this agricultural revolution helped cause the Industrial Revolution.
Irish Potato Famine
The high standards of living even among the poor in Britain was certainly not present in Ireland, as most peasants rented land from British landlords whose sole concern was collecting rent. So, the peasants lived in mud hovels, in extreme poverty. Their harvesting of potatoes (a nutritious and easy-to-grow food) helped them survive and even expand. In fact, a family could be fed from simply a few acres of potatoes. It was clear that due to their usefulness, much of Ireland's population (peasants) depended on potatoes to survive. Unfortunately, in 1845, Ireland's potatoes were struck by blight due too a fungus that turned the potatoes black. For the next 6 years, the Irish potato famine wiped out the Irish population, killing over a million people due to disease and starvation. Along with many death, this resulted in nearly 2 million Irish emigrating to the United States and Britain, increasing those countries' populations. More peasants moved to towns and cities Ireland.
What was the immediate political response to the defeat of Napoleon? Why would this be difficult to achieve?
The immediate political response to the defeat of Napoleon was the desire to contain revolution and by restoring many aspects of the older order. These desires were put into play by Metternich and the Congress of Vienna in the form of the principle of legitimacy, balance of power, the principle of intervention, and conservatism. However, this would be hard to achieve because it's hard to role back liberties that have already been given. The world was changed by the revolution, and would not simply go back to the old system. Also, liberalism and nationalism were too powerful to contain. Indeed, the desired actions were not successful in the long run, as the Industrial Revolution and other movements for change swept through Europe.
What are the various motives for the new imperialism? What would Marx advance as the primary cause?
There exist many possible motives for the new imperialism. One of these reasons was the desire of European states to directly control the areas that contained raw materials, rather than just trading for them. Another cause was nationalism, and the pride/prestige that came with colonizing. However, Karl Marx and his followers (mainly Lenin) would argue that economics wreathe main motives of imperialism, since imperialism was the ultimate death of capitalism. They thought that capitalism led to imperialism, and that the only cure for imperialism was destruction of capitalism.
Why do you think socialism grew out of the Industrial Revolution?
There is a strong case to be made that socialism grew out of the Industrial Revolution, partially in response to liberalism (free capitalism). This is due to the fact that a main pillar of socialism was equality for all people, an ideal that was not present during the Industrial Revolution. For example, the nature of the factories were burdensome and horrible, as workers (even children) worked long hours in extremely dangerous and miserable working conditions with no security of occupation or housing, and a lack of education. Simultaneously, society's affluent members enjoyed a sumptuous life. This harsh reality clearly did not please the poor workers who therefore complained, possessing a strong desire for change. Socialism provided an answer for poverty by claiming that goods/money/labor seized by the capitalists should be evenly distributed, ensuring that the hard-workers are benefitted, not just the rich capitalists. Basically, the workers wanted egalitarianism/equality. This ideal was absent during the Industrial Revolution, but was promoted by socialism.
Why were European countries especially eager to have control over Africa? Cite Great Britain.
Throughout the 1800s, Europeans barely controlled any of Africa. However, near the turn of the century, they all began fighting for it, eventually controlling 90% of Africa. Britain especially, led by Cecil Rhodes, was attracted by the abundance of diamond, gold, and rubber in Africa, and Great Britain eventually monopolized production in those industries. European countries also wanted the strategically-located African areas to sell their goods. They also saw Africa as a source of cheap labor, and a place that would be relatively easy to colonize.
How was liberalism transformed in Great Britain? In Italy?
Throughout the 1800s, liberals held the belief that government should interfere as little as possible. However, near the turn of the century, problems arouse throughout Europe, and in response, liberal governments' actions reflected ideas that were very different from previous liberal principles. This was especially evident in Great Britain and Italy. The transformation of liberalism in Great Britain was mainly caused by the demands of the working classes, who formed trade unions, and the Labor Party. In response, the liberals enacted various social reforms. Union organizations formed, seeking a minimum wage. The Fabian Socialist group also formed, and at the turn of the century, these two groups combined to form the Labor Party, helping the liberals gain control of the house of commons. The liberals, led by David Lloyd George, knew that they would need to push for social reform. So, they abolished laissez-faire, replacing it with various other social reforms. These included the national insurance act, and compensation for retired or injured workers. In order to pay for this, George taxed the wealthy more, despite the views of the House of Lords. However, the liberals were able to reduce the checks and balances power of the House of Lords on the House of Commons. Finally, the British liberals became actively involved in the crises of Ireland, a decision that ultimately led to more problems. Transformation of liberalism was perhaps even more present in Italy. Their prime minister Giolitti frequently used Transformism, a policy where he bribed old political groups to "transform" into new government alliances. However, these guile methods proved ineffective in the long run. Eventually, workers engaged in violent protests. Efforts to subdue the workers failed, and eventually, the Italian governments resorted to violence.
How did Napoleon win control of France in 1799?
Upon his return to France after defeating the Austrians, Napoleon participated in a coup. After, he was named the 1st consul of France, giving him control of all executive authority of the government. He also created a civil code, stabilizing and centralizing France. Then, he was named consul for life, and crowned himself emperor. The result was that France was becoming more and more autocratic and dictatorial.
What factors led to the Industrial Revolution?
Various factors led to the Industrial Revolution in Britain, including the previous agricultural revolution of the 1700s. The farming advances introduced hen led to more food being produced, allowing British agriculture to feed more people at lower prices, while limiting labor. It meant that the British didn't have to devote the majority of their income to food, leaving them with more money to buy manufactured goods. Another factor of the Industrial Revolution was the population growth of the late 1700s, which provided more potential workers to work at the factories. Britain's ready supply of wealth also helped cause the revolution, as they use this capital to invest in new industrial machines/factories. Another cause of the revolution was the cottage industry, which was industry where work was done at home rather than in factories. There were also many individuals interested in making profits, "hungry and greedy" for wealth. Another contributing factor was the abundance of minerals essential to manufacturing in Britain. Due to the relatively small size of Britain, these resources only had to be transported short distances, which was easy due to the abundance of rivers/canals/bridges/roads. Britain's parliament ensured optimal conditions fort business, as they limited restrictions on private entrepreneurs. Finally, there was a high market de and, both foreign and domestic. The best markets were in the East, Africa, and the Americas.
How did the Reform Act of 1832 and the repeal of the Corn Laws help England to avoid revolution?
With continuation of concentrated power and ever-growing liberal views, much of Europe experienced revolutions in 1848. However, Britain managed to avoid such a crisis, largely thanks to the Reform Act of 1832 as well as the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, as both acts seemed to satisfy Britain's population, mainly the middle class, who gained political power. The Reform Act of 1832 explicitly recognized the changes in British life due to the Industrial Revolution. It got rid of 56 boroughs, while creating 42 new towns/cities. These new cities/towns formed industrial urban communities, which then received some voice in government. So, middle class liberals had been given political power. However, although this act benefitted the upper/middle class, the lower class still did not have a vote. Then, the corn laws were repealed in 1846. The corn laws were a set of restrictions on imported food, designed to maintain high prices to favor domestic producers. The repeal is thanks to the formation of the Anti-Corn Law League. The results were lower bread prices in order to help workers. It simply made people (especially middle class) happier, as more food meant less hunger which meant less poverty.
