the-tired-potato 100 pg p/s MCAT

Our closeness to authority giving orders (factors of obedience)

- more likely to accept orders from someone we respect

in group

- the one we are connected with. "US". Stronger interactions with those in the in-group than those in the out-group. Interactions are more common and more influential as well within In-group.

Out-group derogation

- we are super friendly to our in group, but not friendly to out group - we discriminate. Happens if we feel that the out group is threatening to or undermine in group's success.

In-Group favouritism

- we favour/friendly to people in our own group, but those in outgroup we are neutral - we don't give them favours we do to our in-group.

Also institutional authority (factors of obedience)

- well-respected university. Expectation that these places won't give you a harmful command. Can also be physical or symbolic (ex. police/government).

226. Where is language located in the brain for most individuals?

i. 90% of people- left hemisphere

639. How does social constructionism relate to medicine?

i. There are stereotyped assumptions on both sides - patient may feel some symptoms aren't important enough to mention, or doctor makes false assumption based on how patient appears.

714. What is tokenism?

i. There have been some attempts to fix underrepresentation/stereotyping in media. But these attempts have sometimes wrongly resulted in tokenism instead of diversity. [One minority character is added to a movie as a stand in for the entire group]

214. What does it mean to let a problem incubate?

i. We ponder the problem for some time waiting for an insight (epiphany)

228. What is anomia?

i. a form of aphasia identified by the inability to name everyday objects.

398. What are some of the major traits that researchers found were not shared by monozygotic twins raised in different environments (which shows that these similar traits don't have strong genetic components)?

i. achievement, closeness

200. What is the importance of thiamine?

i. converts carbohydrates into glucose cells need for energy. Important for normal functioning of neurons.

Features of the color detection system

Color (cones; trichromatic theory of color vision — three types of cones. RED (60%), GREEN (30%), BLUE (10%). Red object= reflects red, green object= reflects green, and blue object reflects blue.

384. If a person behaves consistently in all situations, then his behavior can likely be correctly attributed to...?

i. Their internal state (personality, attitude, etc.) Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality / Behavior

480. What is implosive therapy, and how is it different than systemic desensitization?

i. Therapists force patient into an overwhelming encounter with phobia, which produces a lot of anxiety **ii. the idea that if they face their fear and survive, they will overcome their fear

312. What are the 3 main monoamines associated with mood regulation?

i. norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine

741. What is a case-control study?

i. observational study where 2 groups differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor. Ex. comparing people with the disease with those who don't but are otherwise similar.

Role models for defiance (factors of obedience)

- more likely to disobey orders when we see others doing the same.

op-down is (inductive/deductive), is (always/sometimes) correct and begins with (stimulus/background knowledge and expectations).

Deductive, sometimes, background knowledge and expectations

Why doesn't fluid go back out the oval window?

The organ of Corti (includes basilar and tectorial membrane) prevents it

What are transmission, perception, processing, and transduction with regards to vision?

Transmission is the electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron. Perception is conscious sensory experience of neural processing. Processing is the neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception. Transduction occurs whenever energy is transformed from one form to another; in this case, light energy is transformed to electrical energy by rods and cones.

What is the spectral range of visible light?

Violet (400nm) to Red (700nm)

475. What are 3 types of collective behaviors?

a. Fad **b. Mass hysteria **c. Riots

104. Hypnosis and meditation are examples of ________ ___________ of consciousness.

a. Induced states, don't occur naturally

631. What is rational choice theory?

a. Main assumption is the idea that everything people do is fundamentally rational - a person is acting as if they were weighing costs and benefits of each action. Maximize personal gain and self-interest. Pattern of choices (not an individual choice). **i. How do we calculate value of these actions? Social resources being exchanged - time, information, approval, prestige, etc. (determines value) **ii. Theory assumes you can explain social change/social institutions.

79. Why are smell and taste ipsilateral, and what does this mean?

a. Neither smell nor taste synapse on the thalamus, and ipsilateral means they affect the same side/part of the body **b. Without the thalamus, the olfactory tracts do not CROSS each other. This means that a smell in the right nostril will go to the right side of the brain, and a smell in the left nostril will go to the left side.

Identify photopic, mesopic, and scotopic vision.

a. Photopic vision occurs at levels of high light levels. b. Mesopic vision occurs at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones. c. Scotopic vision occurs at levels of very low light.

654. Describe the stages of William Cross's Nigrescence Model?

a. Pre-encounter: **b. Encounter: **c. Immersion/Emersion: **d. Internalization: **e. Internalization-Commitment:

114. Would drinking coffee (stimulant) after drinking alcohol (depressant) make you sober?

a. Stimulant and depressants are functionally opposite but don't actually work on same things on a neurochemical level. Drinking coffee after drinking alcohol won't sober you up, just will make you an alert drunk person.

89. What types of taste rely on GCPRs?

a. Sweet, umami, and bitter

How does pain change conformation as well?

capsaicin binds the TrypV1 receptor in your tongue, and triggers the same response.

How does the inner ear muscle adapt to loud noises?

higher noise = muscle contract (this dampens vibrations in inner ear, protects ear drum.)

404. What is a personality trait, and how does it describe personality?

i. A personality trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behavior. Straightforward way to describe personality - puts it in patterns of behavior. Description of traits instead of explaining them.

527. What is the actor-observer bias?

i. Almost same thing as fundamental attribution error. We are victims, but others are wilful actors.

251. What is the purpose of the hippocampus?

i. Convert STM (Short term memory) LTM (long term memory)

303. What is the non-dominant hemisphere's function (usually right side)?

i. Emotion, creativity, big picture concepts

180. What is encoding specificity?

i. Enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning.

548. What is the exception to the mere-exposure effect called?

i. Exceptions: you start hating orange juice, start to despise song you hear over and over on the radio. This is called "burn out" but most things do not violate the mere-exposure effect Physical/Romantic Attraction

258. What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?

i. Experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological responses. **ii. Event Physiological Response (PR) Interpretation of PR Emotion

171. What are the two components of long-term memory?

i. Explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative)

464. What is the most important agent of socialization?

i. Family

252. What happens when the hippocampus is damaged?

i. If destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can't make new ones (anterograde amnesia).

689. What is the Malthusian Theorem?

i. Malthusian Theorem suggests: Run out of resources, global food shortage. We won't be able to maintain natural resources for everyone on planet. (high mortality rate) 1. Current: 1B suffer from malnutrition already in world of 7B **ii. Lack of resources will lead to public health disaster and force population to stabilize- stabilize and then negative growth rate. Negative growth rate would occur when population forced to finally have lower birth rate than death rate. **iii. Pyramid Model: Constrictive. Fewer young people than older people. 1. Due to rise of individualism

204. Amnesia is usually due to brain injury in what part of the brain?

i. Medial temporal lobe

731. What stat is less susceptible to variation: median or mode?

i. Median

765. What is the difference between a moderating and a mediating variable?

i. Mediator variables are variables that explain the correlation between two variables, while moderating variables affect the relationship between two variables.

425. Describe how the mesocorticolimbic pathway is related to schizophrenia?

i. Meso = "midbrain" where VTA (Ventrotangmental area). Specifically, the soma of neurons that use dopamine are located at VTA. **ii. cortico = "cerebral cortex", axons project to frontal and temporal lobe of cerebral cortex. (axons of the VTA neurons project to other areas of the brain and release dopamine to cerebrum areas). **iii. limbic = "collection of structures inside of the brain" involved in emotions/motivations/etc. **iv. Often divided into mesocortical pathway (VTA to the frontal lobe) and mesolimbic pathway (VTA to limbic structures)

433. Medications that target what class of NTs often improve symptoms?

i. Monoamines include adrenaline (epinephrine), norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and melatonin (involved in onset of darkness). 1. Catecholamine (Subclass) includes dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine (2 OH groups on phenyl) **ii. Ex. monoamine oxidase inhibitors (increase amount of monoamines in synapse)

417. What is the difference between mood and affect?

i. Mood is not emotion, mood is more long term and not necessarily related to events; it is a subjective experience. Mood becomes affect (how mood is displayed to others - person crying).

156. How does multitasking fit into the spotlight model of attention?

i. Multitasking is just repeated switching of spotlight/attention

363. What process does the ego use with regards to the id?

i. Operates on secondary processes. (Reality testing) Mediates the demands of reality vs. the desires of the Id.

460. what are factors of obedience?

i. Our closeness to authority giving orders **ii. Physical proximity **iii. Legitimacy of authority **iv. Also institutional authority **v. Victim distance - **vi. Depersonalization **vii. Role models for defiance

626. Describe George H. Mead's view of SI?

i. Particularly interested in symbols use that people use to contribute values/beliefs to others. **ii. believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things. People change based on interactions with objects, events, ideas, others, and assign meaning to things to decide how to act

724. What is the difference between social capital and social support?

i. Partly related to social support, social capital emphasize the tangible resources provided by network members (whereas social support tends to focus on emotional resources).

566. What is reciprocal altruism?

i. People are also more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future. Giving with expectation of future reward ((ulterior motive)

262. What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?

i. People perform best when they are moderately aroused - the Yerkes-Dodson Law, a bell shaped curve. **ii. Moderate emotions, like mild fear, are associated with optimal memory recall.

280. What does the hindbrain develop into?

i. Pons/medulla/cerebellum

426. The mesolimbic pathway has been associated with (+/-) symptoms of schizophrenia?

i. Positive effects

788. What is reactivity?

i. Reactivity is a phenomenon that occurs when individuals alter their performance or behavior due to the awareness that they are being observed.

520. What is a reference group?

i. Reference groups are groups that people refer to when evaluating their [own] qualities, circumstances, attitudes, values and behaviors. "any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior". These reference groups set some level of aspiration.

768. What is reliability?

i. Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results.

154. Describe the spotlight model of attention?

i. Selective attention - takes info from 5 senses, but don't pay attention to everything. **ii. Aware of things on an unconscious level - ex. Priming, where exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been consciously paying attention to it. **iii. We're primed to respond to our name. So it's a strong prime for pulling our attention.

536. What is self-stigma?

i. Self-stigma is when individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may begin to feel rejected by society, avoid interacting with society.

543. What is ethnography?

i. Study of particular people and places. It is a more of an approach than a single research method in that it generally combines several research methods including interviews, observation, and physical trace measures. Good ethnography truly captures a sense of the place and peoples studied.

550. What is paraphilia?

i. The DSM-5 describes paraphilia as any intense and persistent sexual interest other than genital stimulation or fondling in phenotypically normal, physically mature, and consenting human partners.

499. What is the most important characteristic in this model?

i. The target characteristics are the most important in the elaboration likelihood model

592. How do animals use pheromones?

i. They can so release scents for communication called pheromones (can be for mating, most often) or to guide other members to food (ants use this method).

681. What is the total population decrease rate?

i. Total Population Decrease Rate: (#death + # Emigration)/1000. Multiply Rate by population and you get the population decrease

544. What is ethnocentrism?

i. Using one's own cultural standards, such as norms and values, to make judgments about another culture.

382. What is the Situational Approach to Behavior/Personality?

i. We are placed in new situations every day. These situations affect our behavior. Under the branch of social psychology **ii. Can also be used to describe personality

349. How has complete gene mapping of our entire genome changed how we study traits?

i. We can now look at populations that share traits and not have to rely on twin/adoption studies to narrow down heritability of traits. Now, we can look at population of shared traits and look at genes that code for those traits and compare/contrast those genes. **ii. We can also look at damage to DNA in a person's genome and the effects such damage causes.

545. What is Xenocentrism?

i. Xenocentrism: judging another culture as superior to one's own culture

832. What is temporal monotocity?

i. assumes that adding pain at the end of a painful experience (in this case extending the painful experience) will worsen the retrospective evaluation of the experienced pain and adding pleasure at the end will enhance the retrospective evaluation.

438. What areas do sleep problems occur in?

i. brain, upper airways, or lung/chest walls

391. According to both Rogers and Maslow, What is the importance of congruency?

i. congruency between self-concept and our actions allows us to feel fulfilled. Biological Theories of Personality and Behavior

619. Problems of conflict theory?

i. doesn't explain the stability a society can experience, how society is held together (unity), despite some members not liking the status quo. Social Constructionism

265. What is the discrete system approach to contemporary study of emotion?

i. includes theories regarding universal emotions Stress

753. What is test validity?

i. is an indicator of how much meaning can be placed upon a set of test results.

649. What is racial formation theory?

i. looks at social/economic/political forces that result in racially constructed identities.

283. What can abnormalities in LMNs cause?

i. lower motor neuron signs (LMN signs), which can happen in addition to weakness.

147. What is the main purpose of vigilance attention and signal detection?

i. processes that attempt to detect a signal or target of interest. This allows responses to be primed and quick actions undertaken in response to the signal or target of interest, i.e. a pothole in the road is detected and avoidance actions are undertaken.

318. What is surgical aspiration?

i. sucking out brain tissue

645. What is age stratification theory?

i. suggests age is way of regulating behavior of a generation

286. Why are mechanoreceptors faster than noci/thermo receptors?

i. tend to have large diameter and thick myelin sheath; therefore, they conduct fast. Noci and thermo have small and have thin myelin or no myelin->slow.

581. What is bureaucracy with regards to organizations?

i. the rules, structures, and rankings that guide organizations. (DOES NOT necessarily mean something negative, lines, or red tape)

What is the acoustic shadow?

region of reduced amplitude of a sound because it is obstructed by the head.

What is the motion parallax?

"relative motion" Things farther away move slower, closer moves faster.

What part of the brain contains the somatosensory homunculus map?

All somatosensory information all comes to the "sensory strip" which is contained in the somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe.

elaboration likelihood model Stage 3:

Change In attitude **i. Central Processing: creates a lasting attitude change **ii. Peripheral processing: creates a temporarily attitude change

344. What is heritability?

Heritability estimates define the amount of variance that can be attributed to genes in specific subgroups of individuals. Or, the relative contributions of genes to behaviors or traits.

When there is a strong signal, what is more likely, a hit or a miss?

Hit

518. What are social influences?

How imitation, roles, reference groups, and culture are all parts of social influence and how they affect individual thoughts, actions and feelings.

296. Where are gray and white matter in the brain?

i. White on inside and grey on outside. Axons go down tracts of white matter

158. What is the information processing model?

i. model proposes our brains are similar to computers. We get input from environment, process it, and output decisions. Doesn't describe where things happen in the brain. **ii. INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT (bottom-up/stimulus driven model)

300. What are the functions of the frontal lobe?

i. motor cortex (body movements), prefrontal cortex (executive function, surprise/direct other areas of brain), Broca's area (speech production)

393. What is David Buss' (UT Austin) Evolutionary psychology theory?

i. theorizes that males + females have different mating strategies that influence costs associated with passing on genes. Males can have many mates, females more selective due to cost of pregnancy.

410. What is Social Cognitive Theory?

i. theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment. Unlike behaviourism (where environment controls us entirely), cognition is also important.

686. What do immigrants do to demographics in developed countries?

i. they affect demographic transition of the country by increasing fertility and decreasing mortality (often healthier people migrate).

236. What do universalists believe with regards to language?

i. thought determines language completely. human cognition shapes language and language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constructions

354. What is the function of behavior?

i. to keep homeostasis

319. What are radiofrequency lesions?

i. used to destroy tissue on surface of brain and deep inside brain. Wire is inserted into brain to determine the area. Then pass high frequency current that heats up and destroys tissue. Can vary current intensity/duration to change size, but destroys everything in the area (cell bodies and axons). You can't tell if this area was responsible for the behavior that is not responding, or just has an axon passing through.

322. How are temporary lesions created?

i. via neurochemical means. Muscimol can bind to GABA receptors and inhibit those neurons. Ways of Studying the Brain

137. What is motivational interviewing?

involves working with patient to find intrinsic motivation to change. Very focus, goal directed therapy. Few sessions and can be doorway for patient to engage in another treatment (like CBT or group meetings).

tonotopy

the systematic organization within an auditory structure on the basis of characteristic frequency

Unanimity(factors that influence conformity and obedience)

- when opinions of group are unanimous (everyone agrees). In the Ash experiment, there was one supporter who answered correctly before the experimenter, and full-compliance of experimenter dropped from 37% to 5%. Individuals claimed that the response of the supporter influenced their response - they said they didn't. Shows that supporter shows reduced likelihood of conformity. We're not aware of effects a defector can have (someone who conform).

Employment based on technical qualifications

-hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications on person has and not favoritism/personal rivalries **i. Pro - decrease discrimination **ii. Con - decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more). Leads to Peter Principle, where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence (they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further).

* 1. Preparatory stage (Mead's social behaviorism)

-interaction through imitation, As they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words). Can't take perspective of others.

638. How does conflict theory relate to medicine? ]

1. Unequal access to valuable resources in society (education, housing, jobs) leads to heath disparities and limited access to medical care. 2. Power struggle between different interest groups can affect health of individual, ex. Factories (want lax regulations) vs. people living nearby (want strict). Asthma rates are higher with more pollution.

What are major differences between rods and cones

120M per eye vs. 6M per eye rods are spread out vs concentrated in fovea (directly behind lens) slow recovery time vs not slow recovery time

What are sound waves?

Air molecules are pressurized and try to escape, creating areas of high and low pressure

How does divergence of the nasal and temporal sides occur at the optic chiasm?

All light from the nasal side of both eyes cross to the other side so left nasal info goes to the right side and vice versa. On the other hand, all axons leading from the temporal side DO NOT CROSS the optic chiasm. What it effectively does, is the right visual field goes to the left brain and the left visual field goes to the right side of the brain

How does visual field processing occur in the opposing hemispheres of the brain?

All right visual field goes to left side of brain, all left visual field goes to right side of brain. Rays of light from the left visual field hits the NASAL side of the left eye and hits the TEMPORAL side of the right eye Rays of light from the right visual field hits the NASAL side of the right eye and hits the TEMPORAL side of the left eye

components make up the ciliary body and their functions

Ciliary muscle + suspensory ligaments= focus lens in a process called accommodation Ciliary body secretes aqueous humor

Describe the conservative and liberal strategies to signal detection.

Conservative strategy - always say no unless 100% sure signal is present. Bad thing is might get some misses. Liberal strategy- always say yes, even if you get false alarms.

What are down and up regulations to light intensity?

Down regulation: light adaptation. When it is bright out, pupils constrict (less light enters back of eye), and the desensitization of rods and cones to light Up regulation: Dark adaptation. Pupils dilate, rods and cones start synthesizing light sensitive molecules

149. What is the shadowing task and how does it help develop theories of selective attention?

Experiment that studies selective attention. In this task you are wearing headphones and they have two different sounds in each. Left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing. Told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other. Focus on one ear and ignore the other (selective attention). Based on the unattended information that we do and don't end up comprehending - we can learn about how selective attention works by seeing what they filter out in other ear.

720. What is a cultural universal?

i. all cultures have ways of dealing with illness/medicine/healing Or wedding/funeral ceremonies. Language (ability to communicate within a group).

Bottom-up processing is (inductive/deductive), is (always/sometimes) correct and begins with (stimulus/background knowledge and expectations).

Inductive, always, stimulus.

What is intensity in terms of neural activity?

Intensity - how quickly neurons fire for us to notice. Slow = low intensity, fast = high intensity.

What is an overview of the phototransduction cascade (PTC)?

Light hits rod/cone (which causes it turns off) bipolar cell (turns on) retinal ganglion cell (turns on) optic nerve brain

Do higher or lower frequencies penetrate deeper into the cochlea?

Lower. THINK: long wavelengths can travel farther.

What are the macula and fovea portions of the retina composed of?

Macula: special part of retina rich in cones, but there are also rods. Fovea - special part of macula. Completely covered in cones, no rods Rest of retina is covered in rods

782. What is reconstructive bias?

Most research on memories suggests that our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think, especially when we are remembering times of high stress.

In what three ways do neurons encode for timing of a somatosensation?

Non-adapting- neuron fires at a constant rate Slow-adapting - neuron fires at the beginning of stimulus and calms down after a while Fast-adapting - neuron fires as soon as a stimulus starts...then stops firing. Starts again when stimulus stops.

What are features of the form system?

Parvocellular pathway - good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shape—high levels of details) and color via cones. - But poor temporal (can't detect motion—only stationary)

At what angle to each other are the posterior, lateral, and anterior semicircular canals oriented to each other?

Orthogonality

What is the Law of Prägnanz?

People will perceive and interpret ambiguous or complex images as the simplest form(s) possible.

Explain the parts of the ear (theres six of them)

Pinna: outer, visible portion of ear Auditory canal: carry sound waves to... Tympanic membrane/eardrum: vibrates back and forth and causes the three... Ossicles (malleus/hammer, incus/anvil, and stapes/stirrup): to vibrate and cause the... Oval/elliptical window: to vibrate and push fluid into the... Cochlea: snail-shaped structure lined with hair cells/cilia

elaboration likelihood model Stage 1:

Pre-Processing stage due to target characteristics: before we can consider information or be persuaded by it, the information is first filtered by interest, motivation, importance, etc. of us (the listener). **i. Central Processing: If listener interest, motivation, importance are high. People will only choose this route when they are interested in the topic. **ii. Peripheral processing: If listener interest, motivation, importance are low we process via the peripheral route. Chosen when listener doesn't care about topic, 1. We Filter information before we can even process it.

What two things do we need in order to hear?

Pressurized sound wave (stimulus) and hair cell (receptor in the cochlea)

What types of cells make up the retina?

Rods, cones, bipolar, and ganglion cells

Where does fluid go after through the cochlea?

Round/circular window to be pushed out

Temperature and nociception are fast/slow

Slow, which seems odd

188. What is the valence with regards to a memory?

the positive/negative emotion surrounding a memory. **ii. Extreme valence can lead to a flashbulb memory Long-Term Potentiation and Synaptic Plasticity

How does the ear break up noises of different frequencies?

Sound waves travel different lengths along the cochlea.

**d. 3. Game stage - (Mead's social behaviorism)

Start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "generalized other" (society as a whole). Children start to realize that people perform in ways not only on what they personally believe but what also in the ways society more broadly expects of them and they understand that people can take on multiple roles. Also realize others have opinions about them and those perceptions others have are based on how they act and what they say. They begin to be influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do. But don't care about reactions of everyone, only significant others (people with important relationships to individual, ex. parents/teachers/close peers).

What is proprioception and how does it work?

Subconscious sense of balance/position. - Tiny little receptor/sensors, known as a spindle, located in our muscles sends signals that go up to spinal cord and to the brain. Spindle has a protein that is sensitive to stretch - Sensors contract with muscles - so we're able to tell how contracted or relaxed every muscle in our body is.

Out group

THEM" . Group we're not associated with. ,"group of people who we do not feel connected too"

643. What is the dependency ratio?

i. an age-based measurement takes people <14 and >65 who are not in the labor force, and compares that to # of people who are (15-64) 1. Higher the ratio, more dependent people there are.

What is spatial discrimination?

The ability to perceive as separate points of contact the two blunt points of a compass when applied to the skin.

529. What is self-serving bias?

The common human tendency to attribute one's successes to personal characteristics, and one's failures to factors beyond one's control. The reason people tend to personalize success is because it helps their self-esteem levels.

The sensitivity parameter d' represents

The difficulty of a task.

282. What are lower motor neurons (LMNs)?

i. efferent neurons of the PNS that synapse to control skeletal muscle at a neuromuscular junction. Skeletal muscle cells it contacts is the other end of the motor unit.

264. What is the dimensional approach to contemporary study of emotion?

i. emotions are measured in terms of dimensions such as arousal (high/low) and valence (positive/negative)

737. What are some issues with comparative studies?

i. A major problem in comparative research is that the data sets in different countries may not use the same categories, or define categories differently (for example by using different definitions of poverty).

110. What are the symptoms of the most popular depressant, alcohol?

a. Decreased inhibitions, so decreasing cognitive control **b. Lack of coordination, slurring of speech **c. Think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep (alcoholic blackout) **d. Binds to site on GABAA receptor complex that sensitivity of the sensitivity of the receptor

120. What category of psychoactive drug is cannabis/marijuana?

a. a mix of all. Can be a hallucinogen and also be a depressant or a stimulant

133. What is cross-tolerance?

a. a reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness to a novel drug due to a common CNS target.

135. How long do post-acute withdrawal episodes last and how long does the overall withdrawal last?

a few days, two years

82. What is the scientific explanation of glutamate?

a. ability to taste glutamate

Describe the Organ of Corti and how the hair cells are activated in it?

Upper and lower membrane, and little hair cells. flow of fluid causes hair cells to move back and forth upper membrane: hairs cells are called the hair bundle and is made of little filaments called kinocilium and their tips are connected by a tip link attached to K+ channel gate - when tip links are pushed by endolymph movement, stretch causes K+ to come in from K+ rich endolymph which activates Ca2+ cells to be activated so Ca2+ flows in too and causes AP which activates a spiral ganglion cell which activates the auditory nerve

308. What is the basal ganglia?

a group of structures linked to the thalamus in the base of the brain that don't have UMNs but are involved in coordination of movement

What is the connectome?

a neural map of the connections within the brain.

715. What does feminist theory state about the media?

a. similar to conflict theory, in that mass media stereotypes/misrepresents society towards the dominant ideology. Specifically, message about men and women are represented in the media. Depictions of men and women often stereotyped, emphasizing traditional sex roles/gender roles. **i. men are considered normal and women are considered the "other". Ex. ("pens" and "pens for her" or "razors" and "razors for women"). **ii. Women are depicted as victims, men as aggressors **iii. Women are depicted as shallow or being obsessed with looks. Makes it more likely they will be sexualized/objectified.

145. What is the difference between covert and overt orienting?

a. the act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement. b. a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event.

What is the function of dermatomes in determining the location of a somatosensation?

an area of skin that is supplied by a single spinal nerve, which relays sensation from a particular region of the skin to the brain.

764. What is a moderating variable?

i. A moderating variable is a third variable that affects the strength of the relationship between the independent and dependent variable in data analysis. Examples of moderating variables include sex and race. 1. Changing the strength or direction of the relationship between IV and DV

333. Why do teenagers have poor judgment?

i. Their prefrontal cortex is still developing until the early 20s.

What is haptic perception?

exploration of objects through touch, most often by the hand or fingers.

216. What is a conjunction fallacy?

faulty reasoning inferring that a conjunction is more probable, or likely, than just one of its conjuncts. **ii. In fact, a situation with just one conjunct, or condition, is more probable than a situation with two conditions. To further illustrate, if A and B are two different events, then the probability of just A occurring is more likely than A AND B occurring. Can be caused by using a representative heuristic.

356. focuses on the observation of overt animal behaviors (not necessarily obvious, just means observable)

i. Innate behavior, learned behavior, and complex behaviors.

769. What is test-retest reliability?

i. Retest reliability, or consistency when a measure is taken multiple times.

758. What is convergent validity?

i. Tests that constructs that are expected to be related are, in fact, related. Subtype of construct validity.

613. What happens when a a change to production/distribution/coordination occurs?

i. will force others to adapt to maintain stable state society. Social change threatens mutual dependence of people in that society. Institutions adapt only just enough to accommodate change to maintain mutual interdependence.

551. How does Unrelated physiological arousal influence attraction?

i. you rate a woman while crossing a bridge higher because you are experiencing sympathetic arousal as when compared to rating the same woman while walking across the street **ii. When you are physically attracted to someone you experience this fast heartbeat (sympathetic arousal too). **iii. Our brain recognizes the sympathetic arousal from high height and being attracted together.

Immersion/Emersion (William Cross's Nigrescence Model)

individual acts as though he/she has "just discovered Blackness." This individual often becomes adamant in "proving that one is black," while taking an apparent pride in their blackness and simultaneously disparaging White culture.

I (Mead's social behaviorism)

individual identity stepping in and our personal responses to what society thinks. is the spontaneous and autonomous part of our unified self.

125. What is insufflation and why is it faster than oral ingestion?

inhaling drugs through the nose. is faster because inhaled drugs go directly to the brain

Sensory versus affective components of pain?

intensity of pain vs emotional experience

710. What is cultural assimilation?

interpenetration and fusion of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture.

Internalization (William Cross's Nigrescence Model)

marked by an individual's comfort with rejoining society with a strong enough sense of his own racial/ethnic identity to be able to forge relationships with members from other racial/ethnic groups. In this stage, the individual is able to begin resolving conflicts between their worldview prior to the encounter and after the encounter.

178. What is autobiographical memory?

memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic and semantic memory.

**c. 2. Play stage - (Mead's social behaviorism)

more aware of social relationships, reflected in children's tendency to pretend play as others like firefighters, doctors, etc. Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their perceived point of view. Focused on role-taking: mentally taking perspective of another person and acting on that perceived viewpoint. **i. Way beyond imitation. They create social-interactions (not just mimicking) **ii. Children consider attitudes, belief, and behaviors of individuals closest to them.

128. What is the function of serotonin?

most often associated with mood, appetite, social behavior, and memory.

117. What is the difference between opiates and opioids?

natural vs synthetic

415. What are neurotic Defense Mechanisms?

o Intellectualization - taking intellectual aspects and detaching to the emotional aspects of the situation. Separating emotion from ideas o Rationalization - making yourself believe you were not on fault - avoids blame to oneself. Can have false logic or false reasoning. o Regression - acting like a baby in some situations ex. throwing temper tantrum, start whining. o Repression - unconscious process where thoughts pushed down to unconscious o Displacement - person anger at someone but displaces it to someone else (a safer target).

103. Excessive sleepiness is a consequence of?

of the accumulation of adenosine. Cells responsible for arousal are inhibited by adenosine monophosphate (AMP). **b. can be caused by a large sleep debt

227. What is global aphasia?

often the result of damage to a large portion of the left hemisphere. This person will have difficulty producing speech, understanding speech, and will likely be unable to read or write.

Mass hysteria

refers to behavior that occurs when groups react emotionally or irrationally to real or perceived threats. It is characterized by panic and spread of information (or misinformation) by the media. **i. Ex: Mild-form of hysteria: Reaction due to news of severe weather warnings. The result is fear/anxiety induced in large #s of people and the fear causes people to become crazed (rush to supermarket), drive erratically and become irrational **ii. Mass psychogenic illness, or epidemic hysteria: Mass hysteria can be a result of of psychology, like when large amount of people believe they have same illness despite lack of disease. 1. Ex. after anthrax attack in US, after reports there were over 2000 false alarms. Individuals reported false symptoms of anthrax infection and because they believed they were exposed (which induced false symptoms).

244. What is lexical access?

refers to identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which has been stored in long-term memory.

101. What is the primary role of hypocritin/orexin?

role in the CNS is to control sleep and arousal.

What is difference between kinesthesia and proprioception?

sense of movement (behavioral) vs sense of balance/position (cognitive)

Adaptation is at the ________ level and habituation is at the _________ level?

sensory level; perceptive/cognitive

Me (Mead's social behaviorism)

society's view (that's me!), the part of self-formed in interaction with others and social environment, what we learn through interactions with others. How individual believes the generalized other perceives us, the social self, and learned through interactions with others. Socialized and conforming aspect of self

177. What is positive priming?

speeds up processing. caused by simply experiencing the stimulus;is thought to be caused by spreading activation. This means that the first stimulus activates parts of a particular representation or association in memory just before carrying out an action or task. The representation is already partially activated when the second stimulus is encountered, so less additional activation is needed for one to become consciously aware of it.

What is the difference between a proximal and a distal stimulus?

stimulation that occurs when your sensory receptors are activated (neural activity) vs actual stimulus or object in the real world that you end up sensing and perceiving, which results in the first thing

138. What is joint attention?

the focusing of attention on an object by two separate individuals.

420. What is the diathesis stress model of abnormality?

suggests that people have, to different degrees, vulnerabilities/diatheses or predispositions for developing depression. suggests that having a propensity towards developing depression alone is not enough to trigger the illness. Instead, an individual's diathesis must interact with stressful life events (of a social, psychological or biological nature) in order to prompt the onset of the illness. According to the model, the greater a person's diatheses for depression, the less environmental stress will be required to cause him or her to become depressed. Until this critical amount of stress has been reached, people will generally function normally, and their diatheses are considered to be "latent" or hidden.

167. What is the purpose of the central executive?

tells the visuo-spacial sketchpad + phonological loop to coordinate; supervises the cognitive process of memory. **ii. E.g. processing a map with street names and landmarks (visual + verbal info)

139. What is selective attention?

the ability to maintain focused attention while being presented with masking or interfering stimuli.

311. What is GABA's function?

the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. It plays the principal role in reducing neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system and is found in decreased levels in patients with anxiety disorders.

709. What is culture lag?

the fact culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, resulting in social problems. Common in societies because material culture changes rapidly, while non-material culture tends to resists change.

What is basilar tuning and how does it work?

there are varying hair cells in cochlea and allows brain to distinguish between high (activates start of cochlea)and low frequency (activates end of cochlea) sounds i. As sounds of different frequencies reach the ear, they will stimulate different parts of the basilar membrane. Apex = 25 Hz, base = 1600 Hz. **iii. As sound enters the cochlea, it travels and activates the hair cell that matches its frequency and it is mapped to a particular part of the brain. The primary auditory cortex (part of temporal lobe) receives all info from cochlea. It is separated by regions which detect different frequencies (0.5 kHz - 16 kHz). **iv. So with basilar tuning, brain can distinguish different frequencies - tonotopical mapping.

179. What is encoding and why is it important for long term memory?

transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory. If you want to remember more than 7 things, need to process that info so it stays in long-term memory.

712. What does the functionalist perspective say about media?

ts main role is to provide entertainment. Also says it can act as an agent of socialization (ex. Collective experience of watching Olympics on TV, and community building - entire internet communities) and act as an enforcer of social norms. **i. Also tells us what society expects of us through rewards and punishment, ex. Seeing criminals. But can also glorify behaviors that are wrong in society, like intense physical violence. **ii. Also functions as a promoter of consumer culture. At the turn of century average US child saw 20000 commercials a year on TV. Only increased from there, and not clear what impact this may have on next generation.

How does one find the k-constant of Weber's Law?

ΔI (JND)/I (initial intensity of stimulus) = k [constant]

245. What is the difference between a phenome and a morpheme?

(smallest unit of sound) vs (smallest significant unit of meaning of a word)

Written rules and regulations

**i. Pro - clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees, and sense of unity/continuity to organization (laws/structures of organization stay same as members come/go) **ii. Con - stiffens creativity, and too much structure discourages employees from taking initiative. Goal displacement (rules become more important than goals of organization)

Fad

- "fleeting behavior" is something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popular just as quickly. Not necessarily in line with normal behavior. Perceived as cool/interesting by large group of people.

Group polarization

- Group makes decisions that are more extreme than any individual member in the group would want. This can turbo charge the group's viewpoints.

Oral stage (Freud's development theory)

- age 0-1 yrs., libido is centered around baby's mouth and feeding. Because infant completely dependent on parents/caretakers, baby also develops sense of trust and comfort. 1. If fixation here, issues with dependency or aggression. Also smoking or biting fingers/nails, suck their thumb, people who overeat.

Anal stage (Freud's development theory)

- age 1-3, centered around anus, toilet training. Leads to developing control/independence, encouraging child to feel positive outcomes and helps child feel capable and productive. Serve as basis for competent, productive, creative adults. 1. If fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and messiness.

Phallic stage (Freud's development theory)

- age 3-6, children discover difference between males and females. Oedipus complex and Electra complex at this stage. Oedipus complex also develops - boys view fathers as rivals for mother's affection. Describes feeling of wanting to possess the mother and replace the father. Electra complex (by Carl-Jung) is the equivalent for young girls to their fathers. Resoled through process of identification, where child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same-sex parent. 1. If fixation occurs, cause homosexuality/exhibitionism

Genital stage (Freud's development theory)

- back on libido, because individual develops strong sexual interests. Before this stage, focus on individual needs. Now, focus on needs of others. No adult fixation - person is mentally healthy. Goal: establish balance between various life areas (well balanced, warm, caring)

Riots

- characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes. Riots are very chaotic and cost cities millions in damages. **i. A mob is a group of individuals who are emotional and violent, but target specific individuals or categories of individuals.

Hierarchy of organization

- each position is under supervision of higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal. **i. Pro - clarify who's in command **ii. Con - deprive people of voice in decision making (especially of those lower in chain of command) and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks ("I was just following orders"). Also allows individuals to hide mistakes (often serious mistakes because no one person interacts with all members).

Group cohesion (factors that influence conformity and obedience)

- if we feel no connection with group, feel less of need to go along with that group.

Public response(factors that influence conformity and obedience)

- if we think we're met with acceptance vs. shunning. (happy to conform if we will be met with shunning, but will happily not conform if we think we will be met with acceptance)

Legitimacy of authority (factors of obedience)

- if wearing labcoat/carry a clipboard we are more likely to obey. Shown in Milgram study.

Physical proximity (factors of obedience)

- more likely to comply with someone we are close to. In Milgram when authority standing close by/behind the experimenter (the teacher) they are more likely to obey.

Latent period (Freud's development theory)

- no focus of libido. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. Important in development of social and communication skills. Children concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. Play is between same gender children. 1. Fixation doesn't develop into adult fixation.

Division of labor

- people are trained to do specific tasks. **i. Pro - people are better at tasks, and increased efficiency. **ii. Con - increase alienation in workers, separating them from others (conflict theory), and they don't see work from beginning to end. Can lead to less satisfaction which leads to less productivity. **iii. Also can lead to trained incapacity, where workers are so specialized in tasks they lose touch with overall picture.

Observed behaviour(factors that influence conformity and obedience)

- whether we believe our behaviour is observed. In Ash experiment, when the participant came in late, they said his response would be recorded on paper and not shared with the group. If response in Asch line was not shared with group, the experimenter was much less likely to conform.

Group status

- why children more likely to go along with popular group. Why we trust four doctors over four gardeners about our health.

726. What are the 4 principles that are posited to underlie social stratification (society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata?

1. First, social stratification is socially defined as a property of a society rather than individuals in that society. 2. Second, social stratification is reproduced from generation to generation. 3. Third, social stratification is universal (found in every society) but variable (differs across time and place). 4. Fourth, social stratification involves not just quantitative inequality but qualitative beliefs and attitudes about social status.[3]

**vii. Internal factors (factors that influence conformity and obedience)

1. prior commitments (if we say something earlier that goes against group, we will decrease conformity because we are less likely to say something different later. If we said something earlier that is along the lines of the group, we will have increased conformity because we will say the same thing now. We are not likely to change what we say). 2. feelings of insecurity - more likely to follow judgements of others (conformity)

500. According to elaboration likelihood model, we want to evaluate information along what two possible paths? Describe them and their 3 stages?

501. : central and peripheral routes. After a route is chosen, information is passed through three different stages. Stages: a. Stage 1: Pre-Processing stage due to target characteristics: before we can consider information or be persuaded by it, the information is first filtered by interest, motivation, importance, etc. of us (the listener). **b. Stage 2: Processing Stage by message/source: **c. Stage 3:

What are the fast, medium, and slow types of nerve fibres?

A-beta fibres - Fast ones are thick and covered in myelin (less resistance, high conductance) A-delta fibres -- smaller diameter, less myelin. C fibres - small diameter, unmyelinated (lingering sense of pain).

Explain the PTC (phototransduction cascade) in more detail

Inside rods/cones are a lot of optic disks stacked on top of one another and these disks have proteins on them (rhodopsin for rods and photopsin for cones) 11-cis retinal: molecule part of multimeric protein with 7 discs light hits retinal ==> changed to 11-trans retinal and rhodopsin/photopsin change shape too (beginning of cascade) ==> G protein transducin attached to opsin is activated and breaks from obspin and its alpha subunit binds to PDE ==> PDE converts cGMP to GMP ==> Na+ comes in because of cGMP bound to the Na+ channels but Na+ stops once theres a lot more GMP ==> hyperpolarization because lack of Na and cell turns off ==> bipolar cells turn on ==> retinal ganglion cell activated ==? signal sent to optic nerve to brain

What are features of the temporal/motion system?

Magnocellular pathway: has high temporal (think time, motion) resolution [encodes motion]. has poor spatial resolution; no color. Rods responsible.

elaboration likelihood model Stage 2:

Processing Stage by message/source: **i. Central Processing: Focus on a deep processing of the information. **ii. Peripheral processing: Focus on superficial characteristics (shallow processing of information) such attractiveness of speaker, their PowerPoint attractiveness, or even how many points the speaker made. How many times speaker got audience to laugh, etc.

How do the otolithic organs contribute to the vestibular sense?

The utricle senses horizontal motion while the saccule senses vertical acceleration. This occurs when calcium carbonate attached to hair cells is moved during body motion and triggers an action potential.

Trichromatic Theory of color vision

We have red, green, and blue cones, which mix together to perceive color. But the issue is that we can't mix red/green or blue/yellow.

Young-Helmholtz/Opponent Process Theory of color vision

We have red/green and blue/yellow pairings of cones that oppose each other. Only one color can dominate at a time

How does endolymph in the canals help with vestibular sense?

When we rotate, the fluid shifts in the semicircular canals - allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in, and because we can detect how quickly the endolymph is moving we can determine the strength of rotation.

132. What is tolerance?

a shift in the dose-response curve that causes decreased sensitivity to a drug due to exposure. **b. Ex. Just took cocaine, lots of dopamine in synapse. Post-synaptic neuron has receptors for dopamine. Long-term stimulation can lead to brain shutting down some receptor because of high levels of dopamine; therefore, same amount of drugs won't cause same high. Called tolerance.

102. What is sleep apnea?

a. 1 in 20 people. People with it are often unaware. Stop breathing while sleeping - body realizes you're not getting enough oxygen, wake up just long enough to gasp for air and fall back asleep without realizing. Can happen 100x/night! **i. Don't get enough N3 (Stage 3; slow-wave) sleep. **ii. Snoring is an indication, or fatigue in morning after full night of sleep.

587. What are the 2 main foraging strategies?

a. 1) Solitary foraging - animal looks for food by itself. **b. 2) group foraging - animals look for food in groups. Hunting based on both your behavior and those around you. Can lead to competition within a group if food is scarce. Benefit of this strategy is that animals can take down larger/more aggressive prey and everyone can benefit.

688. What are the 5 stages of the demographic transition model?

a. 1) Stage 1: High birth rates due to limited birth control, economic advantage for more workers, and high death rate due to disease/poor nutrition. Most countries at this stage prior to 18th century when death rates fell in Western-Europe. Large young and small old population. Overall population remains fairly stable **i. Pyramid Model: Stationary Pyramid. Large young population and small old population (y axis) **b. 2) Stage 2: Seen in beginnings of developing populations/countries. Population rises as death rate decreases/lower death rate (availability of food, improvement in health and sanitation). Trend was seen in 19th century Western-Europe after Industrial Revolution. High birth rates remain. Overall population growth. **i. Pyramid Model: Early Expanding Population Pyramid. High birth rates and death rate declining so you get a nice pyramid shape. **c. 3) Stage 3: Death rates continue to drop and birth rates begin to fall. Ex. Middle East. Population continues to grow **i. Birth rates fall because of birth control, social trend towards smaller families. **ii. Death rate drops because Society has better healthcare, **iii. Occurs in countries that are becoming more industrialized (fewer childhood deaths, and children no longer needed to work or not allowed to work by law - no longer economically beneficial to have children). In this stage children are sent to school instead of working to support the family. **iv. Slower population expansion and longer lived elderly. **v. Pyramid Model: Late Expanding Population Pyramid. Birth rates decline (fewer young people) and people are living longer lives as people are getting older. **d. 4) Stage 4: Population stabilizes, both birth and death rates are low and balance each other out. Population is large because it has been growing until Stage 4. **i. Low Birth Rates: improvement in contraception and high percentage of women in workforce. Many Couples focus on careers over children. Ex: US/Australia **ii. Pyramid Model: Low Stationary Pyramid. Low birth rates and low death rates (longer life expectancy) **e. 5) Stage 5: Speculation. World population will be forced to stabilize.

67. How do cochlear implants work?

a. A surgical procedure that attempts to restore some degree of hearing to individuals with sensorineural narrow hearing loss - aka `nerve deafness` **b. Sound -> microphone -> transmitter (outside the skull) sends info to the receiver (inside skull). Then it sends info to the stimulator, into the cochlea, and cochlea converts electrical impulse into neural impulse that goes to brain. Restores some degree of hearing

107. What waves are more common in hypnosis and light meditation?

a. Alpha waves (Alpha-Awake)

131. As dopamine increases, serotonin (increases/decreases) and does what to the perception of satiety?

a. At same time dopamine goes up (increase sense of euphoria), serotonin goes down. **i. Serotonin - partially responsible for feelings of satiation. So if serotonin goes down, you are less likely to be satiated or content.

77. What are mitral/tufted cells and what is their purpose?

a. At the glomerulus, the receptors then synapse on another cell that project to the brain. This organization is there because it's easier for one cell to send a projection to the brain instead of thousands.

108. What is the right anterior insula associated with that is increased by meditation?

a. Attention control

91. What are the four types of brainwaves and what level of consciousness are they associated with?

a. Beta (12-30Hz) - associated with awake/concentration. If you are alert for too long, beta levels get high and you experience increased stress, anxiety, restlessness- constant awakened alertness. **b. Alpha waves (8-13 Hz) - in daydreaming state. Lower frequency than beta waves. Disappear in drowsiness but reappear later in deep sleep. **c. Theta waves (4-7 Hz) - slower/lower frequency than alpha waves. Right after you fall asleep/when you are sleeping lightly. **d. Delta waves (0.5-3 Hz) - Slower/lower frequency than theta waves. Deep sleep or coma.

368. What are Biological and Sociocultural Factors that affect sexual response?(found by Masters and Johnson)

a. Biological **i. Sexual response cycle: excitement, plateau, orgasm, refractory period 5. M&J also noted sexual drive/activity was related to testosterone for women and men (sexual activities increased testosterone which in turn increased the sex drive). **ii. Also have genetic predisposition to sexuality, and found by looking this by studying at homosexuality. **iii. Hormones: prolactin (sexual gratification; endorphins, OT (bonding) **b. Socio-cultural factors: **i. Age **ii. cultural background (certain practices acceptable in certain cultures but not others), **iii. stimulus (determined by how responsive we are to visual/tactile stimuli) **iv. emotions (psychological influence), and desires (to procreate or not).

369. What are Biological and Sociocultural Factors that affect drug use and stuff?

a. Biological: **i. Genetic: family member or family history/genetic predisposition - then you have a higher chance of abusing the drug. **ii. withdrawal and cravings **iii. biochemical factors - imbalance in our brains **iv. Drugs like marijuana and heroin mimic neurotransmitters of our brain. Cocaine causes the abnormal release of natural NTs like dopamine - affects our limbic system. 1. Dopamine overstimulates/activates our brain limbic system (which controls movement, emotion, motivation, pleasure). Why we perceive emotions and mood altering properties of drugs. We become in a state of euphoria - total happiness. 2. If we continue to use a drug, we abuse the drug. Reinforcing effect - we want to constantly stimulate the brain by using drugs. **b. Socio-culturally: curiosity, novelty of drug, rebel, poor control of user, cope with stress, low self-esteem (remember: one of Maslow's Hierarchy of needs, right below self-actualization), relief from fatigue, feel good, and more prevalent in areas of higher poverty

366. What are Biological and Sociocultural Factors that affect food intake?

a. Biologically **i. Lateral Hypothalamus-In normal conditions, LH sends positive signal to us to start eating.) **ii. Ventromedial Hypothalamus- when functioning properly, it signals to us to stop eating. Leptin present in high amounts in blood when full (appetite suppressing hormone) **iii. Another hormone is insulin. Brain can detect level of insulin to see amount of sugar and fat stored in blood. Too much insulin = lots of sugar/fat store. **iv. Metabolism rate. In dieting we get a slowdown in metabolism. Makes it easier for people to gain weight when resuming normal eating. **v. Genetic predisposition to our weight, - set point influenced by parents. **b. Socio-culturally: We Eat for different occasions, time, desire, appeal, availability

99. What is the Activation-Synthesis hypothesis behind dreaming?

a. Brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which are sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex. **b. Brainstem = activation, and cortex = synthesis. **c. Our brain is simply trying to find meaning from random brain activity. Therefore, dreams might not have meaning. Sleep Disorders

115. What are the emotional effects of hallucinogens/psychedelics?

a. Can give them energy or calm them down **b. Emotional responses - Feeling of connectedness and mood swings (changing moods) **c. Exact effect can be different depending on an individual's or who they are with while taking them

532. What are the 3 components of prejudice?

a. Component 1: Cognition (Stereotype)- Fundamental underlying thought, overgeneralized belief (cognition) **b. Component 2: Affect - prejudice carries an emotional component **c. Component 3: Discrimination (tendency for Prejudice to lead to behavior) -capacity to carry out a behavior and act on prejudice

306. What is the brainstem's function?

a. Connects all parts of the brain **i. 12 pairs of cranial nerves are attached here **b. Midbrain- important functions in motor movement, particularly movements of the eye, and in auditory and visual processing **c. Pons- involved in the control of breathing, waking/relaxing, communication between top and bottom parts of brain **d. Medulla- autonomic activity of heart and lungs **e. Reticular formation: a diffuse network of nerve pathways in the brainstem connecting the spinal cord, cerebrum, and cerebellum, and mediating the overall level of consciousness. **i. Long tracts - collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem. 2 long tracts that are important: motor (UMNs), and somatosensory.

692. What are the 3 types of countries according to the world-systems theory?

a. Core = Western Europe and US. Strong Central Government with enough tax to support it. Economically diversified, industrialized, and independent of outside control. Strong middle and working class. Focus on higher scope production of material goods rather than raw materials. **b. Periphery = Latin America and Africa. Relatively weak government, greatly influenced by and depend on core countries and transnational corporations. Economy focused on narrow economic activity (1 type usually) like extracting raw material. High percentage of poor/uneducated people and strong upper class that controls most of economy. Huge inequalities. **c. Semi-periphery = India and Brazil, middle-ground between core and periphery. Not dominant in international trade but diversified/developed economy. These semi-periphery countries can come either from periphery countries moving up to core countries or core countries declining towards periphery status.

690. What is the Anti-Malthusian Theorem?

a. Couples only want to have one child or have children later in life. (low birth rate) 1. Better standard of living = smaller families because children are economic burden. Also, industrialized nations have better education/access to healthcare which contribute to reproductive choices. China have government policies to slow population growth to preserve their resources. 2. Growth rate can INCREASE as well! Some evidence - Higher standard of living promote fertility and higher birth rate.

75. What separates the olfactory epithelium from the brain and how does it let olfactory sensation to enter the brain?

a. Cribriform plate, had little holes that allow projections to get through

345. What is the heritability in the following scenario: Four boys with a 100% controlled environments, yet IQ still is different amongst the boys.

a. Difference couldn't be attributed to environment, so we'd say their IQ differences were 100% heritable because environment was 100% same.

585. What are Max Weber's 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, regardless of the organization's goal?

a. Division of labor **b. Hierarchy of organization **c. Written rules and regulations **d. Impersonality e. Employment based on technical qualifications

92. What waves dominate the first stage of non-REM (N1) sleep and what phenomena are associated with this stage?

a. Dominated by theta waves. **b. Hypnagonic hallucinations: hearing or seeing things that aren't there **c. Tetris effect - if you play Tetris right before bed, you might see visual images of blocks during sleep. OR Ex. Been on a boat all day, you might still feel like you are on water even when on dry land **d. Also a feeling of falling - hypnic jerks- muscle twitches you sometimes experience as you fall asleep

88. How does the labelled lines model connect to taste?

a. Each taste bud receptor has 5 axon, which all send separate taste information to different parts of the gustatory (taste) cortex, while remaining separate of the brain. **b. Ex. Glucose hits tongue activates sweet cell (because it has sweet sensitive receptors), triggers cascade of events so cell depolarizes, and travels down axon to the brain. **i. Glucose binds to G-protein-coupled-receptor (GCPR), causes a conformational change, G-protein subunit dissociates, opens ion channels, causes cell to depolarize and fire an AP

127. What is the relationship between route of entry and addictive potential?

a. Faster route of entry = more addictive potential.

84. What are the three types of papillae that cause taste sensation?

a. Fungiform papillae are mushroom-shaped structures located on the tip and sides of the tongue, which contain taste buds. **b. Foliate papillae are folded structures at the back of the tongue on both sides, which contain taste buds. **c. Circumvallate papillae are flat mound structures that are found at the back of the tongue and contain taste buds.

341. How do researchers use twins to identify cause of schizophrenia?

a. Goal of researchers is to isolate genes and the environments. Look at one without the other to see what causes the disorder. **i. Monozygotic twins vs. dizygotic twins - can hold environment constant. Examine effect of genes. 1. If schizophrenia was genetic, we would expect to see different rates in identical vs. fraternal twins. Higher in identical twins. 2. But if environmental, similar rates of disorder in both sets of twins. Wouldn't matter if they were identical vs. fraternal. They share 100% of the environments.

123. How can location of drug/time of use affect homeostasis?

a. If you're in a new location/different time but take same level of drugs, you might overdose. This is because in the new location your body has not prepared by reducing HR/metabolism because it hasn't witnessed its cues (same location, same time) that alert it to prepare for the incoming drugs.

85. What are taste buds and where are they most commonly found?

a. In each taste bud are the 5-receptor cells that can detect each taste. Each taste can be detected anywhere on the tongue. Each taste bud has cells specialized for each of the 5 tastes. **b. Mostly on anterior part of tongue.

519. Describe Andrew Meltzoff's 1977 study on imitation and what we learned from it?

a. In his experiment he suggested that babies are born with a built-in capacity to imitate others. **i. A baby 12-21 days old, baby copies sticking tongue out. Baby imitating experimenter. **ii. Suggests we are born with built-in capacity to imitate others. Built in social mechanism which is critical for our species to learn through others. **iii. Evidence suggests we have mirror neurons, when one fires another fires when we observe same action performed by other person. (Found in areas of brain that are motor (parietal lobe), premotor cortex (frontal lobe), and somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe). Can be helpful in understanding Imitation further.

565. What is kin selection?

a. Kin selection - people act more altruistically to close/kin than distant/non-kin people. **i. Same when people share last names, especially true if people have rare last names. **ii. Is this behavior altruistic if it gives us an evolutionary advantage (ulterior motive), to pass on our genes (the genes of those closest to us)? Is it really altruism if we are helping select for genes of our kin?

116. How do hallucinogens work?

a. LSD modifies serotonin neurotransmission, especially the 5-HT2 receptor family.

516. What is the third requirement needed for Development to Higher Mental Functions (Cognition) from Elementary Mental Functions (Social Interactions)?

a. Language - the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Ex. private/internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves - happens most in children. Way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development. Language is an accelerator to thinking and understanding. **i. Those children who engage in lots of private speech are more socially competent. Language develops from social interactions for communication purposes. Language leads to () thought (inner speech) - think for ourselves/independence of executing skills.

118. How are opiates related to depressants?

a. Like depressants: Decrease CNS function, decrease HR/BP, cause relaxation, induce sleep (hence can be used to treat pain and anxiety) **b. BUT it is NOT a depressant. Work on different mechanisms at the neurochemical level and can cause euphoria **i. Different class than depressants, even though overlapping for anxiety, because opiates act on endorphin receptors

733. What is a linear regression?

a. Linear regression - degree of dependence between one variable and another. Data is on scatter plot, one-way influence of one variable on another. **b. all variables examined are continuous

71. Where is the vomeronasal system located and what cells are it made of?

a. Located in accessory olfactory epithelium, basal and apical cells that have receptors at tips.

320. What are neurochemical lesions?

a. MUCH MORE PRECISE METHOD. Excitotoxic lesions (excitotoxins are chemicals that bind to glutamate receptors and cause influx of calcium that causes so much excitement that it kills the neuron/excites it to death) **i. One example is kainic acid. Destroys cell bodies but doesn't influence axons passing by. Don't severe connections like in knife cuts/radiofrequency lesions. **ii. Also oxidopamine (6-hydroxydopamine) selectively destroys dopamine and NE neurons. Can model Parkinson's Disease. 1. Oxidopamine is very similar to dopamine. In reuptake, the presynaptic cell takes the oxiopamine back for recycling (normal mechanism) but then this neuron is destroyed. It destroys substantia niagra neurons completely.

93. What waves dominate N2 stage of sleep and what phenomena are associated with this stage?

a. More theta waves **b. Sleep spindles are a burst of rapid brain activity. Some researchers think that sleep spindles help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep. Sleep spindles in some parts of brain associated with ability to sleep through loud noises. **c. K-complexes - suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. Also help sleep-based memory consolidation (some memories are transferred to long term memory during sleep, particularly declarative/explicit memories). Even though they occur naturally, you can also make them occur by gently touching someone sleeping. "that touch was not threatening, stay asleep brain"

461. How do mood, personality, culture, and socioeconomic status affect conformity/obedience?

a. No one type of personality makes someone more susceptible to authority. **b. But people's moods can have an effect - those with rough day less likely to conform. **c. Status and culture can play a role, those of low socioeconomic status (those with low power) are more likely to conform. **d. Also cultures like US/Europe (individualized cultures) that emphasize individual achievement less likely to conform than collective cultures (Asia, cultures that emphasize family/group).

477. What are the two broad types of learning?

a. Non-associative learning - when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus **i. ex. habituation and sensitization. In habituation, person tunes out the stimulus. Dishabituation occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed. Sensitization is increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus. **b. Associative learning - when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.

466. How are norms reinforced?

a. Norms are reinforced by sanctions - rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms respectively. **i. Positive sanction - a reward for conforming to norms. **ii. Negative sanction - a punishment for violating norms. **iii. Formal sanction - officially recognized and enforced. **iv. Informal sanction - unofficially recognized and does not result in specific punishment.

348. What do modern studies say about the role of the central dogma of molecular genetics with regards to behavior?

a. Now, studies are saying that the genes don't play as large of a role. **i. Example. Steroids (environmental factors)/hormones effect our behavior by producing different responses in our body by the activation of genes to produce proteins. Pheromones do the same thing; they are environmental/outside factors that cause a response (turning on genes) that result in a function. This is a switch from central dogma a bit (which is DNA RNA proteins) to now a bit of the reverse in which environmental factors are now affecting our proteins.

595. What are some different types of visual cues?

a. Often there is an Overlap between visual cues and somatosensory communication. **i. Visual cues to find a mate (ex. peacock extends feathers to attract a peahen), **ii. Visual communication through color (ex. A beak color on a certain bird allows it to communicate to young and assist in feeding young...frogs use color to signal they are toxic to other animals) **iii. Mimicry **iv. Camouflage **v. More types: bioluminescent communication (ex. fireflies glow to attract mate), **vi. gaze following and social cues (ex. look where someone else is looking...silent way to signal location of food or predator).

523. Describe Charles Cooley's theory?

a. Socialization also shapes our self-image and self-concept, and Charles Cooley used the term "looking glass self" to describe this process - idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others. **b. Thought this happened in 3 steps **i. 1) How do I appear to others? **ii. 2) What must others think of me? (are we: shy, intelligent, funny, or awkward) **iii. 3) Revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions on others evaluations).

90. What types of taste rely on ion channels and how do they work?

a. Sour and salty **b. They bind to receptors directly. Ex: NaCl binds to receptor and causes ion channel to open, and + ions outside flow in. Cell depolarizes and fires an AP. **c. Sour tastants bind to sourness receptors that react with hydrogen cations (H+). Once H+ binds to the receptor, it closes potassium channels. Sleep and Consciousness

69. What are pheromones?

a. Specialized olfactory cells from one species that trigger an innate response in another member of same species.

70. What is the accessory olfactory epithelium?

a. Specialized part of olfactory epithelium in animals that sends projections to accessory olfactory bulb, which then sends signals to brain

112. How do the most commonly prescribed suppressants, benzodiazepines, work?

a. Subscribed for same things as barbiturates - sleep aids (to treat insomnia) or anti-anxiety or seizures (anticonvulsant) **b. Enhance your brain's response to GABA. They open up GABA-activated chloride (Cl-) channels in your neurons, and make neurons more (-) charged. **c. 3 types: short, intermediate, and long-acting. Short and intermediate are usually for sleep, while long acting is for anxiety. **d. -zelam, -zolam

122. What is the main ingredient of marijuana and what are its symptoms?

a. THC, which heightens sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells. **b. Like alcohol, (depressant) - reduces inhibition, impairs motor and coordination skills, perceptual skills, and memory formation

68. What is the McGurk effect?

a. The McGurk effect is a perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception. The illusion occurs when the auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound, leading to the perception of a third sound.

80. What are the three theories of how receptors maintain specificity with regards to an olfactory stimulus?

a. The labeled-line theory of olfaction describes a scenario where each receptor would respond to specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain. **b. The vibrational theory of olfaction asserts that the vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecule its specific odor profile. **c. Steric theory of olfaction, or shape theory, asserts that odors fit into receptors similar to a lock-and-key.

130. Where does VTA release dopamine to?

a. The mesolimbic pathway: **i. amygdala (connected to hippocampus that controls emotion) says this was enjoyable. 1. Ex. This cake is delicious; I love this cake. I am feeling so happy right now. **ii. Hippocampus remembers everything about this environment so we can do it again, 1. Ex: Where am I at? Where am I eating this cake? Who am I with? Let's remember things about this experience **iii. nucleus accumbens - controls motor function 1. Ex: says let's take another bite. **b. Prefrontal cortex: focuses attention **i. Ex. Put attention to cake

78. How does a molecule bind to a receptor and cause an AP?

a. The molecule binds to the GPCR receptor on odor molecule GPCR on olfactory epithelia G-protein dissociates and causes a cascade of events inside the cell G protein binds to ion channel which allows cells outside the cell to come inside opens and triggers an AP goes to cribriform plate glomerulus activate mitral/tufted cell synapse to brain. **b. Idea: 100 of different olfactory epithelial each sensitive to one particular molecule. They all send projections to one glomerulus respective to their specialization. Then they synapse onto a mitral/tufted cell which signals to the brain

83. In what structures are taste buds located?

a. They are located in papillae

100. What is narcolepsy and how can it be treated?

a. Various fits of sleepiness, going into REM sleep. Have fits (usually 5 minutes) that can occur any time. 1 in 2000. **b. Indications that it is genetic, and linked to absence of alertness neurotransmitter (hypocritin/orexin). **c. Neurochemical interventions can cause someone to overcome narcolepsy potentially.

129. Where is the neurotransmitter dopamine produced?

a. Ventral tegmental area (VTG) of the midbrain

94. What waves dominate N2 stage of sleep and what phenomena are associated with this stage?

a. Very slow Delta waves **b. Where sleep walking/talking in sleep happens **c. declarative memory consolidation.

693. What is modernization theory?

a. all countries follow similar path of development from traditional to modern society. With some help traditional countries can develop similarly to today's developed countries did. **i. Looks at internal social dynamics as country adapts to new technologies **ii. Looks at political and social changes that occur during adaptation as well.

685. What is the demographic transition model?

a. changes in a country's population - population will eventually stop growing when country transitions from high birth/death rates to low birth rate/death rates (fertility/mortality) which stabilizes the population **i. theory suggests that economic changes, specifically industrialization affect the relationship between the fertility and mortality rates in a society. Population growth occurs rapidly because the mortality rate falls before the fertility rate does. Over time, the fertility rate also falls, thus stabilizing a lower rate of population growth.

558. Describe Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation?

a. done to try to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't. This research focused on mother-child interactions primarily (not child-caregiver ones). **i. Experiment: 1. #1. Mother and child in room with a stranger (stranger was part of experiment). Child allowed to exaccoplore. Neither stranger nor mother interact with child. Purpose: would they explore the space? 2. #2. Then mom leaves the room (without calling too much attention to herself) and quietly leaves. Baby left alone with stranger. Purpose: what is child's response when mother leaves (does child keep playing or does child start crying) 3. #3. Then mother returns. Mother + stranger + baby in the room. Purpose: What is the child's response when mother returns (are they happy, sad about her return, or ignore her) **ii. Researchers found children could be split into 2 groups - those with secure attachment and those with insecure attachment. **iii. 60% were secure attachment 1. #1: Child was secure with parent and explored room, might have stayed with mother and eventually explored room (aka. child might walk back to mother at times or look back at mother, but comfortable exploring) 2. #2: When parent left, child became really distressed/upset 3. #3: when parent comes back, they would go to the mother and be happy **iv. 40% were classified as having Insecure attachment 1. #1: children cling to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. 2. #2: When mother left became upset/distress 3. #3: distress did not go away when she came back. 4. Others were avoidant - were not upset when they left the room and were indifferent to her when she returned.

109. What are depressants and what three categories are they made of?

a. drugs that lower your body's basic functions and neural activity, lower CNS activity (decrease arousal/stimulation in areas of our brain) **b. alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines

503. What is ego depletion?

a. idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up, and less of it to use in the future which can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control. This is true because self-control requires lots of energy and focus. **i. Demonstrated by experiment that those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also requires self-control than those who didn't resist. **ii. Muscle is used as a metaphor for self-control. Can be strengthened with practice, but can also be fatigued/depleted with overuse. Self Concept, Self Identity, and Social Identity

95. What waves dominate REM and what phenomena are associated with this stage?

a. important for memory consolidation of procedural memory and formation of episodic memories **b. Combination of alpha, beta, and de-synchronous waves, similar to beta waves seen when awake **c. paradoxical sleep, because brain is active and awake but body prevents it from doing anything. **d. REM sleep more before you wake up **i. More N3 sleep right as you go to bed.

321. What is cortical cooling (Cryogenic blockade)?

a. involves cooling down neurons until they stop firing. **i. Cryoloop - surgically implanted between skull and brain. Most important part is it's temporary/reversible, unlike other techniques. K/O nerves - see effect, and then bring the animal back to normal functioning.

124. Why is oral the slowest route of drug entry?

a. one of slowest routes because goes through GI tract - half hour. Ex. Pill

106. What is the Social Influence Theory of hypnosis?

a. people do and report what's expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles

266. Describe Richard Lazarus' Appraisal Theory of Stress?

a. stress arises less from physical events but more from the assessment/interpretation of those stresses/events **b. Two Stages: **i. Primary appraisal: assessing stress in present situation, with 3 categories of response: 1. Irrelevant - I see the stress but it's not important. 2. Benign/Positive - Ex: a dinosaur takes out the dog - the rabbits enemy 3. Stressful/Negative - the stressor is actually threatening. Ex. Rabbit having to run away from the dog. **ii. If negative, then move on to secondary appraisal: 1. Harm: what damage has already been caused 2. Threat: How much damage could be caused 3. Challenge: How can the situation be overcome or conquered. Responding to Stress

600. What is evolutionary game theory and what are its 2 central factors?

a. tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations. **i. Reproduction and environment are central to evolutionary game theory. 1. Reproduction important to game theory because it can't happen in isolation and it needs to involve others 2. Environment - how organism fits in with social and physical environment. Work with other organisms to find food, raise young, deal with predators. [Fitness also depends on behavior of group] Strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players.

449. What are lewy bodies?

abnormal structures inside Dopaminergic neurons of Substantia Niagra. The Lewy bodies contain a protein alpha synuclein, a normal protein present in brain cells under normal conditions are clumped together in Parkinson's disease. (research op: Do lewy bodies kill the dopaminergic neurons? Or is something else killing these dopaminergic neurons and the lewy bodies are formed in the process?

136. How does methadone work to treat opioid abuse?

activates opiate receptors, but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high. Reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and if heroine is taken the user can't experience the high because receptors are already filled with longer-acting methadone.

What is gate control theory of pain?

asserts that non-painful input closes the "gates" to painful input, which prevents pain sensation from traveling to the central nervous system. Therefore, stimulation by non-noxious input is able to suppress pain. "Fast blocks slow" - Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall.

230. What is Broca's/non-fluent aphasia?

characterized by apraxia, a disorder of motor planning, which causes problems producing speech.

181. What does successful retrieval of memory rely on?

depends on being able to use cues around you and to recognize the association between cues present at encoding and cues present at retrieval. Best types of cues are the associations that form when you are actually encoding.

What is interaural time difference?

describes the difference in time it takes a sound to reach the left vs the right ear.

pre-encounter (William Cross's Nigrescence Model)

describes the identity before the encounter, and thus refers to the initial being or frame of reference that will alter upon facing the encounter. In this stage, one is unaware of his/her race and the social implications that come with it. *

241. What is the nativist (innate/biological) perspective of language development?

i. . Thought humans had a language acquisition device (LAD) that allowed them to learn language. **ii. Goes along with idea there's a "critical period" (also called sensitive period), thought to be from birth to age 8-9, the period of time a child is most able to learn a language. After that, becomes harder because LAD only operates in that critical period. Once you start using it, LAD starts specializing for your language and unable to detect others. **iii. Associated with Noam Chomsky **iv. Investigates Transformationalist Grammar: refers to the different ways that words can be arranged to convey the same information.

515. What is the second requirement needed for Development to Higher Mental Functions (Cognition) from Elementary Mental Functions (Social Interactions)?

i. . Zone of proximal development - part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do. Allows learner to use their skills they already have and expand learning to things they can't do.

210. Describe Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Stage 1:

i. 0-2 years old - Sensorimotor Stage: children gather information about the world via sense. Main task/awareness develops is object permanence: objects exist even if they can't see them.

497. What are the 3 main factors that impact how we are persuaded for/against a message?

i. 1) Message characteristics - message itself, clarity, was it logical, how well thought message it. Also includes how well written it was, does speaker have good grasp of grammar, appropriate vocabulary, length of talk, etc. **ii. 2) Source characteristics - the environment around the message and the speaker's background. What is their level of expertise of speakers around us - do they seem knowledgeable, trustworthy, and is information credible or not. Where does the information come from - internet poll, street poll, or a psych journal. Physical environment, venue of event (campus or a bar). **iii. 3) Target characteristics -characteristics of listener such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc. How we receive a message.

504. What are the two parts of self-concept?

i. 1. Existential self is most basic part of self-concept, the sense of being separate and distinct from **ii. 2. Categorical self - becoming aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others. And each of these objects/entities has properties.

508. What 4 factors determine if a person has a strong/weak sense of self-efficacy?

i. 1. Mastery of experience - strengthens self-efficacy **ii. 2. Social modeling - seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy **iii. 3. Social persuasion - when someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt. **iv. 4. Psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult/challenging situations can improve self-efficacy

700. What are three things needed for a social movement to form according to relative deprivation theory?

i. 1. Relative deprivation: Those who join social movements are not necessarily worst off. What's important is how people perceive their situation. [Ex. Someone making 100k can be not happy while someone making very little can be happy]. Feeling of discrepancy between legitimate expectations and reality of present. **ii. 2. Feeling of Deserving better **iii. 3. Conventional means are useless -a belief conventional methods are useless to get help.

281. How many total pairs of nerves make up the PNS?

i. 12 cranial + 31 spinal = 43 total pairs **ii. includes nerves and ganglia, afferent and efferent neurons Motor Unit

213. Describe Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Stage 4:

i. 12+ years old - Formal operational stage - reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences; moral reasoning. At this point children are reasoning more like adults and they continue to develop that overtime. **ii. In the formal operational stage, a child will be able to think logically about abstract ideas, hypothetical situations, and use abstract thinking to solve novel problems. Problem-Solving/Decision-making

211. Describe Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Stage 2:

i. 2-6/7 years old (approx.) - Preoperational stage - When children are going to develop/engage in pretend play. Start to use symbols to represent things. Also, very egocentric - only concerned about themselves, no empathy (they don't understand that other people have a different point of view than they do) (ex. A child might not understand that sitting in front of you while you watch TV will prevent you from seeing TV, since they can see). Stage of "I can't see you, you can't see me"

219. Describes Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence?

i. 3 types of intelligences - analytical intelligence (Academic abilities - to solve well defined problems), creative intelligence (ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas and adapt) and practical intelligence (solve ill-defined problems, such as how to get a bookcase up a curvy staircase **ii. Higher intelligence doesn't equal= better marriages, greater physical/mental wellbeing, raise their kids better

458. How many people delivered the 450V death shock in Milgram's study?

i. 65% of participants shocked all the way

779. What is the 68-95-99.7 rule?

i. 68.27%, 95.45% and 99.73% of the values lie within one, two and three standard deviations of the mean, respectively. Types of Research Bias

165. What is the capacity of working memory?

i. 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time (why besides area code, phone numbers are 7 digits long)

212. Describe Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Stage 3:

i. 7-11 years- Concrete operational "Learn idea of conservation. **ii. Also begin to learn empathy; begin reasoning of math skills. **iii. The concrete operational stage describes children who are able to grasp concrete (real) events logically, conversion, and reversibility(refers to the ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be changed and returned to their original condition.

457. What percent of individuals conformed in Asch's study, w/o any pressure?

i. 75% of individuals conformed

350. How many our genes don't code for proteins themselves but rather regulate gene expression?

i. 95% don't code for proteins, but rather regulate how proteins are coded (when and how they are expressed). **ii. [Ex. If we experience sugar consumption, then we code for the protein hormone insulin].

66. What is the cone of confusion?

i. A cone-shaped set of points, radiating outwards from a location midway between an organism's ears, from which a sound source produces identical phase delays and transient disparities, making the use of such binaural cues useless for sound localization. All of the points on the cone of confusion have the same interaural level difference and interaural time difference.

762. What is a confounding variable?

i. A confounding variable is a third, oft-unintended variable in an experiment that could provide an alternative explanation to the relationship between the variables of interest.

353. How is phenylketonuria (PKU) an example of G-E interaction?

i. A genetic condition that causes a build-up of phenylalanine which then cause brain problems. **ii. Symptoms of PKU can be managed by a specific diet, which is a less problematic environment for the individual with PKU. 1. During infant screening, placed on these effected individuals placed on phenylalanine-free diet, and most grow up without major problems. Adaptive Value of Behavioral Traits

370. What is attitude?

i. A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way

763. What is a mediating variable?

i. A mediating variable is one which explains the relationship between the IV and DV. The mediator adds to the overall variance accounted for in the data and can explain how the dependent and independent variables are related. 1. IV variations account for variations in mediator 2. Mediator variation account for variations in DV 3. When mediator is added to the mode, the relationship between the IV and DV decreases

708. What is a microculture?

i. A microculture can't support people throughout their lifespan, refers to groups/organizations only affecting limited period of one's life. Ex. Girl scouts, college sororities, boarding school.

798. What are issues with the method of limits?

i. A possible disadvantage of these methods is that the subject may become accustomed to reporting that they perceive a stimulus and may continue reporting the same way even beyond the threshold (the error of habituation). Conversely, the subject may also anticipate that the stimulus is about to become detectable or undetectable and may make a premature judgment (the error of anticipation).

730. What is the difference between a protective factor and a risk-factor?

i. A protective factor can be defined as "a characteristic at the biological, psychological, family, or community (including peers and culture) level that is associated with a lower likelihood of problem outcomes or that reduces the negative impact of a risk factor on problem outcomes." Conversely, a risk factor can be defined as "a characteristic at the biological, psychological, family, community, or cultural level that precedes and is associated with a higher likelihood of problem outcomes. Statistics and Studies

743. What is a quasi-experimental design?

i. A quasi-experimental design is similar to an experimental design (with independent and dependent variables) but lacks random assignment. This type of design describes an effect on a specific cohort of the population.

675. What is difference between a slum and a ghetto?

i. A slum is a heavily populated urban informal settlement characterized by substandard housing and squalor. **ii. Ghettoes are defined as areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequities. Population Dynamics

352. What is the difference between a study on epigenetics and a study on the gene-environment interaction?

i. A study that looks at the interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental events is looking at gene-environment interaction, not epigenetics.

170. What is the operation span test?

i. A task in which subjects are asked to perform a simple mathematical verification (e.g., 4/2 +1 = 3) and then read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/read pairs. The maximum number of words that can be recalled is the "operation span".

315. What are the two main neurotransmitters of the peripheral nervous system?

i. Acetylcholine and epinephrine

134. What are the two stages of withdrawal from a substance, and describe them?

i. Acute (few weeks, physical withdrawal symptoms, different for each drug/person). For alcohol, only 2 days after cessation of consumption, improvement seen 4-5 days. **ii. Post Acute (fewer physical symptoms, more emotional/psychological symptoms, same symptoms for everyone)

625. How does it address meaning?

i. Addresses the subjective meanings people believe to be true - meaning is the central aspect of human behavior. Humans ascribe meanings to things, and act towards those things based on ascribed meaning. Language allows humans to generate meaning through interactions, and humans modify meanings to thought processes.

268. What is the endocrine response to stress?

i. Adrenal medulla release catecholamines (adrenaline/noradrenaline), which are tyrosine derivatives developed from ectoderm **ii. Adrenal cortex released cortisol: steroid hormone redistributes glucose energy in body and suppressing immune system. Developed by endoderm

371. What are the three component (ABD model) of attitude?

i. Affective (emotional) - we may feel or have emotions about a certain object, topic, subject. **ii. Behavioral - how we act or behave towards object/subject **iii. Cognitive component -form thoughts/beliefs, and have knowledge about subject/topic that will influence and shape our attitude (perhaps prior knowledge that will help you shape attitude). **iv. Example: "I love yoga because I get to meditate and I believe it helps me relax so I will go to class each week." - 'I love yoga' is emotional,' I believe it helps me relax' is cognitive, and behavioral is 'I will go to class each week' Attitudes Influence Behavior - 4 Theories

289. What are the two parts of a reflex?

i. Afferent (receptors detects stimulus) and efferent (response)

270. Describe Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome?

i. Alarm phase - stress reaction kicks in, heart races, resources mobilized - "Ready for fight or flight" **ii. Resistance - fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, body bathed in cortisol. **iii. Exhaustion - if resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body's stress resources are depleted, our tissues become damaged and our dampened immunity can make us susceptible to illness. Negative impact of long term stress. Physical effects of stress

143. What are the three parts of Posner's model of attention?

i. Alerting is the process involved in becoming and staying attentive toward the surroundings. It appears to exist in the frontal and parietal lobes of the right hemisphere, and is modulated by norepinephrine produced in the locus ceruleus. **ii. Orienting is the directing of attention to a specific stimulus. **iii. Executive attention is involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behavior. Dopamine from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention.

650. Is race genetically based?

i. All humans 99.9% identical - There is no genetic basis for race. But it is important on a social level. **ii. In the US race is defined by skin color but hair color is irrelevant. Latin America race category in the US can be broken down to 5-6 races in SA.

150. Describe Broadbent's early selection theory?

i. All information in environment goes into sensory register (which briefly registers/stores all sensory information you receive) then the info gets transferred to selective filter right away which identifies what you are supposed to be attending to via basic physical characteristics and filters out stuff in unattended ear based on things you don't need to understand to identify (based on voice, pitch, speed, accents, etc) and finally information moves to perceptual processes identifies friend's voice and assigns meaning to words. Then you can engage in other cognitive processes such as deciding how to respond. **ii. Sensory register selective filter perceptual process Conscious. **iii. Some problems - if you completely filter out unattended info, shouldn't be able identify your own name in unattended ear but, you can as explained by Cocktail party effect.

456. What were some criticisms of the Asch conformity experiment?

i. All participants came from the same population (all male undergrads from same culture) - women, individuals from minority groups, individuals from different cultures or age ranges might have reacted differently **ii. Participants knew they were coming in for a study. Participant were suspicions of the study. Perhaps individuals would conform once just to see what would happen. **iii. Ecological validity - do the conditions of the study mimic those of the real world. If they don't, we can only make limited conclusions. **iv. Demand characteristics - describes how participants change behaviour to match expectations of experimenter. Conformed because that's what experimenter wanted them to do.

446. What are some factors that are related with risk of AD?

i. Also genetic mutations, many involved in processing of amyloid protein. **ii. Also ApoE4 involved in metabolism of fats is strongly related to AD. **iii. Also, high blood pressure increases risk of disorder too. Biological Basis of Parkinson's

603. How does altruism increase group fitness?

i. Altruism - 2 groups of monkeys, one selfish and one not. Selfish group doesn't alarm others of predators. Non-selfish group alerts others and leads to overall success of group over time. Making a call at their own expense is sometimes good (the one who makes the call might not survive, but those similar to it can be helped...this is better strategy for the population). Social Structures

197. What is the most common form of dementia?

i. Alzheimer's Disease, which is a progressive brain disorder that affects different aspects of memory over time. Neurons die off over time and as neurons die off, cerebral cortex shrinks in size. They initially have trouble with short term memory, which eventually progresses into problems with long-term memory (like episodic, procedural, and semantic memory loss).

766. What is ambiguous temporal precedence?

i. Ambiguous temporal precedence is defined as the inability of the researcher (based on the data) to specify which variable is the cause and which variable is the effect.

488. What reinforcement are most resistant and most susceptible to extinction, respectively?

i. Among the reinforcement schedules, variable-ratio is the most resistant to extinction, while fixed-interval is the easiest to extinguish.

334. What are the specific cranial changes that occur in the limbic system during adolescence?

i. Amygdala - responsible for emotions/emotional responses. Explains why teenagers are moody and have emotional outbursts (yelling at parents, slamming door) **ii. Hypothalamus - regulates endocrine system (hormones) **iii. Limbic system also includes other structures, but these top two are important.

373. What is the Attitude to Behavior Process Model?

i. An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object) **ii. Then attitude + some outside knowledge (what regarded as appropriate behavior) together determines behavior.

815. Damage to the basal ganglia causes problems with recognizing...

i. Angry facial expressions and disgust **ii. Parkinson's disease (basal ganglia) people never feel disgusted

434. How does neuroplasticity abnormality connect with mental disorder?

i. Another newer idea that abnormalities of neuroplasticity - brain changes in response to experience- can cause mental disorder. 1. But unclear if neuroplasticity abnormalities is a cause or effect. 2. Strength of information/efficiency of flow changes or connections change. Aspects of neuroplasticity appear to be abnormal in animals of major depressive disorder.

557. When does stranger anxiety set in?

i. Around 8 months of age

670. What is urban decline?

i. As people move out of city centers to suburbs, city can fall into disrepair. Buildings abandoned, unemployment/crime rises. Population of city declines.

512. According to Vygotsky, what 4 elementary functions do babies have?

i. Attention, sensation, perception, and memory (acronym: elementary mental babies have crAMPS)

785. What is attrition bias?

i. Attrition bias is a kind of selection bias caused by attrition (loss of participants discounting trial subjects/tests that did not run to completion. It includes dropout, nonresponse (lower response rate), withdrawal and protocol deviators. It gives biased results where it is unequal in regard to exposure and/or outcome. Different loss of subjects in intervention and comparison group may change the characteristics of these groups and outcomes irrespective of the studied intervention.

377. What is the principle of aggregation?

i. Average behavior over time reflects effects of attitudes more than a single behavior does. Behavior Influences Attitude

331. What are some common neonatal reflexes, which disappear as the baby ages?

i. Babinski Reflex - how baby will turn/unturn toes when bottom of the foot. Disappears before 12 months. (fans toes outwards). **ii. Monro reflex - startle reaction. Fan out arms then back. Disappears in 4-6 month of age. **iii. Tonic Neck Reflex (aka fencing posture)- how when a baby's head is turned, the arm on that side straightens while the arm on the side that is opposite bends. Disappears at 6 months of age. **iv. Galant reflex: when Skin is stroked, baby moves/swings to the side it was stroked. Disappears at 6 months.

412. According to Bandura's Social Cognitive/Observational Learning Theory, what is the process we take towards learning something and acting upon it consistently?

i. Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory - Attention, Memory, Imitation, Motivation (Acronym: "AM I Motivated?") Defense Mechanisms

174. Where is implicit memory stored?

i. Basal ganglia

263. What is the Russell/Barrett conceptual act model of emotion?

i. Basic emotions aren't biological but emerge from two more fundamental entities: core affect and categorization **ii. Core affect (such as pleasure, tension, or energy) can exist in isolation or as a component of moods and emotions. Event Label as Core effect Emotion + Physiological response

596. What are the 2 most common types of mimicry?

i. Batesian mimicry, where a harmless mimic poses as harmful; **ii. Müllerian mimicry, where two or more harmful species mutually advertise themselves as harmful

374. What is the Prototype Willingness Model?

i. Behavior is a function of 6 things, the combination of which influence our behavior. Our behavior is a function of.... 1. 1. Past behavior 2. 2. Attitudes - explained in Attitude to behavior processing model above. Attitude behavior 3. 3. Subjective norms - what others think about our behavior 4. 4. Our intentions - our behavior intentions 5. 5. Our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior 6. 6. models/prototyping - a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping/modelling.

718. How can behaviors be selected for?

i. Behaviors can be selected for: if they contribute to fitness of a species.

243. What is the social interactionist approach to language development?

i. Believe biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. Children's desire to communicate with others - such as adults in their life, makes them motivated to learn language. **ii. Associated with Vygotsky.

823. What is the difference between Beneficence and nonmaleficence?

i. Beneficence is a concept in research ethics which states that researchers should have the welfare of the research participant as a goal of any clinical trial or other research study. nonmaleficence states that we should act in ways that do not inflict evil or cause harm to others.

778. What is beta?

i. Beta is the probability of Type II error in any hypothesis test; incorrectly concluding no statistical significance.

655. What are the 5 considerations when examining persons gender and sexual orientation?

i. Biological - sex (male/female - the biological characteristics) person is born with. Are they male or female? (XY sex Chromosome, or XX sex chromosome). (More below) **ii. Identity -gender (masculine/feminine - behaviors, roles, activities in society ) they identify as (More below) **iii. Expression - gender they express (More below) **iv. Attraction - gender they're romantically attracted to (More below) **v. Fornication - gender they're sexually attracted to (More below)

826. What are atypical psychotics?

i. Block serotonin as well. Less likely to cause extrapyramidal motor control disability, but still have negative symptoms. these have increased risk of stroke, cardiac death, blood clot and diabetes.

824. How do antipsychotics work?

i. Both types (typical and atypical) block dopamine pathways. This can cause Parkinson's like symptoms in the form of extrapyramidal motor control disability and negative symptoms.

189. How does the brain's structure change to store memories?

i. Brain doesn't grow new cells to store memories - connections between neurons strengthen.

392. Such theories focus on either ______ or _______ instead of _______?

i. Brain or behavior instead of traits. **ii. our inherited genes to some degree leads to our traits, which leads to our behaviour/personality.

323. Two main types of studying the brain?

i. Brain structure vs. brain function

304. What structures make up the old brain?

i. Brainstem (includes medulla, pons, reticular formation, and midbrain) **ii. Thalamus **iii. Cerebellum

198. What is a theory of the causation of Alzheimer's Disease?

i. Buildup of beta amyloid plaques in brain.

486. How does operant conditioning define the motivational state?

i. By depriving the subject of some desirable stimulus for a period of time.

185. How does false/misleading information affect recollection of an event?

i. Can lead to inaccurate recollections of an event due to false/misleading retrieval cues, which can even be false/misleading changes in words/phrases

406. What are Gordon Allport's 3 basic trait categories?

i. Cardinal traits are characteristics that direct most of person's activities - the dominant trait that influence all of our behaviours, including secondary and central traits. **ii. Central trait - Less dominant than cardinal. ex. honesty, sociability, shyness. **iii. Secondary trait - preferences or attitude. Ex. love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat.

803. What is the carry-over effect?

i. Carryover effects occur when the effect of an experimental condition carries over, influencing performance in a subsequent condition. These effects are more likely when the experimental conditions follow each other quickly. The same occurs for carry-over effects, when participants respond in a more biased manner to later questions because of any earlier questions.

274. What are damaging effects of stress on immune function?

i. Causes inflammation - acute stress can lead to overuse of immune system. Can attack our own body. Good example is arthritis (joint become overly inflamed) **ii. Chronic stress: stop activating immune system response and it suppresses you. Doesn't make you sick, but makes you more susceptible to illness. Behavioral Effects of Stress

424. The frontal and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex have been seen to (increase/decrease in size)?

i. Cerebral cortex (layer that is outermost part of cerebrum) seems to have decreased size, in frontal and temporal lobes. These areas have to do with cognitive and perceptual functions which are abnormal in schizophrenia.

593. Why are pros and cons of animals communicating through Chemical signals/Olfactory Signals?

i. Chemical signals tend to be a lot slower than sound, but a lot longer lasting. But because of this long lasting effect, chemical signals are considered "noisy" - a lot of chemical signals in a given area.

667. What is symbolic interactionist perspective of cities?

i. Cities are places where people have different ways of looking at life. Strong cultural values, people have strong cultural values and people have different interactions and perspectives of urban life.

665. What is the functionalist perspective of cities?

i. Cities have important functions and have a slice of culture and diverse populations but also host to crime and other disruptions to society.

663. What is a city defined as?

i. Cities have over 50 000 people.

481. What is respondent conditioning?

i. Classical conditioning

746. What is the difference between closed questions and open questions in a self-report study?

i. Closed questions - provide quantitative data, no insights **ii. Open questions - qualitative data - ask participant to answer in own words Internal and External Validity

556. In the Harlow monkey experiment, why did the monkeys prefer the (blank) mother?

i. Cloth mother acts as a secure base - eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world/cage on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there. 1. If monkey became anxious, it would come back to cloth mother. Secure and Insecure Attachment

659. What is gender schema theory?

i. Cognitions regarding what constitutes a sex identity is a gender schema. Theory that explains how individuals should be gendered in society. How sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture. What constitutes men/female characteristics and how stereotypes become ingrained in the society.

431. In neural pathways that use certain NTs that are associated with mental disorders, where are the somas located and where are the projections located?

i. Collection of neurons have cell bodies in brain stem while axons project into frontal lobe/limbic system

476. Collective behavior is often driven by...

i. Collective behavior is often driven by group dynamics, such as deindividuation. Certain group dynamics can encourage people to engage in acts they may consider wrong in normal circumstances, which also occur in a collective. Learning

430. What communication pathway is supposed to play a role when there are abnormal hormones in the body?

i. Communication of frontal lobe, limbic system, and hypothalamus may plays a role why there are abnormal hormones in the body. **ii. Stress hormones affect most tissues of the body and the brain (including hypothalamus, limbic system, and frontal lobe) 1. Unclear which abnormalities of stress hormone are causes and which are effects of the disease.

632. What are the 3 factors of rational choice theory?

i. Completeness (every action can be ranked), ex. A is preferable to B which is preferable to C. (C is not then preferable to A). (A>B>C) **ii. Transitivity (since A is preferable to B is preferable to C, therefore, A is also preferable to C). (same as math A >B >C, Therefore A>C). **iii. Independence of irrelevant alternatives (if I have a fourth option X, won't change order of how I ranked first 3 options. Just add it in to existing order. (A>B>C, & B>X>C, Therefore: A>B>X>C).

455. What are the three types of conformity/obedience?

i. Compliance -situations where we do behaviour to get a reward or avoid punishment. Tendency to go along with behaviour without questioning why. Compliance goes away once rewards/punishments removed. **ii. Identification - when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual. **iii. Internalization - idea/belief/behaviour has been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity.

205. What are semantic networks?

i. Concepts are organized in your mind as connected ideas. For closely related ideas, they might be closer and longer for less closely related ideas.

755. What is concurrent validity?

i. Concurrent validity measures how well a test matches up with a benchmark test, which is usually another valid measure of the same construct.

604. What is the difference between the conservative and progressive views of institutions?

i. Conservative View: institutions are natural byproducts of human nature. **ii. Progressive View: institutions are artificial creations that need to be redesigned if they are not helpful.

757. What is construct validity?

i. Construct validity describes the extent to which the theory is supported by the data or results of the research. the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring

760. What is content validity?

i. Content validity is a measure of comprehensiveness and examines whether or not a test covers every single element of a construct.

521. Describe the differences between Charles Cooley and George H. Mead's theories in how others could play a significant role in how we view ourselves?

i. Cooley thought everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity, Mead thought this was more restricted - only certain people can and only in certain periods of life. Mead also thought that the way others influence us changes across the lifespan. George Herbert Mead: The I and the Me

305. What is the cerebellum's function?

i. Coordinates voluntary movement and balance

668. What are the three categories of city dwellers?

i. Cosmopolites: drawn to city due to cultural benefits and convenience. 1. Ex. Students, artists, entertainment, and intellectuals **ii. Singles: Looking for jobs, partners, entertainment **iii. Deprived/Trapped: Can't afford to leave city. 1. Ex: unemployed, elderly, homeless, poor (Just make enough to get by but not enough to collect money to leave the city).

586. What is the Cost-benefit analysis associated with foraging?

i. Cost: going out to get food can take up time and energy. Benefit: survival. Goal is to get highest energy yield while expending least amount of energy.

234. What can happen if the corpus callosum is severed but the hemispheres alone work fine?

i. Could visually process objects in left visual field, but may not be able to name it (anomia/anomic aphasia) because right hemisphere (which processes left visual field) can't communicate with left hemisphere (where language is usually processed)

524. What critical thing did Cooley believe about the last revision step?

i. Critical aspect of this theory is Cooley believed we are not actually being influenced by opinions of others, but what we imagine the opinions of other people to be.

195. What cognitive abilities improve during aging?

i. Crystallized IQ (experience), emotional reasoning (wisdom), and semantic memories until 60 years

717. How does cultural transmission (learning from a different culture) typically occur?

i. Culture transmission typically occurs through observation, interactions, and the biological component (shaped through evolution)

246. What are linguistic pragmatics?

i. Dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. Limbic System

640. How does symbolic interactionism relate to medicine?

i. Doctor-patient relationship, given meanings to lab coat/stethoscope can affect interaction. Important for doctor to realize the meaning the patient has given to tools of medicine **ii. Changes in society - recently, medicalization of society, where everything has a medical fix.

421. Schizophrenia is associated with high levels of...

i. Dopamine. This is why Antipsychotic medicines reduce dopamine.

493. What types of reinforcement are drive-reduction and incentive?

i. Drive-reduction - negative reinforcement **ii. Incentive - positive reinforcement

272. What are damaging effects of stress on metabolism?

i. During stress, body secretes cortisol and glucagon, which converts glycogen to glucose. Glucose increases in our blood which remains floating around in blood vessels (we don't need all this extra glucose, which can exacerbate metabolic conditions like diabetes). **ii. Too much blood sugar can also cause heart disease

610. What are the 2 factors of Emile Durkheim's functionalist theory?

i. Durkheim imagined a balance between institutions and social facts **ii. Institutions are structures that meet the needs of society like education systems, financial institutions, marriage, laws, etc. **iii. Social facts are ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will still exist after any individual is dead. Unique objects that can't be influenced and have a coercive effect over individual only noticed when we resist. Ex. the law. Others are moral regulations, religious fates, and social currents like suicide/birth rate

325. What are main tests that study brain function?

i. EEG (Electroencephalogram) - external, can't tell us about activity of individual/groups of neurons. Can only look at sum total. Can tell us about seizures, sleep stage, cognitive tasks. Not invasive! We don't get a picture of a brain from this method, but we get an EEG. Easier set up than MEG. **ii. MEG (Megnetoencephalogram) (aka SQUIDS - Superconducting quantum interference device)- better resolution than EEG, but more rare because requires a large machine and special room to shield it. Records the magnetic fields produced by electric currents in the brain. Measured by using SQUIDS. (acronym: MEGa SQUIDS are invasive)

687. Why is growth rate positive?

i. Economic benefits ...children can work to support family **ii. Sometimes, Government provides economic incentive to families who have children (ex. Japan where birth rates are low) **iii. Religion influences population growth (promotes large families - increases # of people of that faith and also promotes stronger community). Some religions forbid use of contraceptives by followers. **iv. Cultural influences of large families: children means you get to pass down family traits and values. Prestige of having children

419. What are elimination disorders?

i. Elimination Disorders - distress/disability from urination/defecation at inappropriate times or places.

680. What decreases the growth rate?

i. Emigration: opposite of immigration. Movement of a person out of a country. # ppl moving out/1000 ppl. **ii. Death (Rate)/Mortality Rate: #Deaths/1000 people.

806. What is endogamy?

i. Endogamy is the practice of marrying within a specific ethnic group, class, or social group, rejecting others on such a basis as being unsuitable for marriage or for other close personal relationships.

351. What are epigenetics?

i. Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene expression that results in something other than changes to a DNA sequence. One epigenetic change is methylation, which can make it more difficult for a gene to be expressed. Gene-Environment Interaction

492. What are the 2 types of aversive control?

i. Escape conditioning occurs when the animal learns to perform an operant to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus. It is a "get me out of here" or "shut this off" reaction, aimed at escape from pain or annoyance. The behavior that produces escape is negatively reinforced (reinforced by the elimination of the unpleasant stimulus). **ii. Avoidance behaviors are incredibly persistent. This is true even when there is no longer anything to avoid. The reason is that an animal that performs an avoidance reaction never experiences the aversive stimulus. But it receives negative reinforcement in the form of relief. Because of this, avoidance behavior is self-reinforcing. Negative reinforcement.

259. What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?

i. Event Physiological Response + Emotion at same time.

526. Describe the 3 cues of Kelley's covariation model of attribution?

i. Ex. Take flaky friend, friend forever cancels on us. Consistent behavior over time. High level of consistent behavior over time, we are more likely related to them as a person as opposed to the world working against them in this situation. 1. When consistency is high = attribution to internal factors **ii. Ex. Very nice friend Jim, but one day he gets so mad at the pizza place. Out of character and distinctive. So much more likely to be related to the environment. Distinctiveness = situational. 1. Distinctiveness of a situation = attribution to external factors **iii. Third factor in covariation model - "group lateness" - if you arrive late at meeting but if you are with 20 other people are late too, high degree of consensus. When a lot of people demonstrate same behavior, we are more likely to attribute behavior to situational cause. 1. Consensus of people = attribution of external factors

805. What is exogamy?

i. Exogamy is a social arrangement where marriage is allowed only outside a social group. The social groups define the scope and extent of exogamy, and the rules and enforcement mechanisms that ensure its continuity.

140. What are the 2 types of cues that can direct our attention?

i. Exogenous /External Cues: Don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention Ex. Bright colors, loud noises, "pop-out effect") 1. Exogenous attention is driven by bottom-up or external events, i.e. pop-out. **ii. Endogenous Cues / Internal Cues - Require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it Ex. A mouse arrow, would need internal arrow of what an arrow is to follow it and to know it's not just a random line. 1. Endogenous attention is driven by top-down or internal events, i.e. the cocktail effect. 2. Cocktail party effect - ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. Or when someone calls your name (endogenous cue: meaning of name draws attention)

671. What is the difference between a suburb and an exurb?

i. Exurbs are farther out, typically served by no public transit, often have few or no municipal services (like water and sewer or trash pickup) so the residents must dig wells for water and contract privately for other services. Sometimes exurban house lots are larger (think "McMansions") but in recent years there has been a lot of exurban "townhouse" development (townhouses where there is no town).

407. Describe Hans Eysenck's dimensions of personality theory?

i. Eysenck says we have 3 major dimensions of personality, which encompass all traits we all possess, but the degrees to which we individually express them are different. We all express varying degress of neuroticism and extraversion, but we all don't necessarily have psychoticism. These 3 are: **ii. extroversion (vs. introversion) - degree of sociability **iii. neuroticism -emotional stability **iv. Psychoticism -degree to which reality is distorted. 1. We do not all necessarily have psychoticism.

676. What 3 factors contribute to total growth rate?

i. Fertility is natural ability of human beings to have babies, which add to the population. Fecundity is the potential reproductive capacity of a female. **ii. Migration is number of people moving permanently (to live, work, and eventually die) into/out of countries. Doesn't change total people on planet but does change # of people living in a region/country. 1. When going on vacation does not equal migration. **iii. Mortality is death, decreases population.

379. How does role-playing affect attitude?

i. First few days in a new role feel a bit strange/fake because we're trying to follow social quota in that role. We are trying to fit the role and sound professional. But over time, what feels like acting starts to feel like you. 1. Our behavior of playing this rule influences our attitude overtime. What feels like acting starts to feel like you and begins to fit your attitude! 2. E.g. Zimbardo's prison experiment

206. What is the hierarchical semantic theory?

i. First semantic network theory suggested that we stored information in a hierarchical way. It was thought concepts were organized from higher order categories to lower order categories. We store information at the highest category possible. Broad categories/characteristics are stored at higher level nodes. **ii. Longer the distance between nodes or more notes in between = longer it takes to verify the connection.

474. What is the difference between collective and group behavior?

i. First, collective behavior is time-limited, and involves short social interactions, while groups stay together and socialize for long period of time. **ii. Collectives can be open, while groups can be exclusive. **iii. Collectives have loose norms (which are murkily defined), while groups have strongly held/well-defined norms.

490. Describe the overall response pattern of each schedule?

i. Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer. **ii. Variable Ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. **iii. Fixed interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer. **iv. Variable interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

220. Describe Cattell's Fluid/Crystallized intelligence model?

i. Fluid Intelligence - is ability to reason quickly and abstractly, such as when solving novel logic problems. **ii. Crystallized intelligence refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills.

423. Schizophrenia is associated (enlarged/shrunken) fluid-filled regions of the brain?

i. Fluid filled regions have been enlarged because there is less tissue of the brain.

467. What are the 4 types of norms?

i. Folkways - the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow on a day to day base. Traditions individuals have followed for a long time, ex. opening the door, helping a person who's dropped item, or saying thank you. No actual punishment. **ii. Mores - norms based on some moral value/belief (dependent on group's values of right and wrong). Usually a strong reaction if more is violated. Don't have serious consequences. **iii. Laws - norms still based on right and wrong, but have formal/consistent consequences. There is a punishment for the crime. There is not always outrage when a law is violated - depends on the law. **iv. Taboos - behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law (with serious legal consequences) and result in severe disgust by members of community. Considered very immoral behavior. Deviance

588. What drives foraging behavior?

i. Foraging behavior is driven strongly by genetics, but can also be gained through learning, ex. young primates copy adults and this is how they learn to forage. This teaches them how to hunt and what kinds of things they should be hunting.

576. What are the two main parts of Erving Goffman's dramaturgy approach to social interaction?

i. Front stage - when people are in a social setting. Ex. someone watches baseball with friends even if he doesn't like baseball. Manipulating how he's seen to gain/make friends. "Putting on a front and acting for an audience" perhaps use this to your advantage one day. **ii. Back stage - more private area of our lives, when act is over. You can be yourself. You can do what you feel makes you comfortable. Private area of your life. 1. Some things in backstage maybe nobody knows about, few people who are close to you might know about some things in your backstage 2. It is things we do behind stage. Ex; putting on makeup! Things we do to prepare for front-stage when nobody is around.

562. What is the psychological aspect of aggression?

i. Frustration-aggression principle, the idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression. Almost anything can cause frustration. **ii. Reinforcement-modeling can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of child during temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future. 1. Also if parents yell/hit each other, child will pick up on behavior too (parents can model aggressive behavior - child can observe and pick up behavior of parents).

310. What are the most common inhibitory NTs?

i. GABA (brain) and Glycine (spinal cord)

601. What is the main important difference between evolutionary game theory and general game theory?

i. Game theory involves intention, where participants reasoning about behaviors of others. **ii. Evolutionary game theory different because decisions might not have a conscious intention on part of players.

630. What is the difference between gender oppression and structural oppression?

i. Gender oppression - women are not only unequal to men, but they're oppressed, subordinated, and abused. Positive state of being a woman is not acknowledged in patriarchal society. Institution of family is especially beneficial to men. Family was split into 2 types of labor; Split role created educational and economic gap between men and women. **ii. Structural oppression - women's oppression and inequality are due to capitalism, patriarchy, and racism. Direct parallel to conflict theory. Women like working class are exploited because of capital model, but not all women express oppression in same way. Linked to race, class, sexual orientation, age, and disability. Rational Choice Theory and Exchange Theory

658. What is the difference between gender roles and gender norms?

i. Gender role is a social role. It is "a set of expectations associated with the perception of masculinity and femininity." **ii. Gender norms can be identified as the prescriptions of Gender roles. It is a type of socio-cultural regulation (to encourage socially desirable behavior). This is a "pattern" of what individuals - as members of a group, or representing a particular social position should do, what is required of them under given circumstances.

561. What is the biological aspect of aggression?

i. Genes: evidence: identical twins, if one is more aggressive the other is as well. With fraternal twins - not the case, and we can breed animals for aggression **ii. 2. Brain structure impact on aggressive behavior: No one brain spot controls for aggression but there are circuits in brain can inhibit/facilitate aggression. The amygdala (part of limbic system which is composed of structures from telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon) facilitates our fear response, and when stimulated triggers aggressive behavior. The frontal lobe is responsible for planning, decision making, and importantly impulse control, and correlation studies have shown criminals have decreased frontal lobe activation. (perhaps those who commit violent actions can't inhibit violent behaviors) **iii. Testosterone is hormone released by testes in men and ovaries in women. Higher in men = why men are more aggressive than women. Also why 70 y/o man is less aggressive than a 17 y/o adolescent man. Drugs that reduce testosterone levels tend to reduce aggressive tendencies.

295. What is gray and white matter?

i. Gray- Neuron somas **ii. White- myelinated axons

459. What are factors that influence conformity and obedience?

i. Group size - more likely to conform in groups of 3-5. **ii. Unanimity **iii. Group status **iv. Group cohesion **v. Observed behaviour **vi. Public response **vii. Internal factors

682. What is the growth rate formula?

i. Growth Rate: (Total Population Increase - Total population decrease)/(Initial Population)*100= (Births + Immigration - Deaths - Emigration)/(Initial Population)*100 [Can be calculated as Current Population - Initial Population / (Initial) * 100]

388. According to Carl Rogers, what are the characteristics of the growth-promoting climate required to achieve Maslow's idea of self-actualization?

i. Growth is nurtured by when individual is genuine. One has to be open and revealing about themselves without fear of being wrong. **ii. Second is growth is nurtured through acceptance - unconditional positive regard from others. This allows us to live up to our ideal selves. Allows us to be open and learn without fear of others looking at us differently if we do something wrong.

237. What did Piaget believe about language development?

i. He believed once children were able to think a certain way, they then developed language to describe those thoughts influences build it. Language influence is influenced by cognitive development.

627. What did Herbert Blumer add to Mead's work?

i. He proposed 3 tenants to explain symbolic interactionism: 1. 1. We act based on meaning we've given something, ex. tree is place to rest. 2. 2. Different people assign different meanings to things. We give meaning to things based on social interactions, ex. someone tells us tree is infested with ants. But we have different views of the tree and we act differently. 3. 3. The meaning we give something isn't permanent, ex. something bites my back, so might not sit under next tree one finds. (Tree now is defined as shade on a hot day with a potential of getting bit)

330. What direction does human baby development occur?

i. Head to toe, can lift head before can crawl

569. What is the Early developmental trajectory of altruism?

i. Helping behaviors begin early. Some newborns cry when other newborns cry (they recognize other babies distress). Helping behavior begins around age 2, children share toys and play act helping/altruism. Age 4 begin actually begin helping. **ii. Says that altruism might be a normal human behavior because it occurs at such a young age. We have a tendency to help other people without an alternative motive. Social interactions

808. What is heterogamy?

i. Heterogamy is a marriage between two individuals who are culturally different.

703. What is high culture?

i. High culture refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist in the highest class segments of a society. This tends to be associated with wealth and formality.

807. What is homogamy?

i. Homogamy is marriage between individuals who are, in some culturally important way, similar to each other. Homogamy may be based on socioeconomic status, class, gender, ethnicity, or religion, or age in the case of the so-called age homogamy.

809. What is homophily?

i. Homophily - the tendency for people to choose relationships with other people who have similar attributes. people often prefer mixing with those who are similar to themselves. This is known as preferred mixing. Rando

387. What is the focus of Carl Rogers' Humanistic Theory?

i. Humanistic Theory focuses on the conscious and our free will to act, and says people are inherently good, and that we are self-motivated to improve (so we can reach self-actualization).

416. What are mature defense mechanisms?

i. Humor - expressing humor/jokes to be truthful and alleviate feelings but make them socially acceptable. **ii. Sublimation - channeling negative to positive energy. Ex. Violent energy, instead of expressing violence you become a boxer. Transform into socially acceptable behaviors. **iii. Suppression - conscious thought get pushed to unconscious but can access thoughts at a later time. **iv. Altruism - in service of others - we feel fulfilled and gain pleasure/satisfaction. Psychological Disorders

299. What are upper motor signs?

i. Hyperreflexia - increase in the muscle stretch reflexes. Cause is unclear, but when muscle spindle receptors are activated, without periodic stimulation of LMNs by UMNs, they become hypersensitive and you get bigger reflex. **ii. Clonus - rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle. Ex. Foot goes involuntarily up and down. Cause is hyperflexia, because if doctor pulls on foot activates muscle stretch reflex, so triggers antagonist muscles. **iii. Hypertonia - increased tone of skeletal muscles. Increase muscle tension, reduce muscle stretch. **iv. Extensor Plantar Response - if you take a hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor - toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up. Overview of the Functions of the Cerebral Cortex

247. What are the main structures of the limbic system?

i. Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Thalamus, and Hippocampus.

386. What are the three parts of the mind according to Freud and describe them?

i. Id at the bottom, it's the unconscious part. It develops after birth and demands immediate gratification. **ii. 2) Ego - part of conscious and unconscious. Involved in our perceptions, thoughts, and judgments, and seeks long-term gratification. Uses the reality principle: have to play by the rules of the real world and might have to compromise. **iii. 3) Superego - develops around age of 4, and it's our moral conscience. Also part of conscious and unconscious minds. **iv. Our libido impulses are what want to be gratified - when over-gratified or partially/not gratified at all, fixation occurs at a certain stage. Face conflict/anxiety. It's a conflict between these 3 mental structures - ego, id, and superego. They're all competing for demand, so in conflict. Humanistic Theory of Personality / Behavior

723. What is the difference between intragenerational and intergenerational mobility?

i. If change in social class happens in a person's own lifetime - intragenerational mobility. **ii. Intergenerational mobility - change in social class between generations, ex. Parent is working class and son is middle class.

250. What happens when the amygdala is damaged?

i. If destroyed, mellowing effect **ii. Kluver-Bucy syndrome - bilateral destruction (destruction of both) of amygdala can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behaviour. These are all drunken behaviours, so it is treated like such.

827. What is the Thomas theorem of sociology?

i. If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences. " In other words, the interpretation of a situation causes the action.

678. What increases the growth rate?

i. Immigration: movement of a person into a country. # of people moving in/1000 **ii. Birth rate: Births/1000 people per yr. Can also look at births in terms of fertility rate- # number of children a woman is expected to give birth to in her child bearing years. On avg. women in US gives birth to 2.1 children in her life. 1. >2 = increase in population 2. = 2, no increase/decrease in population. 3. <2 = decrease the population

194. What cognitive abilities stay stable during aging?

i. Implicit memory and recognition memory

829. Describe the effects of interference on an emotional Stroop test?

i. In an emotional Stroop task, an individual is given negative emotional words like "grief," "violence," and "pain" mixed in with more neutral words like "clock," "door," and "shoe".[34] Just like in the original Stroop task, the words are colored and the individual is supposed to name the color. Research has revealed that individuals that are depressed are more likely to say the color of a negative word slower than the color of a neutral word.

487. In which types of conditioning does extinction occur?

i. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. **ii. In operant conditioning, extinction can occur if the trained behavior is no longer reinforced or if the type of reinforcement used is no longer rewarding.

772. What is counterbalancing?

i. In experimental design, a method of controlling for the effects of an extraneous variable by ensuring that its effects are equal in all treatment conditions. For example, order effects can be counterbalanced by administering the various procedures in different sequences.

528. Describe how culture affects attribution?

i. In individualistic cultures (Western - Europe/America), success is over-attributed to internal and failure is over-attributed to external/situational factors. the fundamental attribution error occurs more in individualistic societies who place an emphasis on individual achievement **ii. In collectivist cultures (Eastern - Africa/Asia), success is attributed to external and failure to internal factors

570. What is a master status?

i. In perception, an individual's master status supersedes other identifying traits; is the social position that is the primary identifying characteristic of an individual. It is defined as "a status that has exceptional importance for social identity, often shaping a person's entire life"

748. What is internal validity?

i. In research, internal validity is the extent to which you are able to say that no other variables except the one you're studying caused the result. For example, if we are studying the variable of pay and the result of hard work, we want to be able to say that no other reason (not personality, not motivation, not competition) causes the hard work.

651. How do race definitions differ in different countries?

i. In the US race is defined by skin color but hair color is irrelevant. Latin America race category in the US can be broken down to 5-6 races in SA. **ii. Shows that race is a social construct.

797. What is the method of limits?

i. In the ascending method of limits, some property of the stimulus starts out at a level so low that the stimulus could not be detected, then this level is gradually increased until the participant reports that they are aware of it. For example, if the experiment is testing the minimum amplitude of sound that can be detected, the sound begins too quietly to be perceived, and is made gradually louder. In the descending method of limits, this is reversed. In each case, the threshold is considered to be the level of the stimulus property at which the stimuli are just detected

273. What are damaging effects of stress on reproduction?

i. In women - FSH/LH and then estrogen/progesterone can be inhibited which reduce reproductive abilities **ii. Impotence /erectile dysfunction also often caused by stress because your blood vessels are being constricted (less blood flow to penis) and allows more blood to remain in core (stress is most common cause of impotence in US)

365. How is incentive theory different from drive-reduction theory?

i. Incentive theory focuses on Positive reinforcement is done through continuous positive stimulation. A positive reinforce is given after a response to increase the response. You need to be constantly given positive reinforces. **ii. A negative reinforcement - removal of a stimuli to encourage a response would, is not what incentive theory is focused on. (this was drive-reduction theory) Biological and Sociocultural Factors - Food, Sex, and Drugs

599. What is inclusive fitness

i. Inclusive fitness - concerns the # of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other. Inclusive fitness is thinking about fitness on a larger scale - evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves. (explain kin selection) Evolutionary Game Theory

335. What global changes (changes throughout the brain as a whole) occur during adolescence?

i. Increase myelination (faster communication of neurons- faster connections b/t brain areas) **ii. Increase in brain volume in early adolescence and then decrease later in adolescence. **iii. Synaptic pruning - breaking down connections between certain neurons. Focus resources on the ones we use the most. What we do during our teenage users - shapes us for life. What we spend our time doing = what is reinforced. Temperament, Heredity, and Genes

271. What are damaging effects of stress on our heart?

i. Increased B.P, B.V distention, so they build up more muscle and become more rigid. Can lead to hypertension (HBP) and vascular disease (disease of blood vessels - get damaged with higher force of blood movement). Spots attract fat and narrow blood vessels. Worst place to experience this is coronary arteries - coronary artery disease.

453. What is the difference between an normative and informative influence?

i. Informative influence: look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct. **ii. Normative influence: even if you know what's right, do what group's negative actions to to avoid social rejection.

822. What is informed consent?

i. Informed Consent means that subjects are well informed about the study, the potential risks and benefits of their participation and that it is research, not therapy, in which they will participate.

683. What is the calculation for current population?

i. Initial Population + Births - Deaths + Immigrating In - Emigrating out [ If this is a negative number, you have a negative growth rate for that country]

799. What is the method of constant stimulation?

i. Instead of being presented in ascending or descending order, in the method of constant stimuli the levels of a certain property of the stimulus are not related from one trial to the next, but presented randomly. This prevents the subject from being able to predict the level of the next stimulus, and therefore reduces errors of habituation and expectation. For 'absolute thresholds' again the subject reports whether he or she is able to detect the stimulus. For 'difference thresholds' there has to be a constant comparison stimulus with each of the varied levels.

152. What is Treisman's Attentuation Theory?

i. Instead of complete selective filter, have an attenuator - weakens but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear. Then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. Then switch if something important. **ii. Sensory register attenuator perceptual process Conscious

611. What are the two types of functions?

i. Intended consequences of institutions are manifest functions, ex. businesses provide a service. School - educate people so they can get jobs. Laws - maintain social order. **ii. Unintended consequences, ex. schools expose students to social connections/new activities, and businesses connect people across society - latent functions, indirect effects of institutions. (unrecognized consequences)

372. What is the Theory of Planned Behavior?

i. Intentions + Implications: We consider the implications of our actions before we decide on how to behave. The best predictor of our behavior is the strength of these intensions and implications. **ii. Intensions are based on 3 things: 1. Our attitudes towards a certain behavior (ex. I like studying) 2. Subjective norms - what we think others think about our behavior (ex. My friends think studying is a waste of time) 3. Perceived behavioral control (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior) ex. I also have to work 40 hours this week on top of studying. **iii. In this example: Our attitude is positive, but our behavior of studying is low!

770. What is inter-rater reliability?

i. It gives a score of how much homogeneity, or consensus, there is in the ratings given by judges.

792. What is the split-half method?

i. It measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured. This is done by comparing the results of one half of a test with the results from the other half. A test can be split in half in several ways, e.g. first half and second half, or by odd and even numbers. If the two halves of the test provide similar results this would suggest that the test has internal reliability.

496. Why are adaptive associations (those who have a biological advantage) learned faster than learning with no biological value?

i. It used to be evolutionary advantageous to have the adaptive value to avoid food that made you sick, spiders, snakes, heights in the past - so they are passed on. Persuasion, Attitude Change, and the Elaboration Likelihood Model

443. What part of the brain often shrivels up in Alzheimer's?

i. It's the cerebrum that often dramatically decreases in size. 1. Starts in temporal lobes, important for memory. **ii. Later, atrophy spreads to parietal and frontal lobes

337. What is temperament, when is it established, and how long does it persist?

i. It's their characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, - their shyness and their sociability. Temperament seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. Persistent as person ages. 1. Personality is also believed to be constant

203. Can Korsakoff's get better, unlike AD?

i. Korsakoff isn't progressive and can get better. Treatment typically includes thiamine injections, staying on a healthy diet, abstain from alcohol, take vitamins, and relearn things.

240. What is strong linguistic determinism (Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis)?

i. Language determines thought completely. People understand their world through language, and language in turn shapes how we experience the world.

385. According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, what are the 3 main instinctual drives to human behavior?

i. Libido -natural energy source - fuels energy of mind for motivation for survival, growth, pleasure, etc. **ii. Thanos/Death Drive -drives aggressive behaviors fuelled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others **iii. Eros/Life Drive- Like health, safety, sex. Comes with love, cooperation, collaboration. Working with others to promote your and others wellbeing

677. How are the above 3 factors measured?

i. Measure rates over 1 year, and per 1000 people so rates are comparable and easy to understand.

537. What are the four concentric circles of stigma?

i. Media: outer circle. Major source of stigma, because can depict conditions as being dangerous, violent, moral-failings ( **ii. Society - interactions between self and society like education/employment/health care and stigmatizing views can affect individual to get a job, in healthcare **iii. Family - family can be shunned by society (if they have a family member with stigmatizing condition), or family might shun individual themselves. **iv. Self - core circle - media, society, family interactions can be internalized by an individual and can lead to avoidance, denial of condition, suffering of mental health conditions, and no longer participating in society. **b. Bidirectional relationships between all these groups.

336. What is the difference between Mendelian monogenic and polygenic inheritance with regards to traits and environmental interaction?

i. Mendelian monogenic inheritance patterns refer to traits that are associated with a single gene and are associated with simple traits while polygenic inheritance patterns are associated with complex traits (behavior characteristics) and multiple genes that can be active/inactive. **ii. Simple traits interact minimally with the environment, whereas complex traits are more impacted by environmental influences (environment plays a role in activation/deactivation)

606. What are the 3 current approaches to religion?

i. Modernization: more info available to public, less emphasis on religion. **ii. Secularization is the weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines. **iii. Fundamentalism - reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. Create social problems when people become too extreme.

381. What are the 4 things we might do to reduce dissonance? (example used is of a smoker. Cognition 1: I smoke. Cognition 2: Smoking causes cancer)

i. Modify our cognitions - Change/alteration in the cognition (thinking process) in a person's action/behavior to reduce the discomfort a person has with that attitude/behavior. 1. ex. smoker might say, I really don't smoke that much. (went from "I smoke" to "I really don't smoke that much") **ii. 2. Trivialize - make less important/make trivial, change the importance of their cognition 1. ex. Smoker might say, evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer. **iii. 3. Add - adding more cognitions, to make contradictions more comfortable. 1. ex. I exercise so much it doesn't matter (cognition 3). You added another cognition to deal with cognitive dissonance. **iv. 4. Deny - denying the facts 1. ex. Smoker might say, there is no evidence that smoking and cancer are not linked. Situational Approach

375. What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model for Persuasion?

i. More cognitive approach - focuses on the why/how of persuasion. **ii. 2 ways in which information is processed: 1. 1. Central Route of Persuasion: The degree of attitude change depends on quality of the arguments by the persuader. How much we are persuaded depends on quality of persuasion. ARGUMENT/Words are central! 2. Peripheral Route of Persuasion: looks at superficial/expertise/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader. The doctor himself is peripheral (he is the one delivering the words!)

513. Where do most higher mental functions (learning and thinking) come from according to Vygotsky?

i. Most develop from skillful "tutor" - a model, ex. parent/teacher/someone older. Tutor = model, and child tries to understand instructions/actions provided by tutor and they internalize it.

656. What is the difference between Klinefelter's, XO/Turner's, Triple-X syndrome, and Jacob's syndrome?

i. Most often, Klinefelter's syndrome results from the presence of one extra copy of the X chromosome in each cell (47,XXY). Extra copies of genes on the X chromosome interfere with male sexual development, often preventing the testes from functioning normally and reducing the levels of testosterone. **ii. Turner's syndrome results when one normal X chromosome is present in a female's cells and the other sex chromosome is missing (monosomy) or structurally altered. The missing genetic material affects development before and after birth. **iii. Jacob's or XYY syndrome is a rare chromosomal disorder that affects males. It is caused by the presence of an extra Y chromosome. Affected individuals are usually very tall. Many experience severe acne during adolescence. Additional symptoms may include learning disabilities and behavioral problems (super-male) such as impulsivity. **iv. Triple X syndrome, also called trisomy X or 47, XXX, is characterized by the presence of an additional X chromosome in each of a female's cells. Although females with this condition may be taller than average, this chromosomal change typically causes no unusual physical features. Most females with triple X syndrome have normal sexual development and are able to conceive children.

436. What are conversion disorders?

i. Must look like Neurological symptoms only - like problems with speech, swallowing, seizures, paralysis 1. individual Must exhibit at least one symptom of altered voluntary motor or sensory function that shows internal inconsistency, causes distress or impairment, and cannot be explained by another mental or medical disorder (DSM-5)

773. What are the main types of control groups in an experiment?

i. Negative controls are groups where no phenomenon is expected. They ensure that there is no effect when there should be no effect. **ii. Positive controls are groups where a phenomenon is expected. That is, they ensure that there is an effect when there should be an effect, by using an experimental treatment that is already known to produce that effect (and then comparing this to the treatment that is being investigated in the experiment). **iii. Vehicular control - what experimental group does without the directly desired impact. You would want to know if the mode of treatment as such has any role in the effect of the substance.

427. The mesocortical pathway has been associated with (+/-) symptoms of schizophrenia?

i. Negative effects

332. Do females have any positive social effects from puberty?

i. No, only negative: teasing, sexual harassment. Out of synch with friends in interests

704. What is normative culture?

i. Normative culture refers to values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal norms (like avoidance of crime).

541. What is the devil effect/ reverse halo effect?

i. Now imagine someone who we think is overall very poor. Even if baseline skills are same, we perceive them to all be lower - the devil effect/reverse halo effect. Can carry over into how we see other attributes about the person. Happens if overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative.

432. What structure is associated with serotonin release, which one is associated with norepinephrine, and which one is associated with dopamine (raphe nuclei, locus coeruleus, VTA)?

i. One structure starts in the raphe nuclei of the brainstem responsible for serotonin release. **ii. Another pathway starts in the locus coeruleus, which sends long axons to cerebrum and releases norepinephrine. **iii. Also the VTA sends long axons to different areas of cerebrum, supplies dopamine.

510. name the 5 stages of Freud's development theory?

i. Oral stage **ii. Anal stage **iii. Phallic stage **iv. Latent period **v. Genital stage

801. What is an order effect?

i. Order effects refer to differences in research participants' responses that result from the order (e.g., first, second, third) in which the experimental materials are presented to them.

559. What causes this? What causes some to have secure attachment while others have insecure attachment?

i. Parenting style - mothers who are sensitive to child and responsive had secure attachment, and those insensitive/unresponsive formed insecure attachments. 1. Insensitive parenting does not mean child abuse/neglect. Means that parent doesn't focus on child's needs.

437. Difference between factitious/Munchausen's and malingering?

i. Patients want to be sick. The patient will falsify or disease their signs or symptoms to get a diagnosis/treatment. Ex. They might injure themselves, falsify tests. This is often called Munchausen's syndrome. People do this to be in sick roll (not for money) 1. Munchausen's by proxy -when one person makes another person look ill so medical attention/treatment provided further for another individual. **ii. Malingering is done for $$$ Sleep Wake disorder

563. What are the socio-cultural aspects of aggression?

i. People act more aggressively in groups (ex. riots) - deindividuation - you gain an anonymous status when you are with large group of people. If people around individual act poorly, individual might act poorly too. This also explains why there is poor behavior on the internet (they are anonymous here, and those around them model poor behavior). **ii. Social scripts - when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts, or instructions provided by society on how to act. Ex. violent video games model aggressive behavior for them. Viewing media can give them example of how they should act. Ex. Lash out at someone when something goes wrong

378. How can social pressures influence behavior and thus our attitude?

i. People are more likely to be honest when social influences are reduced (ex. secret ballot **ii. Strong social pressures can weaken attitudes to behavior connection and can cause our attitudes to follow our behavior.

402. How do behaviorists explain personality development?

i. People have consistent behavior patterns because we have specific response tendencies, but these can change, and that's why our personality develops over our entire lifespan.

642. How does rational choice-exchange theory relate to medicine?

i. People run every aspect of medical system and those people will make decisions that benefit themselves more than random sick stranger, may affect why people go to doctor or not. Some people avoid doctors if they don't think it will benefit them. Can cause something that could have been easily treated to become a larger problem. **ii. Self-interested behavior of people in charge will trickle down and affect well-being of patients Demographics

506. What are the 2 parts of social identity?

i. Personal Identity: things unique to each person like personality traits **ii. Social Identity: includes the groups you belong too in our community.

831. What is phenylketonuria?

i. Phenylketonuria (commonly known as PKU) is an inherited disorder that increases the levels of a substance called phenylalanine in the blood. Phenylalanine is a building block of proteins (an amino acid) that is obtained through the diet. It is found in all proteins and in some artificial sweeteners. If PKU is not treated, phenylalanine can build up to harmful levels in the body, causing intellectual disability and other serious health problems.

256. What are the three components of emotion?

i. Physiological components - when surprised heart rate might increase, muscles tense, temperature increase. **ii. Cognitive - vary person to person, they're mental assessments that can include appraisal of what is happening, thoughts and expectations about the situation. Cognitive experiences result from emotions, and can cause emotions **iii. Behavioral - emotions produce different behavioral responses evident from body language or facial expression. Expressions vary by individual and interpreted differently culture to culture.

151. What is Deutch & Deutch's Late Selection Theory?

i. Places Broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. This means that you DO register and assign everything meaning but then selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness. **ii. Sensory register perceptual process selective filter Conscious **iii. Some problems - This whole process has to occur quickly, but given limited resources of attention and knowing are brains are super-efficient it seems wasteful to spend all that effort assigning meaning to things first which you won't ever need. **iv. Acronym: The Dutch pay attention to/perceive EVERYTHING!

705. What is popular cultures?

i. Popular culture refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist within mainstream normative society - like attending a game or watching a parade.

287. What are the two general pathway that somatosensory information travels?

i. Position sense, vibration sense, and fine touch **ii. Pain, temperature, gross touch

254. How does one know if an action is automatic, according to Posner and Snyder?

i. Posner and Snyder described an action as automatic if the action did not affect other mental activities.

802. What are practice effects?

i. Practice effects are considered a common subtype of order effects. Practice effects can be defined as influences on performance that arises from a practicing a task Performance can improve after more trials are conducted because this allows participants to become more accurate and a lot quicker. Participants' performance may decrease again, however, because they do have a tendency to become bored and/or fatigued after a while.

602. What does evo. Game theory predict?

i. Predicts the availability of resources **ii. social behavior (important for who they mate with **iii. Evolutionary game theory helps us predict traits we would expect to see in a population. **iv. Evolutionary game theory evolutionarily stable strategies (behaviors that persist in population once present).

462. What is dominant response with regards to social facilitation?

i. Presence of others increases your arousal - your general physiological or psychological excitement and is known as nervous energy. **ii. Increased energy/arousal increases likelihood of dominant response occurring. Dominant response refers to response most likely to occur **iii. Whether dominant response is correct or accurate depends on how easy the task is, and how well you've learned it/rehearsed it. **iv. Presence of others improves performance (helps) on simple tasks, and hinders it on difficult tasks/unpracticed tasks. (This is known as Yerkes-Dodson Law). 1. Increased arousal occurs only when person's efforts are evaluated.

362. What action does the id use to realize it's pleasure principle?

i. Primary Processes (Forming a mental image of the desired object)

471. What are the two types of deviance according to Labeling Theory?

i. Primary deviance - no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. Individual is able to continue to behaves in same way without feeling immoral/wrong **ii. Secondary deviance - more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior.

574. What is the difference between a primary group and an ingroup?

i. Primary group the is your core social group. Parents, close friends from childhood. Long term relationships formed which have a great social impact on the individual and provide a selfless anchorpoint. **ii. In group- a group you are affiliated with based on identification - can be ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc.

414. What are immature defense mechanisms?

i. Projection - throw your attributes to someone else - like accusing another person of being jealous when you are the one being jealous. 1. Can cause projective identification - that person targeted with projection can starting believing, feeling, having thoughts of the attributes that were projected to them **ii. Passive aggression - white girls

328. What are three forms of hormones?

i. Protein/polypeptide: Small large (100) **ii. Steroid: from cholesterol (lipid - not charged and can pass freely thru mem) **iii. Tyrosine derivative: from tyrosine. Thyroid hormones and catecholamines (epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and dopamine)

339. What are the 4 major temperaments?

i. Psychologists conclude that people can be categorized into four basic types of temperament: sanguine, choleric, melancholy and phlegmatic. Two of the basic temperament types are more introverted or inward-directed and the other two are extroverted or outgoing. Twin Studies and Adoption Studies

502. What is reciprocal determinism with regards to the Social-Cognitive Theory developed by Albert Bandura, of Bobo doll fame?

i. RD states that the interaction between a person's behaviours, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another. view behaviours as being influenced by people's traits/cognitions and their social context. Talking about interactions between individual and situation they're in.

597. What are the three types of animal mating strategies?

i. Random mating- all individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other. Mating not influenced by environment/heredity or any behavioral/social limitation. Ensures a large amount of genetic diversity. {Bridge: Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium assumes this} **ii. Assortative Mating - Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, ex. large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals. 1. Con- Can result in inbreeding. **iii. Disassortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating) - opposite of assortative mating - situation where individuals mate with individuals with different or diverse traits with higher frequency than with random mating.

694. What is dependency theory?

i. Reaction to Modernization theory. Uses idea of Core + Periphery countries to look at inequalities between countries. Periphery countries (3rd world countries) export resources to Core countries (first world). This is not because they are in an earlier stage of development but because they have been integrated into the world economy as undeveloped countries. They don't have means to become a developed nation. They will remain poor and dependent on wealthier nations.

196. What cognitive abilities decline during aging?

i. Recall, episodic memory formation (old memories are stable), processing speed, divided attention (multitasking), and prospective memory (remembering things to do in future) Alzheimer's Disease and Korsakoff Syndrome

183. Rank the types of retrieval from easiest to hardest?

i. Recognition: simply recognize the inputs you've seen **ii. Cued recall: recall clues help to help retrieve information from long term memory **iii. Free recall: no cues in recalling. Better recalling first items on a list (primacy effect) as well as last few (recency effect). Harder to remember things in the middle of a list. Recency effect is not as strong if there is an interpretation after list is called. This curve is called the serial position curve/effect: the overall tendency to recall first few items well, last few items well, and middle items not so great.

409. What is factor analysis?

i. Reduces variable and detects structure between variables. We get a final classification of personality after the factor analysis. Social Cognitive Theory

359. What are the 3 main types of innate behavior?

i. Reflexes - Sensory and motor nerve loop response w/o thinking. (e.g. knee-jerk response) **ii. Orientation Behaviors - regulated with regard to environment 1. Ex. Kinesis, our change in speed (orthokinesis), change in rate in turning (klinokinesis). Can be in response to a stimulus (like tripping on a sidewalk - your body would change speed/kinesis). 2. Ex. Positive taxis and Negative taxis: movement towards/away from stimulus, respectively. Ex. Insects and light. Insects have positive taxis towards light (phototaxis) **iii. Fixed-action pattern (FAP) - sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption. Similar to a reflex, but more complicated. Ex. Praying mantis. Any prey-sized movement praying mantis experiences elicits a strike response, once strike initiated - can't be changed/altered at all.

347. What did the Minnesota twin study find?

i. Religiosity in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.49 based on the Minnesota twin studies reared apart data. **ii. Personality in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.50 based on the Minnesota twin studies reared apart data. **iii. Information processing speed in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.56 based on the Minnesota twin studies reared apart data. **iv. Intelligence in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.69 based on the Minnesota twin studies reared apart data. Regulatory Genes

162. What is the partial report technique?

i. Report one part of a whole field in cued recall. The partial report condition required participants to identify a subset of the characters from the visual display using cued recall. The cue was a tone which sounded at various time intervals (~50 ms) following the offset of the stimulus. The frequency of the tone (high, medium, or low) indicated which set of characters within the display were to be reported. Due to the fact that participants did not know which row would be cued for recall, performance in the partial report condition can be regarded as a random sample of an observer's memory for the entire display. This type of sampling revealed that immediately after stimulus offset, participants could recall most letters (9 out of 12 letters) in a given row suggesting that 75% of the entire visual display was accessible to memory

514. What is the first requirement needed for Development to Higher Mental Functions (Cognition) from Elementary Mental Functions (Social Interactions)?

i. Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgeable other) - a person with a better understanding than the learner. The interaction with the learner + MKO Learning + Higher mental function (Independence)

661. What is a rural area defined as?

i. Rural is anywhere with <1000 people per square mile (ex. Farm country or Alaska). Has to have less than 25,000 total residents.

208. What is spreading activation?

i. Says all ideas in your brain are connected together. Pulling up one memory pulls up others as well.

598. Which strategy of animal mating is best?

i. Scientists think assortative mating, because despite dangers of inbreeding, help to increase inclusive fitness of an organism.

509. What is the difference between self-esteem and self-efficacy?

i. Self-esteem is the respect and regard one has for oneself **ii. Self-efficacy - belief in one's abilities to succeed in a situation / to organize and execute the courses of action required in a particular situation. Developed by Bandura due to his dissatisfaction with idea of self-esteem. **iii. A person with low self-esteem can have high self-efficacy, and vice versa. **iv. Ex. a perfectionist can have low self-esteem (critical about themselves) but high self-efficacy (still see themselves as capable of doing tasks). Competent at tasks with clear guidelines and lose confidence where there are no clear rules. Theories of Development

314. What is histamine?

i. Sent by hypothalamus to cerebral cortex **ii. Immune response

159. The information-processing model assumes (serial/parallel) processing?

i. Serial, but the brain has parallel processing capacities

698. What was the Mass Society Theory of social movements?

i. Skepticism about groups that were involved in social movement, said social movements would only form for people seeking refuge from main society. People only join to satisfy a psychological need for involvement. **ii. Ex. Nazism, Fascism, Stalinism (social movements in 20th century that destroyed millions of lives). [People who joined social movements were dysfunctional, irrational, and dangerous]. Theory did not persist. **iii. After 1960s and Civil Rights movement different theories came to light.

612. How do societies stay together?

i. Small societies are held together by similarities, but only works for small ones...evolves into large society. (population growth in a small space...and people become specialized) **ii. In large societies individuals become interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles. Forced mutual independence.

248. What is the one sense that bypasses the thalamus?

i. Smell (goes to areas closer to amygdala)

728. What is the difference between social isolation and magnetic exclusion/segregation?

i. Social isolation - when community voluntarily isolates itself from mainstream, based on their own religious/cultural/other beliefs.

397. What are some of the major traits that researchers found were shared by monozygotic twins raised in different environments (which shows that these similar traits have strong genetic components)?

i. Social potency trait - the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations. Common in twins reared separately. **ii. Traditionalism - tendency to follow authority also shown to be common in twins.

184. What are schemas and how do they affect memory?

i. Sometimes information we retrieve is based on a schema (mental blueprint containing common aspects of world), instead of reality.

591. What are pros and cons of animals communicating through sound?

i. Sound as communication is useful because it's fast, can reach many members at once, but not very private and exposes the animal's location

666. What is the conflict theory perspective of cities?

i. Source of inequality that are entertainment centers for the wealthy. Political and economic elite run the city to increase personal resources while taking from the poor. **ii. Diversity of culture and social backgrounds increases conflict on beliefs/values.

507. What is the mental process involved in how we categorize ourselves/use social-identity theory?

i. Step 1: All humans categorize ourselves and others without really realizing it, part of human nature. Categorize in order to understand objects/identify them ex. Categorize to groups (which we belong to and those different) like race (black, white)/job (student/accountant)/etc. 1. If we assign categories to others, we can make pre-judgments about them. **ii. Step 2: Next is identification. When we adopt identity of the group, we see/categorize us as belonging - behaving and acting like the category we belong to, ex. a student. Emotional significance to identification - our self-esteem starts to become bound with this group identification and sense of belonging. **iii. Step 3: social comparison - how we comparing ourselves with other groups (or two different groups). We do this to maintain our self-esteem. Critical to understanding of prejudice, because once two groups develop as rivals, we start to compete in order to maintain self-esteem.

732. What is data stratification?

i. Stratification is the process of dividing members of the population into homogeneous subgroups before sampling. The strata should be mutually exclusive: every element in the population must be assigned to only one stratum. The strata should also be collectively exhaustive: no population element can be excluded. Then random, which often improves the representativeness of the sample by reducing sampling error.

622. What is strong social constructionism?

i. Strong social constructionism states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits; all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts.

358. How can innate behaviors be changed in a population?

i. Subject to change through mutation and recombination, natural selection, etc. (just like all other physical traits)

804. What is maturation?

i. Subjects change during the course of the experiment or even between measurements. For example, young children might mature and their ability to concentrate may change as they grow up. Both permanent changes, such as physical growth and temporary physiological ones like fatigue, provide "natural" alternative explanations; thus, they may change the way a subject would react to the independent variable. Social Groups and Marriage

405. What is the difference between surface and source traits?

i. Surface traits are evident from a person's behavior, while source traits are factors underlying human personality (fewer and more abstract).

624. What is the focus of symbolic interactionism?

i. Symbolic interactionism examines small scale (or micro level) social interactions, focusing attention on how shared meaning is established among individuals or small groups

157. What three factors influence our ability to multitask?

i. Task similarity: Harder to multitask with similar tasks (e.g. talking on phone while talking to someone in real life) **ii. Task difficulty: harder tasks need more focus **iii. Practice: well practiced activities become automatic tasks, but harder activities are known as controlled tasks and require us to control and focus our mind Memory

221. What was Lewis Terman's (psychologist at Stanford) contribution to Alfred Binet's test?

i. Terman's test incorporated teenagers and adults, which Binet's didn't do, but it still wasn't applicable to all cultures due to a language ability test for immigrants **ii. Hence it was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

818. What is the two-streams hypothesis?

i. The Two-Streams hypothesis is a widely accepted, but still controversial, account of visual processing. As visual information exits the occipital lobe, it follows two main channels, or "streams." The ventral stream (also known as the "what pathway") travels to the temporal lobe and is involved with object identification. The dorsal stream (or, "where pathway") terminates in the parietal lobe and process spatial locations

403. What connects the observable (behavioral) to mental approach (psychoanalytic) approach?

i. The cognitive theory, a bridge between classic behaviorism and other theories like psychoanalytic. Because cognitive theory treats thinking as a behavior, and has a lot in common with behavior theory (Albert Bandura comb) Trait Theory of Personality/Behavior

193. What are savings?

i. The foundation that is more easily and quickly recalled when relearning information is called savings.

794. What is implicit association testing?

i. The implicit-association test (IAT) is a measure within social psychology designed to detect the strength of a person's automatic association between mental representations of objects (concepts) in memory.

813. What is the insula of the brain associated with?

i. The insula is the brain structure most associated with disgust. The anterior insula receives signals from the senses of olfaction and gustation (mouth/nose are in front of body), while the posterior insula receives signals from audition and somatosensation (rear of body) **ii. Most perception of warmth occurs in the insula

525. How does symbolic interactionism tie in to the Looking-Glass Self theory?

i. The looking glass self suggests that the self-concept is more than the product of self-reflection. Instead, the way in which people see themselves is based on how they believe others perceive them during social interactions" Perception, Prejudice, and Bias

367. What is Neuropeptide Y?

i. The main effect of NPY is to promote increased food intake and decreased physical activity in response to a plummeting blood sugar level. In addition to increasing food intake, it increases the percentage of calories stored as fat and blocks pain receptor signals to the brain (cue emotional eating).

800. What is the method of adjustment/average error?

i. The method of adjustment asks the subject to control the level of the stimulus, instructs them to alter it until it is just barely detectable against the background noise, or is the same as the level of another stimulus. This is repeated many times. This is also called the method of average error. In this method the observer himself controls the magnitude of the variable stimulus beginning with a variable that is distinctly greater or lesser than a standard one and he varies it until he is satisfied by the subjectivity of two. The difference between the variable stimuli and the standard one is recorded after each adjustment and the error is tabulated for a considerable series. At the end mean is calculated giving the average error which can be taken as the measure of sensitivity.

811. What is the orbitofrontal cortex associated with in regards to emotion?

i. The orbitofrontal cortex is associated with the processing of both positively and negatively balanced emotions. When activity is lowered in the right hemisphere, euphoria is experienced. Conversely, when activity is lowered in the left hemisphere, depression is reported.

727. What are some of the major magnets that drag people away into the periphery of society (social exclusion)?

i. The poverty magnet can drag people away from the core part of society, and experience a greater degree of social exclusion. **ii. The ill heath magnet can also drag people away, can't participate in society. **iii. Certain groups may face discrimination, based on their race/gender/sexual orientation/etc - the discrimination magnet. **iv. Education, housing, employment all important factors. With lack of any of these they can be relegated to fringes.

478. What is aversive conditioning?

i. The process involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, such as smoking or bed-wetting, with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock or nausea.

812. What facial expressions have been linked to the subcallosal cingulate?

i. The recognition of facial expressions associated with sadness

775. What is alpha?

i. The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α, is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. the probability of Type I error in any hypothesis test; incorrectly claiming statistical significance. For example, a significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a difference exists when there is no actual difference.

725. What is cultural capital?

i. The term cultural capital refers to non-financial social assets that promote social mobility beyond economic means. Examples can include education, intellect, style of speech, dress, or physical appearance. Refers to knowledge, skills, education, and similar characteristics that are used to make social distinctions and that are associated with differences in social status.

616. Describe the 3 steps of societal evolution?

i. The thesis (existing generally accepted state) was that bourgeoisie ran factories and working class provided labor. Thesis causes the formation of the reaction - antithesis (opposed the accepted state). **ii. Antithesis - Desire of working class to change was the thesis. The anti-thesis is the reaction to the thesis, the push-back from those unhappy with the status quo. 1. Thesis + antithesis can't coexist peacefully. Thesis is happy while antithesis is looking for change always. . **iii. Struggle would lead to a compromise - a synthesis of the two by creating a new state. Would eventually become new thesis. 1. Could lead to members of the working class becoming managers. Creating a new middle class that might have more power than the factory owner. This creates a new thesis/antithesis. Thesis is always for the more powerful party. 2. Antithesis always wants to oppose the thesis and there is a constant struggle of tension/unrest between the two opposing sides.

163. What is the whole report technique?

i. The whole report condition required participants to recall as many elements from the original display in their proper spatial locations as possible. Participants were typically able to recall three to five characters from the twelve character display (~35%).[1] This suggests that whole report is limited by a memory system with a capacity of four-to-five items.

549. What does physical attraction mean, and are there things attractive to all people?

i. There are cultural differences, but some things are universally attractive - attractive across cultural backgrounds. Things like youthfulness, skin clarity/smoothness, body symmetry. **ii. Facial attraction is more important than body attraction. **iii. Both men and women are attracted to high level sexual dimorphism - the degree of difference between male and female anatomical traits **iv. Also averageness is attractive - turns out unique traits are not most attractive. Attractiveness is related to averageness. Most respondents pick 32 face average "face morph (faces digitized and averaged)" as most attractive, and 2 face average less.

752. What is the relation between experimental control and ecological validity?

i. There is almost always a trade-off between ecological validity and experimental control. The more we try to control a study or experiment, the less ecological validity that we have. This is because when we control an experiment, we are changing the conditions under which the experiment occurs. These changes are different from what we would find in a natural setting. Test Validity

233. What is Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT)?

i. This method of therapy uses musical elements, including melody and rhythm, to improve expressive language by capitalizing on preserved singing abilities and possibly engaging language-capable regions in the undamaged right hemisphere. MIT works best with non-fluent forms of aphasia.

148. What neurotransmitter and what part of the brain are most involved in orienting attention?

i. This network is predominantly modulated by acetylcholine produced in the basal forebrain. **ii. The basal forebrain is a collection of structures located to the front of and below the striatum. It includes the nucleus accumbens, nucleus basalis, and medial septal nuclei. These structures are important in the production of acetylcholine, which is then distributed widely throughout the brain. The basal forebrain is considered to be the major cholinergic output of the central nervous system (CNS).

383. What are the three main parts of external attribution (looking at the situation/environment and how it influences behavior; opposite of fundamental attribution error)?

i. To determine the attribution of a behavior, one must determine if the behavior: **ii. Consistency (does person usually behave this way), **iii. Distinctiveness (does person behave differently in different situations), and **iv. Consensus (do others behave similarly in situation?). 1. If person behaves different in different situations (distinctive) and others behave similarly in the same situation (consensus) then we know the behavior is due to the situation (external). Situation is effecting behavior.

795. What is operational span testing?

i. To determine whether there is a general capacity for all working memory tasks, Turner and Engle (1989) developed a task called operation-word-span or OSPAN.A task in which subjects are asked to perform a simple mathematical verification (e.g., 4/2 +1 = 3) and then read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/read pairs. The maximum number of words that can be recalled is the "operation span".

285. Is touch fast or slow in terms of its neurons?

i. Touch is both. Fine touch travels in fast neurons, less precise info travels in slower ones.

215. What is the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 errors in solving a problem?

i. Type 1: false positive (accepting a false hypothesis as correct) **ii. Type 2: false negative (accepting a true hypothesis as incorrect)

825. What are typical antipsychotics and its symptoms?

i. Typical Antipsychotics used to treat psychiatric conditions. Neuroleptics: Decrease positive symptoms of schizophrenia but can increase negative symptoms, such as a state of apathy, lack of initiative and limited range of emotion. First generation.

297. Where are upper motor neurons found and what is their function?

i. UMNs control the LMNs. Found in the cerebral cortex, and synapse on LMNs in the brainstem or spinal cord.

294. What is spike time dependent plasticity (STDP)?

i. Under the STDP process, if an input spike to a neuron tends, on average, to occur immediately before that neuron's output spike, then that particular input is made somewhat stronger. If an input spike tends, on average, to occur immediately after an output spike, then that particular input is made somewhat weaker hence: "spike-timing-dependent plasticity". Thus, inputs that might be the cause of the post-synaptic neuron's excitation are made even more likely to contribute in the future, whereas inputs that are not the cause of the post-synaptic spike are made less likely to contribute in the future.

734. What is the difference between correlation and regression?

i. Unlike regression makes no assumptions about which variable is influencing the other. 1. If correlation coefficient is 1, perfect. If -1, opposite. 0, random.

662. What is an urban area defined as?

i. Urban areas include cities/towns with >1000 people per square mile.

669. What is urban sprawl?

i. Urban sprawl or suburban sprawl describes the expansion of human populations away from central urban areas into low-density, monofunctional and usually car-dependent communities that results from poorly planned suburbanization.

580. What are the three types of organizations?

i. Utilitarian Organizations - members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time). **ii. Normative Organizations - members come together through shared goals, ex. religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving). Positive sense of unity and purpose. **iii. Coercive Organization - members don't have choice about membership, ex. people in a prison, or some militaries (you need to be discharged to leave). Usually highly structured and have very strict rules

489. What schedule yields the greatest response?

i. Variable ratio (e.g. gambling)

796. What is psychophysical discrimination testing?

i. Varying a physical stimulus slightly and observing the effect on a subject's experience or behavior in order to better understand perceptual processing.

819. What is visual agnosia?

i. Visual agnosia is a disorder of the ventral pathway, because it is an inability to recognize an image. (acronym: Visual = Ventral)

166. What are the processing components of working memory?

i. Visuo-spatial sketchpad: Visual + spatial info are processed here **ii. Phonological loop: verbal info (any words + numbers in both iconic and echoic memory) is processed. Ex. Repeating a phone # to yourself. The phonological store capacity is approximately 2 seconds

327. Such brain scanners produce maps of the scanned area that are represented with units called...

i. Voxels. Each voxel typically represents the activity of a particular coordinate in three-dimensional space. The exact size of a voxel will vary depending on the technology used. Endocrine System and Its Influence on Behavior

267. Who studied and termed the "flight or flight response?"

i. Walter Cannon (of Bard fame)

590. What is the issue with anthropomorphism with regards to animals?

i. Watch out for anthropomorphism - attributing human characteristics to non-human animals. We can interpret and describe meaning to action of animals but we can't be certain if we are correct about these interpretations because we can't speak to the animals. ex. pet sleeping with you at night and you can assume that they love you but maybe they are just there because of your body heat.

552. How is similarity important to attraction?

i. We tend to partner up with people who match our age, race, religion, and economic status/educational level. We like people who are like ourselves in looks. **ii. Couples can also stay together due to perceived similarity - because over time interests/beliefs are more aligned. Perceived similarity can be just perceived - they think the other person is similar to them (but actually aren't similar to their partners at all).

621. What is weak social constructionism?

i. Weak social constructionism proposes that social constructs are dependent on: 1. Brute facts, which are the most basic and fundamental facts. Ex. brute facts are what explain quarks (or what makes the quarks) in atoms, not the atoms themselves (something that is not defined by something else). 2. Institutional facts are created by social conventions and do rely on other facts. Ex. money depends on the paper we have given value.

719. How do we know which behavior is selected for?

i. Well because there are cultural universals which exist throughout the world for certain things/behaviors which might have been selected for as human species evolved.

201. What is the precursor to Korsakoff's and what are its symptoms?

i. Wernicke's encephalopathy- damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion, and/or memory loss.

222. What do twin studies teach us about nature vs. nurture with regards to intelligence?

i. What we know is of 3 groups, strongest correlation between IQ scores in identical twins raised in same homes. Raised apart not as high correlation (there is some environmental component). Fraternal twins raised together show lower correlation, suggesting also a genetic component.

573. What is (social) role exit?

i. When an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and the process of establishing a new identity. 1. Example: When an individual retires from a long career and must transition from the role of worker with deadlines and responsibilities to a leisurely life or when an individual becomes a parent and has to change their lifestyle.

810. What is Antecedent predisposition?

i. When an organism perceives an antecedent stimulus, it behaves in a way that maximizes reinforcing consequences and minimizes punishing consequences.

468. What is deviance?

i. When norm is violated, it's referred to as deviance. Not negative, just individuals behaving differently from what society feels is normal. (e.g. vegetarianism)

186. What is an error in source monitoring?

i. When people recall information they often forget the information's source - an error in source monitoring. Associated with false memories

542. How do we deal with violations of the just world phenomenon?

i. When the "just world hypothesis" is threatened (which occurs on a daily basis, we say "the world is not fair"....we see evil deeds being rewarded and good deeds being punished), we need to mentally make sense of them to keep just world hypothesis in tact- we use rational techniques or irrational techniques **ii. Rational Techniques: 1. 1. Accept reality 2. 2. Prevent or correct injustice - with charities, sign a petition or changes to legal system **iii. Irrational techniques can also be used 1. 1. Denial of the situation - refuse to accept the situation 2. 2. Reinterpreting the events - change our interpretation of the outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim. Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism Ingroup and Outgroup

390. According to both Rogers and Maslow , what causes tension?

i. When there's discrepancy between conscious values and unconscious true values leads to tension, must be resolved (similar to dissonance)

673. What is gentrification?

i. When urban renewals they target a wealthier community which increases property value. People there before are pushed out because they can't afford property anymore and it leads to great inequality in cities.

442. What is hypoventilation disorder?

i. When we are not able to ventilate our lungs fully and remove all CO2. Results in a buildup of CO2, and a decrease in O2. Can occur due to medications that repress respiratory functions (narcotic pain killers such as opioids) or if there is a problem with the lungs or chest wall. A common occurrence is due to obesity. 1. High CO2 can cause right sided heart failure 2. Low O2 effects all organs/tissues of bodies. Cognitive impairment, heart problems (arrhythmias - abnormal heart rhythms), and polycythemia (elevated RBC in blood) Biological Basis of Alzheimer's disease

192. What is decay?

i. When we don't encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while, we can't recall it anymore. One theory is that the pathway between cue and memory become weaker over time or periods of disuse which makes it harder to stimulate those neurons.

160. What is the sensory register?

i. Where you first interact with information in your environment. Temporary register of all information your senses you're taking in.

749. What is external validity?

i. Whether results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people. To protect external validity, sample must be completely random, and all situational variables must be tightly controlled.

190. What is long-term potentiation?

i. With repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neuron stimulation (Pre-synaptic neurons release neurotransmitters on post-synaptic neurons, allowing Na+ and Ca2+ to flow in) converts into greater post-synaptic neuron potential (The greater the postsynaptic potential, the more ion channels will open in the neuron)- stronger synapse, and when it lasts long time it is called long-term potentiation. This is how learning occurs!

722. What is the glass -ceiling effect?

i. Women are poorly represented in higher position in companies

560. Does this parenting style have any long-term effects after childhood?

i. Yes. Early attachment style forms basis of adult relationships later in life, especially with comfort with intimacy/relationships. 1. Secure attachment with mothers leads to secure attachment with partner. Feel secure and trusting of partner. 2. Attachment style with infants affects our attachment with our own children. Secure attachment people tend to have secure attachments, vice versa. 3. How comfortable we feel with parents with first year of life affects us into adulthood. Aggression

161. What are the two components of sensory memory (register)?

i. You have iconic (memory for what you see, lasts half a second) and echoic (what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds) memory. Defined by time.

539. What is recency bias?

i. Your most recent actions are also very important, and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances, more than ones before - the recency bias. **ii. Ex: you're only as good as your last game, last match.

470. What is Labeling Theory?

i. a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. Depends on what's acceptable in that society.

229. What is agraphia?

i. a form of aphasia characterized by the loss of the ability to form graphemes, which causes a loss in the ability to communicate via writing.

644. What is life course theory?

i. a holistic perspective that calls attention to developmental processes and other experiences across a person's life

761. What is face validity?

i. a measure of how representative a research project is 'at face value,' and whether it appears to be a good project.

817. What is the role of the fusiform gyrus?

i. a part of the visual system in the brain, and plays a role in high level visual processing and recognition. (part of temporal and occipital lobe)

745. What is regression to the mean?

i. a phenomenon in which, over time, scores become more average.

830. What is a teratogen?

i. a substance or environmental factor that can disrupt normative fetal development.

750. What is population validity?

i. a type of external validity which describes how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole. Generalizability.

564. What is a social cue?

i. a vocal or non-vocal suggestion, which can be positive or negative. These cues guide conversation and other social interactions. A few examples of social cues include: facial expression, tone of voice and body language Altruism

747. What is validity?

i. accuracy. Items that are high in validity accurately address the construct.

699. What is the Relative Deprivation Theory?

i. actions of groups oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. Ex. Civil Rights Movement, a response to oppression to people of color in US.

168. What is the episodic buffer?

i. acts as a connecter for processed information to be stored in long-term memory.

191. What is neural plasticity?

i. also called brain plasticity, is the process in which your brain's neural synapses and pathways are altered as an effect of environmental, behavioral, and neural changes.

176. What is negative priming?

i. an implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus. Caused by experiencing the stimulus, and then ignoring it. Negative priming lowers the speed to slower than un-primed levels

633. What is exchange theory?

i. application of rational choice theory to social interactions. Exchange theory addresses decision making via cost-benefit analyses 1. Looks at society as series of interactions between individuals.

232. What connects Wernicke's and Broca's area and what happens when this is damaged?

i. arcuate fasciculus: When this is damaged, conduction aphasia (also called associative aphasia) - ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted. Makes it difficult for people with this to repeat things even when they understand what is being said.

636. Cons of exchange/rational choice theory?

i. are we really rational? **ii. Some people's choices are limited by gender/ethnicity/class, and make choice not in best interest. **iii. And why some people follow social norms that act in best interest of others (taxes, volunteering). **iv. And is it really possible to explain every social structure by actions of individuals? Critiques dislike that all human interactions are a rational process of pros/cons and makes relationships linear - when they aren't. Relating Social Theories to Medicine

620. What is the theory overall?

i. argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/agreement - it's something constructed, not inherent. 1. A social construct is concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value, ex. money. 2. knowledge is not real, and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement - nations, books, etc. don't exist in absence of human society. 3. The self is a social construct too - our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to the other people and expectations

729. What is the theory of intersectionality?

i. asks us to consider all the different levels of discrimination. Intersectionality calls attention to how identity categories intersect in systems of social stratification. For example, an individual's position within a social hierarchy is determined not only by his or her social class, but also by his or her race/ethnicity ((double or triple jeopardy) **ii. Originally coined in 1989 by Crenshaw as a feminist theory, but has since expanded out and use it to explain oppression in all parts of society.

754. What is criterion validity?

i. assesses whether a test reflects a certain set of abilities. Criterion validity refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome.

447. What is the function of the nigrostriatial pathway?

i. associated with motor planning and purposeful movement

284. What are some signs of lower LMN signs?

i. atrophy of skeletal muscle, **ii. fasciculations (involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle) **iii. hypotonia (decrease in tone of skeletal muscle - how much muscle is contracted when person is relaxed) **iv. hyporeflexia (decreased muscle stretch reflex)

483. What is aversive conditioning?

i. behavioral conditioning technique in which noxious stimuli are associated with undesirable or unwanted behavior that is to be modified or abolished.

505. What did Carl Rogers, of humanistic theory, believe about self-concept?

i. believed self-concept had 3 different components. 1. Self-image: what we believe we are. The view we have of ourselves. 2. Self-esteem/self-worth: how much value we place on ourselves 3. Ideal-self: what we wish/aspire to be 4. When the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive self-concept. When the ideal self does not match the real self, the result is incongruity. 5. Explain actions through self-concept and incongruence

454. What is social anomie?

i. breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community. Means that there is a weakened sense of morality and criteria for behavior. **ii. Without attachment to society, people will experience purposelessness, and aimlessness. Periods of rapid social change are often associated with anomie."

617. How did Ludwig Gumplowicz expand on Marx's theory?

i. by proposing that society is shaped by war/conquest, and cultural/ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over others.

199. What is the cause of Korsakoff's syndrome?

i. caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. Caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism.

290. What is the muscle stretch reflex?

i. causes a muscle to contract after it's stretched, as a protective response **ii. e.g. knee-jerk response at a doctor's appointment **iii. Somatosensory neurons (afferent) in muscle spindles form excitatory synapse in spinal cord with another neuron in the spinal cord, which sends axon out back to same muscle that was stretched, and excite skeletal muscle cells to contract - lower motor neurons (efferent). **iv. Muscle on underside of leg are inhibited when the topside of leg is excited. Necessary for reflex to occur.

781. What is the normalcy bias?

i. causes people to underestimate both the possibility of a disaster occurring and its possible effects.

439. What is Central Sleep Apnea?

i. central (brain is part of CNS)), sleep (at night), apnea (effects airflow). 1. Looking for apnea without obstructions. Looking at 5+ apneas/hour during sleep. 2. Problem with the brains control system for ventilation (that control brain for breathing)

231. What is Wernicke's/fluent/receptive aphasia?

i. characterized by difficulty understanding spoken words and sentences, as well as difficulty producing sentences that make sense.

242. What is learning (behaviorist) theory of language development?

i. children aren't born with anything; they only acquire language through operant conditioning **ii. doesn't explain how they can produce words they've never heard before or unique sentences. **iii. Associated with BF Skinner.

361. What is a complex behavioral trait?

i. combination of innate and learned behavior. Relationship between genes and environment in adaptation. Can be a spectrum, most behaviors fit between innate and learned. 1. Ex. ability of insects to fly, starts off as innate but through learning become more efficient in ability to fly. Instincts, Arousal, Needs, Drives: Drive-Reduction and Cognitive Theories

735. What is a t-test?

i. compares mean values of a continuous variable (dependent) between 2 categories/groups, ex. comparing mean of a group to a specific value. Can also compare means of 2 groups. 1. Two-tailed = possibility of relationship in both directions, one-tailed = one direction.

307. What is the internal capsule of the inner cerebrum?

i. contains many important pathways, including the corticospinal tract

298. What are the two tracts upper motor neurons can take?

i. corticospinal tract: UMN starts in cerebral cortex, axon travels down through brainstem, and where it meets the spinal cord most of these axons cross and travel down other side until they reach LMN. **ii. corticobulbar tract: If it goes to brainstem only

440. What is Cheynes-Stroke breathing?

i. crescendo then decrescendo breathing followed by stop in breathing. Normal breathing pattern is inhale/exhale changes from a normal fixed pattern. **ii. Believed heart failure/stroke/renal failure is the cause.

696. What is skeptical perspective?

i. critical of globalization, considers it as being regionalized instead of globalized. Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits as first world countries. Current economy is not leading towards global capitalism. Transnational corporations still tied to their home countries and national borders remain important.

740. What is a longitudinal study?

i. data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time, can take years or decades. A longitudinal study follows variables over a long period of time to look for correlations.

65. What is the interaural level difference?

i. describes the difference in sound pressure level between the ears. The head dampens the overall sound to the far ear and reduces the intensity of the high frequency tones due to the acoustic shadow, but not the low frequency tones.

218. What is the multiple approach-avoidance theory?

i. describes the internal mental debate (sometimes called a conflict) that weighs the pros and cons of differing situations that have both good and bad elements. **ii. Approach-approach conflicts: two options are both appealing. **iii. Avoidant-avoidant conflicts: both options are unappealing **iv. An approach-avoidance conflict: when one option has both positive and negative aspects. **v. Double approach-avoidant conflicts consist of two options with both appealing and negative characteristics, which seemed to represent a jury's dilemma. Intelligence

479. What is systemic desensitization?

i. developed by Joseph Wolpe **ii. process that involves teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. Slowly introduce phobia to patient. The goal is to get patient a to associate phobia with relaxation techniques.

628. Cons of SI?

i. doesn't ask same questions as large scale sociologists do. Sometimes considered as supplemental instead of full theory, because restricted to small interactions between individuals. But gives different perspective necessary for fully understanding society. Capable of explaining of how societies can change when created/recreated by social interactions. Feminist Theory

697. What is transformationalist perspective?

i. doesn't have specific cause or outcome. Believe national governments are changing, perhaps becoming less important but difficult to explain change so simply. They see the world order is changing. Just a new world order is being developing. Many factors that influence change of world patterns but outcome unknown. Social Movements

605. What is ecclesia?

i. dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, ex. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran.

609. What is social epidemiology?

i. epidemiology looks at health disparities through social indicators like race, gender, and income distribution, and how social factors affect a person's health. Social epidemiology focuses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations (the social determinants of a disease) **ii. A branch of epidemiology: the branch of medicine that deals with the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases and other factors relating to health. Functionalism

583. What is the iron rule of oligarchy?

i. even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few. Why? 1. Conflict theory: . Once person gains leadership role in organization they might be hesitant to give it up. (those with power have vested interest in keeping it) 2. Also those who achieve power might have skills that make them valuable.

207. What is the modified semantic network theory?

i. every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge. Some links might be shorter/longer for different individuals and there may be direct links for higher order categories to exemplars.

608. What is sick role?

i. expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities. But if you don't get better or return, you're viewed as deviant and harmful to society.

261. What it is the Lazarus theory of emotion?

i. experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively appraised (labelled). **ii. If we label emotion as good, it is positive **iii. If we label emotion as bad, it is negative **iv. Event Label the event (appraisal) emotion + PR based on appraisal.

498. What is the elaboration likelihood model?

i. explains how attitudes are formed and likely they are to be change. Determines when people will be influenced by the content of a speech vs. more superficial features.

326. What tests can be used to study brain structure and function simultaneously?

i. fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)- same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active! Neurons that are active require oxygen. Measuring relative amounts of oxygenated vs deoxygenated blood in the brain - we can figure out what brain areas are being used for a certain task. fMRI is more popular. **ii. PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scans - can't give us detail of structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of brain are more active at given point in time. (Active cells = use most glucose). More invasive. (acronym: PETs like glucose). Three-dimensional images of tracer concentration within the body are then constructed by computer analysis. PET require swallowing a radioactive tracer and shows activity, with low resolution.

172. What is explicit memory and what are its components?

i. facts/events you can clearly/consciously describe. **ii. 1st component: Semantic- remembering simple facts like meanings of words. **iii. 2nd component: episodic memory (event-related memories...like your last birthday party

615. Marx believed society will go through what stages?

i. feudalism -> capitalism -> socialism.

538. What is primacy bias?

i. first impression is more important than later data. They're 1) long (lasts a long time) 2) strong (tough to overcome) and 3) easily built upon (people put extra emphasis on info that helps reinforce first impression, and not info that doesn't (confirmation bias)

721. What is an example of how culture can affect evolution?

i. first year of life most humans get nutrition from milk, but genes to digest this milk are switched after children are weaned. But Northern Europeans which reared cattle, don't have this effect - their lactase gene doesn't turn off. So those able to digest milk more likely to survive. More surviving digesting-milk people so more digesting-milk (lactose tolerant) offspring. They can drink milk/eat dairy products because of ancestors culture directing evolution. Social Inequality

614. What are problems of functionalism?

i. focuses entirely on institutions without regard for individual (only acknowledged). Also largely unable to explain social change and conflict, so focused on equilibrium (between social facts and institutions) little change and conflict is modeled and no conflict can occur. More to society than just stable state of its part, but functionalism is still useful in examining the functions of its integral parts. Conflict Theory

739. What is a cohort study?

i. following a subset of population over a lifetime. A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic (ex. people born and exposed to same pollutant/drug/etc.) in period of time. 1. A retrospective cohort design looks back at events that have already taken place. 2. A prospective cohort design follows a group of individuals over a period of time.

575. What is a secondary group?

i. formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. Usually short-term, and only see them sometimes. Do a few goal-directed activities with these people

408. What is the 5 factor model/Big 5 traits?

i. found in all people of all populations. **ii. Openness - independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical), **iii. Conscientiousness - careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulse, organized or not **iv. Extroversion - talkative or quiet, fun loving or sober **v. Agreeableness - kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfriendly **vi. Neuroticism - stable vs. tense, calm vs anxious, secure vs. insecure **vii. Use acronym CANOE

657. What are some non-binary gender types?

i. gender queer (don't identify as either male or female) **ii. Agender - rejecting gender categories **iii. Gender fluid - moving across genders **iv. Nonbinary - not identifying w/ any specific gender **v. Third gender - cultures that recognize non-binary gender

428. What have been some purported causes of schizophrenia?

i. genes, physical stress during pregnancy (such as infection during pregnancy), and psychosocial factors (negative family interaction styles effect development of brain)

357. What is an innate behavioral trait and what are its characteristics?

i. genetically programmed behavior. present at birth and requires no experience with the environment. Have the following characteristics: **ii. Inherited - innate behaviors are encoded by DNA **iii. Intrinsic - present even if you're raised in isolation. Ex. Pooping, peeing, etc. **iv. Stereotypic - performed the same way each time. **v. Inflexible - not modifiable by experience. **vi. Consummate - fully developed right away, at first performance. Not influenced by experience.

776. What is the confidence interval?

i. gives an estimated range of values which is likely to include an unknown population parameter, the estimated range being calculated from a given set of sample data.

567. What is cost-signaling?

i. giving signals to others that person who's giving has resources. People have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past. Signals that the person is open to cooperation ((ulterior motive)

257. What initial 6 universal emotions did Paul Ekman find?

i. happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger and surprise

275. What 2 areas of brain have most cortisol receptors?

i. hippocampus and frontal cortex (impulse control, reasoning, judgment, planning) **ii. see atrophy in these areas due to stress

224. What was Binet's idea of mental age -

i. how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years.

578. What is side-effect discrimination?

i. how one institution/organization/sector can influence another negatively. (Institutions - economics, politics, law, medicine, business and are all interrelated, and discrimination in one area can effect another- it is a side effect).

579. What is past-in-present discrimination?

i. how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in the present. Negative attitude of the past coming forward to the present and causes minority to be discriminated against/feel discomfort Organizations and Bureaucratization

223. What was Galton's idea of hereditary genius -

i. human ability is hereditary

452. Why is cyclothymic disorder?

i. hypomania + dysthymia (A mild but long-term form of depression. Social Psychology

472. What is Strain Theory?

i. if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance. The lack of equal opportunity results in increased access to deviant means to achieve goal Collective Behavior Aspects

637. How does functionalism relate to medicine?

i. if we look at medicine from this point of view, we ask: What is the purpose of medicine. When people become ill medicine ensures they return to functional state so they can become functional to society.

553. What is similarity bias?

i. implies we will not befriend people different from us.

691. What is the world-systems theory?

i. importance of world as a unit rather than individual countries. Divides world into 3 countries: core, periphery, and semi-periphery.

448. What section of the brain is associated with motor abnormalities related to loss of dopaminergic neurons?

i. in brainstem, the substantia nigra (means black substance, usually darker than surrounding black tissue in normal patients) is less dark or not dark at all in Parkinson's disease patients. **ii. Suggests only one type of neuron is involved. These cells/neurons lost are ONLY dopaminergic neurons **iii. Substantia nigra is one part of the basal ganglia. 1. Receives info from many places in nervous system, particularly the outermost layer of the cerebrum (cerebral cortex). 2. Basal ganglia processes that info and sends it back to areas of cerebral cortex to influence areas of activity such as motor cortex. **iv. Substantia Niagra also projects to area of basal ganglia called the striatum, and loss of Dopamine neurons protecting from substantia niagra to the striatum causes most of motor abnormalities of Parkinsons.

276. How does anhedonia cause depression?

i. inability to experience pleasure, so perceive more stressors, which leads to depression **ii. Biological backing: The anterior cingulate (anterior part of the frontal cortex) stops responding to serotonin. **iii. Learned helplessness - you learn from having control ripped out of hands that you don't have control, so lose ability to identify coping mechanisms, which becomes a cycle

343. What are problem with twin studies?

i. incomplete info about biological families for adoptive children. **ii. Also adoption isn't random, adoptive family sometimes matched to be similar to the biological family (of having the same community or culture).

820. What is the significance of Ca2+?

i. indicator of chelation. This positively charged ion is extremely versatile. A rise in this ion, postsynaptically, in dendritic spines is essential for activity-dependent plasticity. This ion is an important second messenger in the neuron. Abnormal amounts of signaling in this ion has been implicated in disease states such as Huntington's, Alzheimer's and schizophrenia.

482. What is counterconditioning (stimulus substitution)?

i. is a form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus. 1. One of the most widely used types of counter conditioning is systematic desensitization.

821. What is chelation?

i. is a type of bonding of ions and molecules to metal ions. It involves the formation or presence of two or more separate coordinate bonds between a polydentate (multiple bonded) ligand and a single central atom.[1][2] Usually these ligands are organic compounds, and are called chelants, chelators, chelating agents, or sequestering agents.

784. What is selection bias?

i. is the selection of individuals, groups or data for analysis in such a way that proper randomization is not achieved, thereby ensuring that the sample obtained is not representative of the population intended to be analyzed

485. What is instinctual drift?

i. is the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response.

623. Cons of this theory?

i. it doesn't consider effects of natural phenomenon on society, and for strong social constructionism it has difficulties explaining those phenomena because they don't depend on human speech or action. Strong SC only explains reality through thoughts of humans, not using fundamental brute facts. Symbolic interactionism

380. What is the justification of effort and how does it affect attitude?

i. justification of effort (people do something they don't want to in order to justify effort they put into it, such as going to med school after working so hard) **ii. Also known as sunk-cost fallacy Cognitive Dissonance Theory

239. What is weak linguistic determinism (relativism)?

i. language influences thought. It makes it easier/more common for us to think in certain ways based on how our language is structured.

302. What hemisphere is dominant for most people, and what are the functions of the dominant hemisphere?

i. language, math

411. What is the learning-performance distinction?

i. learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things. Need a motivation

494. What is non-associative learning?

i. learning where no punishment/rewarding is occurring with increase/decrease of response. a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus.

450. What is the difference between Lewy body disease and Parkinson's?

i. less motor abnormalities from basal ganglia dysfunction and more cognitive dysfunction from loss of function from cerebral cortex.

396. How did C. Robert Cloninger link brain systems to personality? (Clone the Brain)

i. linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment, such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity.

646. What is Activity Theory?

i. looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/well-being

716. What does interactionist perspective say about media?

i. looks at mass media on microlevel to see how it shapes day to day behavior. How mass media blurs line between solidary and group activities - ex. watching a movie (can be watching with other people but because of societal norms/theater rules you can't talk about it with those who you are watching with). Looks at how we connect with others using media changes over time (email/text message instead of phone, or online dating increase).

702. What is Resource Mobilization Theory?

i. looks at social movements from different angle. Instead of looking at deprivation of people, focuses on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources. Gathering together people of a shared idea is not allowed everywhere. Also, for a social movement you need money, materials, political influence, media, and strong organizational base to recruit members - charismatic figure needed (unite people/members/oppressed on a single idea) Ex. Martin Luther King Jr. in Civil Rights Movement (beacon to oppressed black population and gained support he needed. Culture and Media

444. What are three main abnormalities in Alzheimer's under a microscope?

i. loss of neurons, plaques (made of beta-amyloid. Occur in spaces between cells, outside of neurons in abnormal clumps), and tangles (neurofibrillary tangles, clumps of a protein tau. Located inside neurons. Develop proteins normally in the brain, but changed so it's abnormal and causes them to clump together).

594. What are different types of somatosensory communication in animals?

i. mating dances. **ii. Movement can also convey food location (bees) **iii. pair/group bonding (ex. birds cuddle/prune mates) **iv. body language (facial expression/body language) can express emotion (dog showing teeth when threatened) **v. Also seismic communication (ex. movement of bug in spider's web signals to spider to find it) **vi. electro-communication (fish) 1. While weakly electric fish are the only group that have been identified to carry out both generation and reception of electric fields, other species either generate signals or receive them, but not both. **vii. Signals can be detected by predators as a way to find food.

641. How does feminist theory relate to med?

i. medicine is still a male-dominated field, heads of doctors and hospitals usually men, and disparity in jobs/salary between the two. Translates into a disparity in power.

435. What are somatic symptom disorders?

i. mental disorders manifesting in physical (somatic) symptoms. 1. May or may not be able to explain what we see (the physical condition). May or may not be related to a physical condition 2. Must cause functional impairments

816. What is prosopagnosia?

i. neurological disorder characterized by the inability to recognize familiar people based on facial information alone.

473. How is collective behavior different from norms?

i. norms and deviance and how changes in norms can occur at the individual level. **ii. when large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not inline with societal norms called collective behavior

534. What is the frustration aggression hypothesis?

i. not personality based, but more emotional. **ii. Someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice. When someone's frustrated, frustrations turn to aggressive impulses, and direct that towards another. Often towards minorities. 1. Display aggression towards other people - scapegoating. Often seen in times of economic hardship.

142. What is the difference between distal and proximal stimuli?

i. objects and events out in the world about you. Aware of and respond to this - this is what is important. ii. the patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes, ears, etc.). It is the light that is actually falling on the retina.

146. What is neglect syndrome?

i. occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention.

607. What is medicalization?

i. occurs when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment.

445. What is the nucleus basalis' function and how is it affected by Alzheimer's?

i. often lost early in course of Alzheimer's. Important for cognitive functions - send long axons to cerebral cortex and through cerebrum, and release acetylcholine. Contribute to cognitive functions of disease.

647. What is Disengagement Theory?

i. older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age. Separation allows for self-reflection. But considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable.

660. What is a gender script?

i. organized information regarding the order of actions that are approximate to a familiar situation. what we expect men and females to do. Urbanization

577. What is impression management and how does it relate to Goffman's 2 stages?

i. our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. Do this because we want to be viewed in a positive way. There are multiple social situations which require different scripts from you as an actor and hence there are multiple front stages **ii. Backstage - where you work on impression management

674. What is rural rebound?

i. people getting sick of cities and moving back out to rural areas. People who can afford to leave the city and looking for simpler/slower life. Happens close relatively near to urban centers so residences have convenience of a big city. Often people move to scenic rural areas

742. What is a randomized controlled trial?

i. people studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs. Gold standard for a clinical trial.

648. What is Continuity Theory?

i. people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives overtime. As they age people make decisions that preserve that structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging. **ii. Older generations continue to age and adapt and society has to adapt with them. Demographic Structure of Society - Race and Ethnicity

701. What are criticisms of this movement?

i. people who don't feel deprived join social movement even if they don't suffer themselves. And too risky for oppressed to join a movement due to lack of resources to participate (can't take time off work...but there is exceptions to this). Also, when all 3 are present, no social movement created.

399. How is the dopamine-4 receptor gene one of the genes associated with personality?

i. people with longer dopamine-4 receptor gene are more likely to be thrill seekers. Behaviorist Theory to Personality/Behavior

422. What is schizophrenia prodrome?

i. period of time before schizophrenia before symptoms are actually present. **ii. Deterioration in person's behavior and functioning. Some of the signs of schizophrenia and one starts to go downhill. Biological Basis of Schizophrenia

360. What is a learned behavioral trait?

i. persistent changes in our behavior that result from our experiences. Not present at birth, but is acquired after experience with the environment. Have the following characteristics: 1. Non-inherited - acquired only through observation/experience 2. Extrinsic - absent when animals are raised in isolation, ex. social skills 3. Permutable - pattern/sequence that is changeable 4. Adaptable - capable of being modified in response to changing conditions 5. Progressive - subject to improvement or refined through practice over time

260. What is the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion?

i. physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form experience of emotion. If we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we're able to label/ identify reason for situation. **ii. Event PR + Identify reason for the situation (PR) (consciously) Emotion

584. What is George Ritzer's McDonaldization?

i. policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily: 1. Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity and control **ii. Not necessarily a bad thing. Pervasive throughout society.

707. What is meso-level community?

i. population size falls between micro and macro levels. They are medium sized groups such as communities, organizations, cities, states, clans, and tribes. **ii. It is a subcommunity = smaller community in larger one.

395. Describe Jeffrey Alan Gray's Bio-psychological theory of personality? (50 shades of Gray is based on punishment/rewards)

i. proposed personality is governed by the behavioral inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (reward) system.

652. What is racialization?

i. racialization or ethnicization is the processes of ascribing ethnic or racial identities to a relationship, social practice, or group that did not identify itself as such.

791. What are demand characteristics?

i. refers to an experimental artifact where participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and subconsciously change their behavior to fit that interpretation.

277. What is low-effort coping?

i. refers to the coping responses of minority groups in an attempt to fit into the dominant culture. For example, minority students at school may learn to put in only minimal effort as they believe they are being discriminated against by the dominant culture. Biological Basis of Behavior: Nervous System

484. What is a token economy?

i. reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes).

313. What is acetylcholine?

i. released by frontal lobe **ii. sent to LMNs and the autonomic nervous system (parasympathetic specifically) **iii. acetylcholine functions in the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system both as an activator and inhibitor. In the peripheral nervous system, it causes skeletal muscles to contract. In the central nervous system, it inhibits the activation of the cholinergic system. **iv. Acetylcholine plays an important role in the signal of muscle movement, sensation of pain, learning and memory formation, the regulation of the endocrine system and rapid eye movement (REM) sleeps cycles.

217. What is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?

i. requires a person to create a set point or anchor. The answer is adjusted based on comparing new information to the anchor

618. What did Max Weber modify to this theory?

i. said he did not believe collapse of capitalism was inevitable, but argued that several factors moderate people's reaction to inequality. **ii. Introduced three independent factors: Class/Status/Power **iii. Class: A person's economic position in a society, based on birth and individual achievement. Weber differs from Marx in that he does not see this as the supreme factor in stratification. 1. Weber notes how corporate executives control firms they typically do not own; Marx would have placed these people in the proletariat despite their high incomes by virtue of the fact they sell their labor instead of owning capital. **iv. Status / Prestige: A person's prestige, social honor, or popularity in a society. Weber notes that political power is not rooted in capital value solely, but also in one's individual status. 1. For example: Poets or saints can have extensive influence on society despite few material resources. **v. Power: A person's ability to get their way despite the resistance of others, particularly in their ability to engage social change. 1. For example, individuals in government jobs, such as an employee of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or a member of the United States Congress, may hold little property or status but still wield considerable social power.

169. What is the dual coding hypothesis?

i. says it's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone. E.g. method of loci

695. What is hyperglobalist perspective?

i. sees globalization as a new age in human history - countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important. Countries become one global society. Theorists don't agree if this good or bad. Driven by a legitimate process.

389. According to both Rogers and Maslow, what is the central feature of our personality?

i. self-concept - achieved when we bring genuineness and acceptance together to achieve growth-promoting climate.

202. If untreated, Wernicke's will progress to Korsakoff's with what symptoms?

i. severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation (patients make up stories, sometimes to fill in memories). **ii. Individuals with Korsakoff syndrome have problem forming new memories and recalling old memories (anterograde and retrograde amnesia respectively)

736. What is an ANOVA test?

i. similar to t-test, compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups. 1. If value doubles, 100% increase

491. What is aversive control, and what type of conditioning does it fall under?

i. situations where behavior is motivated by threat of something unpleasant - examples of negative reinforcement in operant conditioning

291. What cells are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, the efferent neurons in the PNS?

i. smooth muscle cells, cardiac muscle, and gland cells

629. What are gender differences?

i. socially constructed via process of socialization. Society creates and passes down norms, customers, and expectations for gender from generation to generation. Creates a system that rewards/punishes the expectations created. Examines how women's position in social situations differ from men (usually worse, weaker)

253. What is the executive control function of the prefrontal cortex?

i. solve problems, make decisions, how you act in social situations.

301. What are the functions of the parietal lobe?

i. somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain), spatial manipulation (orient in 3D)

269. What is the tend and befriend response?

i. sometimes better response to stress is to have support systems. **ii. Oxytocin is important for this - peer bonding and moderates the stress response. **iii. Oxytocin is strongly linked to estrogen (a major sex hormone in women), so why this response is stronger in women.

787. What is subjective validation?

i. sometimes called personal validation effect, is a cognitive bias by which a person will consider a statement or another piece of information to be correct if it has any personal meaning or significance to them.

465. What is the "hidden curriculum of socialization?

i. standard behaviors that are deemed acceptable that are subtly taught by teachers. Normative and Non-Normative Behavior

293. Give overview of parasympathetic NS response?

i. starts at the brain stem or bottom of spinal cord 1st neuron sends long axon synapse with ganglion of second neuron sends short axon to target cell

292. Give an overview of the sympathetic NS response?

i. starts middle of spinal cord short axon synapses with short ganglia close to spine second neuron goes to the target cell (smooth, cardiac, gland cells) with long axon synapses

469. What is the Theory of Differential Association?

i. states that deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws - learn from observation of others. Rejects norms/values and believes new behavior as norm.

774. What is a power error?

i. statistical power is the likelihood that a study will detect an effect when there is an effect there to be detected. If statistical power is high, the probability of making a Type II error, or concluding there is no effect when, in fact, there is one, goes down.

706. What is a subculture?

i. subculture is culture (ideas) of a meso-level (medium) subcommunity (small community) that distinguishes itself from the larger dominant culture of larger society/community. **ii. Subculture smaller than a nation but unlike a microculture, it is large enough to support people throughout their entire lifespan. **iii. Subcultures are unique from the larger society but still share some of the culture of the dominant society.

568. What is the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis?

i. suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy. High empathy = high in altruistic behaviors.

338. What is the difference between temperament and personality?

i. temperament refers to a set of innate or inborn traits that organize a child's approach to the world, while personality is what arises within the individual. **ii. Personality, which stays constant all through a person's life, consists of certain characteristic patterns like thoughts, feelings and behavior. **iii. Since it is naturally occurring, temperament cannot be taught or learned but, despite this fact, it can be nurtured as one grows.

793. What is word associating testing?

i. test of personality and mental function in which the subject is required to respond to each of a series of words with the first word that comes to mind or with a word of a specified class of words

759. What is discriminant, or divergent, validity?

i. tests that constructs that should have no relationship do, in fact, not have any relationship. Subtype of construct validity.

828. What is the Stroop effect?

i. the Stroop effect is a demonstration of interference in the reaction time of a task. When the name of a color (e.g., "blue", "green", or "red") is printed in a color not denoted by the name (e.g., the word "red" printed in blue ink instead of red ink), naming the color of the word takes longer and is more prone to errors than when the color of the ink matches the name of the color.

209. The relative strength of the node link determines/reflects...

i. the amount of activation emitted to a network or a specific node (exposure)

533. Why is it difficult to decrease prejudice in certain personality types?

i. the authoritarian personality - very prejudiced: They're obedient to superiors, but don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves - they are oppressive. And rigid thinkers, inflexible with their viewpoints. 1. These people probably had a harsh bringing/lots of discipline growing up 2. They use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always focused on others.

756. What is predictive validity?

i. the extent to which an assessment is able to predict something it should be able to predict

751. What is ecological validity?

i. the extent to which the conclusions of your research study can be generalized to the settings and situations in which the phenomenon that you are studying would naturally occur.

429. What are associated areas of abnormality?

i. the frontal lobe and limbic structures. Decreased activity in frontal lobe and increased activity in limbic structures. Show a role in regulation of emotions and response to stress.

635. What is social selection?

i. the idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility and, hence, their position in the social hierarchy **ii. Developed by Joan Roughgarden, an evo biologist

187. What is source amnesia?

i. the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge.

780. What is hindsight bias (also known as the knew-it-all-along effect or creeping determinism)

i. the inclination, after an event has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis for predicting it.

522. Describe Meads' theory of social behaviorism?

i. the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others (beginning of symbolic interactionism). **ii. Infants + children were not influenced by others in any way, merely imitate others, and display egocentrism. **iii. As we grow up, our belief on how others perceive us is more important, this happens through 3 stages: preparatory, play stage, and game stage. These occur overtime as a child grows. **e. Believe this last stage led to development of the "I" and "me". Our actual self is the balance between the I and the me.

653. What is William Cross's Nigrescence model?

i. the process of becoming Black and being comfortable with this acceptance

789. What is operationalization?

i. the process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors. The process defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically and quantitatively. Allows for the establishment of a causal relationship between variables.

495. What are the two forms of non-associative learning?

i. the same stimuli results is a decreased response with episode of stimuli **ii. repeated administrations of a stimulus results in the progressive amplification of a response.[1] Sensitization often is characterized by an enhancement of response to a whole class of stimuli in addition to the one that is repeated. For example, repetition of a painful stimulus may make one more responsive to a loud noise.

418. What is etiology?

i. the study of causation, or origination, of an abnormal condition/disease

786. What is social desirability bias?

i. the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. It can take the form of over-reporting "good behavior" or under-reporting "bad", or undesirable behavior.

777. What is variance?

i. variance is the expectation of the squared deviation of a random variable from its mean, and it informally measures how far a set of (random) numbers are spread out from their mean. The average of the squared differences from the Mean.

225. What was Guilford's theory of convergent intelligence?

i. was proposed by Guilford to describe IQ test related intelligence, such as puzzles, vocabulary words, and arithmetic.

451. What is the difference between the two types of bipolar disorder?

i. when it remains hypomania + one major depressive episode **ii. when hypomania becomes manic w/ or w/o major depressive disorder **iii. An individual diagnosed with bipolar II has never had a manic episode.

555. What is false consensus bias?

i. when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not.

554. What is projection bias?

i. when we assume other share the same beliefs we do.

684. What is a life-table/mortality table?

i. when you break mortality rate by age. Tells you probability someone will die given their age which can vary from country to country. 1. When looking at population of a country, all-encompassing mortality rate is sufficient. demographic transition

571. What is role strain?

i. when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status,

182. What are state-dependent cues?

i. your state at the moment you encode. When you are in a certain mood when you encode you can then remember it when you are in the same mood. **ii. Mood can be a cue for state dependent memory Like if you are sad/angry it can lead to remembering other times you were sad/angry. This can lead to thinks like depression because those feeling down are more likely to think of other reasons to be down. Converse is true as well, when you are happier you are more likely to think of other times you were happy (or are likely to interpret other events in a positive light).

175. What is priming?

implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus (i.e., perceptual pattern) subconsciously influences the response to another stimulus.

Victim distance (factors of obedience)

in original Milgram study, teacher couldn't see learner (victim). If could see participant, reduced likelihood participant (teacher) would obey experimenter. But still didn't stop everyone (30% of participants gave all shocks)

141. What is inattentional/perceptual blindness?

inability to recognize an unexpected object, event, or stimulus that is in 'plain sight'. This is due to a psychological lapse in attention, rather than a defect or deficit in sensory perception. 1. Ex: you can't say where the nearest fire extinguisher is because you fail to notice it because your attention is typically elsewhere. This is true even though fire extinguishers are brightly colored and essential to survival (which should bring them to your attention)

Encounter (William Cross's Nigrescence Model)

individuals undergo an experience that suddenly and sharply calls race into perspective, and is generally an awakening to racial consciousness. This encounter makes the individual vulnerable to a new racialized worldview. Oftentimes, this occurrence is easily recalled as the first time a child was treated differently because of the color of his/her skin.

153. How did Johnson and Heinz's experiment connect difficulty of task to attenuator?

proposed that the location of the information attenuator (sometimes described as a bottleneck) was able to be varied by the listener depending on the demand necessitated by a particular attention task.

What is the conjunctiva?

thin layer of cells that lines the inside of your eyelids from the eye

309. What is glutamate?

i. - most common excitatory neurotransmitter **ii. Glutamate is associated with increased cortical arousal. **iii. Sent by reticular formation to cerebral cortex

463. What is the Hawthorne effect?

i. The Hawthorne effect occurs when an individual participant changes his or her behavior, specifically due the awareness of being observed.

400. What is the behaviorist thesis?

i. The behaviorist theory says personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment - it's deterministic, in that people begin as blank states and the environment completely determines their behavior/personalities. Environment BEHAVIOR

540. What is the halo effect?

i. The halo effect is tendency people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Ex. the physical attractiveness stereotype - believe attractive people have more positive personality traits.

288. Why does injury in one side of brain often result in damage to the other side?

i. because Spinal cord carries info to the brain in one of the tracts, which then crosses to the other side immediately before going to cerebrum.

634. What are some of the main assumptions of exchange theory?

i. behavior resulting in a reward is likely to be repeated **ii. more often reward is available the less valuable it is **iii. interactions operate within social norms, **iv. people access have information they need to make rational choices **v. human fulfillment comes from other people (interdependence in social exchange), **vi. and standards people use to evaluate interaction changes over time

401. Why is behaviorist theory opposite of psychoanalytic theory?

i. behaviorist theory focuses on observable and measurable behavior, rather than mental/emotional like psychoanalytic theory

530. What is optimism bias?

i. belief bad things happen to others, but not to us. (e.g. I won't die by texting and driving)

413. What are pathological defense mechanisms?

i. distort reality 1. Denial - person pretends something hasn't happened. Most important defense mechanism. (acronym: PATHOLOGICAL liar)

582. What is bureaucratization?

i. process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy. Ex. customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you.

394. What did Hans Eysenck believe controlled extroversion levels?

i. proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation (controls arousal and consciousness)- introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek lower levels of stimulation.

771. What is the good-subject tendency?

i. refers to the tendency of participants to act according to what they think the experimenter wants.

278. What does the forebrain develop into?

i. Cerebrum

664. What is a metropolis defined as?

i. Metropolis have over 500 000 people.

364. What is the acronym for Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

i. Please Stop Liking Stupid Stuff

738. What is a cross-sectional study?

i. look at a group of different people at one moment in time

814. What has the left superior temporal sulcus with associated with?

i. Anger

279. What does the midbrain develop into?

i. Midbrain

672. What is urban renewal?

i. revamping old parts of cities to become better.

Depersonalization (factors of obedience)

- when leaner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them

What is the general classification of the ear sections?

External/Outer ear: from pinna to tympanic membrane Middle ear: From malleus to stapes (three ossicles) Inner ear: Cochlea and semicircular canals

126. What are the two types of injection, and describe their them.

Transdermal - drug is absorbed through skin, ex. Nicotine patch. Drug in patch has to be pretty potent, released into bloodstream over several hours. ------Transdermal administration occurs slowly, since the drugs have to be absorbed through the skin before the effects can be felt. Intramuscular -needle stuck into muscle. Can deliver drugs to your system slowly or quickly. ----Ex: Quick Delivery - epiPen ----Ex: Slow Delivery Vaccines. Intramuscular delivery of vaccines is why your arm gets so sore after shots. ====Intramuscular injection is the fastest route of entry. Most abused drugs are injected intravenously, however.

546. Describe the elements of cultural imperialism?

a. the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture. People within groups share psychological connection between peers, related to politics/culture/spirituality.

173. What is implicit memory and what is contained within it?

a type of unconscious memory in which previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences. Thus, you may not be able to articulate this memory. **ii. All memories formed by conditioning are implicit memories. **iii. Procedural memory is long-term memory for actions or habits such as how to kick a ball or washing hands before eating. Procedural memory is type of implicit memory.

121. What is Molly/MDMA/Ecstasy?

a. - synthetic drug between a stimulant and hallucinogen. **b. Like stimulant - Increases dopamine and serotonin and euphoria. Also stimulates the body's CNS. Effects include: high BP, dehydration, overheating, death **i. Can damage neurons that produce serotonin, which has several functions including moderating mood. No serotonin = depressed mood **c. heightened sensations, ex. artificial feeling of social connectedness and intimacy

346. What situations increase heritability?

a. As environments becomes more controlled, differences in behavioral traits are tied to heritability. Secondly, more genetic variation leads to greater heritability.

324. What are the two main tests for brain structure?

a. CAT (Computerized Axial Tomography) scans (CT scan). X-rays to create image of the brain (tumor/abnormal swelling/bleeding...but it can't tell us anything about what areas of the brain are active in a given time) . **i. CT scans are a computerized composite of X-ray images that are slightly lower resolution than MRI and are not as good for soft tissue but are faster than MRIs. Sometimes CT scans are combined with a radioactive dye (like a PET scan) to show structure and activity imposed in one image. **b. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)- This method uses radio waves and they are exposed to a magnetic field. The radio waves are then added to the magnetic field and disrupts orientation of atoms. As atoms move back to alignment with magnetic field they release signals and those are used to create image. This also doesn't tell us anything about brain function either.

547. Why is proximity so powerful for relationship formation?

a. Geographical proximity /nearness is most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships. **i. People date, like, marry people of the same neighborhood or those that sit next to in class or work in the same office. **ii. Even with social media, and easy travel/connection with individuals far away - rule of proximity is still true (even if you take internet dating into account).

87. What protein is strongly associated with taste?

a. Gustducin

72. How do basal/apical cells cause pheromones to be released?

a. Molecule will come in and activate receptor on basal cell/apical cell here. Basal cell sends axon through accessory olfactory bulb to glomerulus, then mitral or tufted cell which eventually goes to the amygdala (part of the brain) **b. Signal transduction is where signal binds to receptor, which binds to GPCR. Depolarization. Signal goes to brain

340. What are the similarities and differences between monozygotic and dizygotic twins?

a. Monozygotic Twins - egg splits into 2 after fertilization. Share 100% of genes, genetically identical. **b. Dizygotic Twins - develop from 2 separately fertilized eggs. Share 50% of genes, like regular siblings. **c. Both share same environment in womb, and also share same parents. Both types of twins eat the same food at the same time. So both can be said to share 100% environment.

96. What is order of sleep cycles and how long is one cycle?

a. Order within cycle goes from N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM N1 **b. Each cycle lasts 90 minutes and we cycle through them 4-5 times per long period of sleep **c. How long each stage lasts depends on how long you've been asleep and your age (babies spend more time in REM sleep)

376. What are Cialidini's 6 Key Principles of Influence?

a. Reciprocity - People tend to return a favor, thus the pervasiveness of free samples in marketing. **b. Commitment and Consistency - If people commit, orally or in writing, to an idea or goal, they are more likely to honor that commitment because of establishing that idea or goal as being congruent with their self-image. **c. Social Proof - People will do things that they see other people are doing. **d. Authority - People will tend to obey authority figures, even if they are asked to perform objectionable acts. **e. Liking - People are easily persuaded by other people that they like.. **f. Scarcity - Perceived scarcity will generate demand. For example, saying offers are available for a "limited time only" encourages sales. **i. While conveying scarcity, in general, can influence others, in the case of an opinion, the more people that agree, the more likely others are to follow, so scarcity is not desirable.

119. What is an analgesic?

a. Substance that reduces pain perception

98. What are the other evolutionary/biological theories behind dreaming?

a. Threat simulation, to prepare for real world. **b. Problem solving **c. No purpose **d. Maintain brain flexibility - allows us to learn and be creative when we are awake **e. Consolidate thoughts to long-term memory, and cleaning up thoughts. People who learn + sleep retain more than those who do not sleep. But role of REM is unclear. **f. Preserve and developing neural pathways. Because infants constantly developing new neural networks spend most of time in REM sleep. **g. Memory consolidation theorist: memory consolidated in deep sleep.

What receptor do we use to sense temperature (that is also sensitive to pain), and how does it work?

a. TrypV1 - There are thousands of these in membranes. Heat causes a conformational change (change in physical structure) in the protein. - When cell is poked, thousands of cells are broken up, and releases different molecules that bind to TrypV1 receptor. Causes conformational change, which activates the cell and sends signal to brain.

113. What are stimulants and common examples?

a. are drugs that excite your CNS, increase HR/BP, alertness, more awake, more energetic. Can cause people to feel glittery **b. effect is similar to stress, with increased glucose metabolism in brain **i. Cocaine: blocks dopamine reuptake. **ii. Amphetamines both block dopamine reuptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release. **iii. Caffeine inhibits phosphodiesterase (enzyme) that breaks down cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate). The increase in cAMP increases glutamate production. This increase in cellular activity results in action potentials that are briefer and released in bursts. **iv. Nicotine acts on acetylcholine (receptor agonist) **v. THC works on anandamide. Increase dopamine and GABA activity.

97. How can you tell that someone is dreaming during REM?

a. eyes are moving rapidly under eyelids **b. brainwaves look like they are completely awake. These are the memorable dreams (NREM ones are not memorable) **c. Activity in prefrontal cortex during REM sleep is decreased - part responsible for logic. Why things in our dreams that defy logic don't seem weird.

713. What does the conflict perspective say about media?

a. focuses on how the media portrays and reflects and exacerbate divisions that exist in society, ex. Race/ethnicity/gender/social class. **i. Uses term gatekeeping to describe the process by which a small number of people and corporations control what information is presented on the media. In some countries this is decided by the government, in others decided by large media corporations. People who make the choice of what media is produced- the gatekeepers are predominantly white, male, and wealthy according to this theory. **ii. Gatekeeping has more effect on some media than others, ex. Lots of control on big-budget movies, but little overhead control on what's posted online. **iii. Also describes how mass media reflects the dominant ideology. Giving time, space or privileging certain political, economic, and social interests at the same time limiting other views. **iv. Portrayal of racial minority groups/LGBT groups, working class people, women (minorities in general), etc can be underrepresented or stereotyped - unrealistic generalizations of certain groups of people.

73. Why don't humans rely much on pheromones?

a. humans have vomeronasal organ, but no accessory olfactory bulb. As a result, we rely very little on pheromones.

105. What is the Dissociation Theory of hypnosis?

a. hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness

342. What is the problem with twin studies?

a. identical twins treated more similarly than fraternal twins are. This would mean that monozygotic twins share even "more" of same environments than fraternal twins. Adoption Studies

74. What part of the nostril are the olfactory sensory cells located?

a. olfactory epithelium

535. What is the Hypothesis of relative deprivation?

a. upsurge in prejudice/discrimination when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to **i. Relative depreciation is the discrepancy of what they feel they're entitled to and what they get 1. Extent and how quickly this happens can lead to collective unrest - an upsurge in prejudice and discrimination. 2. Linked to Frustration Aggression Hypothesis Stigma- Social and Self

111. What are barbiturates medically used for?

a. used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety (calm them down) Depress your CNS. **b. Anesthesia or anticonvulsant (drugs that reduce seizures) **c. Not often prescribed due to negative side effects such as reduced memory, judgment and concentration, with alcohol can lead to death (most drugs w/ alcohol are bad)

The interior chamber is filled with what humor, and what is its function?

aqueous humour provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball; allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of cornea/iris.

249. What is the amygdala?

are golf ball shaped groups of nuclei located within the temporal lobes of the brain. They serve to assist in the processing of memory, decision-making, and emotional reactions, namely produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety.

76. What is the glomerulus of an olfactory bulb?

designation point for various sensory olfactory cells that are sensitive to the same molecule

86. What are filiform papillae and where are they found?

do not contain taste buds and exist all over the tongue. The center of the tongue contains only filiform papillae. This is why stimulation of the center of the tongue does not cause a taste sensation, while the back and perimeter produce a broad range of taste sensations.

What is the difference between sensory adaptation and sensory amplification?

down regulation of a sensory reception vs up regulation.

81. What is the general overview of olfactory pathway?

goes from the olfactory bulb to the amygdala and the piriform cortex. From there the signal is transmitted to the orbitofrontal cortex. Gustation

Impersonality

how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner **i. Pro - equal treatment **ii. Con - alienation, discourage loyalty to the group

572. What is role conflict?

i. "Defined as the stress that people feel when they are confronted with incompatible role expectations across different social statuses they occupy. - conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. The different statuses compete for someone's resources.

679. What is the total population increase rate?

i. (#Births + # Immigration)/1000. Multiply Rate by population and you get the population increase

531. What is a stereotype threat?

i. (negative consequence of stereotyping) - self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Emotion and Cognition in Prejudice

238. What did Vygotsky believe about language development?

i. - language and thought are both independent, but converge through development. Eventually learn to use them at same time via socialization - Believed children developed language through social interaction with adults who already knew the language. Through the interaction, they learnt to connect the thoughts and the language they eventually learn

235. What is prosody and where in the brain is it located?

i. Contributes to linguistic functions such as intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm. Located on right hemisphere

144. how is alerting attention affected by age and schizophrenia?

i. is affected by regular aging but deficits are not often associated with schizophrenia

155. Describe the resource model of attention?

i. we have limited resources in attention. Resources that are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things @ once. **ii. Both models say something about our ability to multitask - not very good at it. **iii. Supported by research study: ex. Dichotic listening/shadowing task, you aren't able to focus on both the "attended channel" and the "unattended channel". You are able to recall info from the attended channel, but not the unattended channel.

744. What is a 3x2 factorial design (read "three by two")?

i. we have three levels of the first variable crossed with two levels of the second variable. Such a design gives us 3x2=6 treatment conditions in the experiment. Two independent variables, 3 of first, 2 of 2nd.

441. What is obstructive sleep apnea?

i. when airways are obstructed. Soft tissues around our neck can relax at night and potentially cause obstruction of airflow for a short period of time. Gets worse as people get older. 1. At nighttime, this causes snoring or gasping or pauses in breathing. 2. At daytime, people are tired/sleepy and unrefreshed 3. Diagnosed by: Sleep study (a polysomnography) and looking for 15+ "apneas"/hour (Apnea - lack of airflow).

790. What is an embedded field study?

i. when researchers pose as participants

Internalization-Commitment (William Cross's Nigrescence Model)

involves reaching a balance of comfort in one's own racial/ethnic identity as well as the racial/ethnic identities of others. This stage makes the distinction between individuals who have internalized their new identity but discontinue their involvement in the movement for social change, and those that have internalizes their identity and continue to be agents of social change. For a "successful" transition into this stage, the individual must become their new identity, while engaging in meaningful activities to promote social equality and political justice for their group members.

164. What is working memory?

is memory that is stored while it is held in attention.