The Triumph of Conservatism, 1969-1988

During the 1970s, "__ values" moved to the center of conservative politics, nowhere more so than in the battle over the __ _ __(ERA) Originally proposed during the 1920s by Alice Paul and the Woman's Party, the ERA had been revived by second-wave __. In the wake of the rights revolution, the amendment's affirmation that "equality of rights under the law" could not be abridged "on account of sex" hardly seemed ___. In 1972, with broad bipartisan support, Congress approved the ERA and sent it to the states for ___. Designed to eliminate obstacles to the full participation of women in public life, it aroused unexpected ___ from those who claimed it would discredit the role of wife and homemaker.

family Equal Rights Amendment feminists controversial ratification protest

In 1978, Carter cut off aid to the brutal military dictatorship governing ___, which in the name of anticommunism had launched a "__ __" against its own citizens, kidnapping off the streets and secretly murdering an estimated 10,000 to 80,000 persons Carter's action was a dramatic gesture, as Argentina was one of the most important powers in Latin America and previous American administrations had turned a blind eye to __ __ abuses by Cold War allies. By the end of his presidency, the phrase human rights had acquired political ___. Its very vagueness was both a weakness and a strength. It was difficult to define exactly what rights should and should not be considered universally ___, but various groups could and did unite under the umbrella of global human rights. Carter believed that in the post-Vietnam era, American foreign policy should __ Cold War thinking Combating poverty in the Third World, preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, and promoting human rights should take priority over what he called "the inordinate ___ of communism that once led us to embrace any dictator who joined us in that fear" In one of his first acts as president, he offered an unconditional ___ to the Vietnam-era draft resisters.

Argentina dirty war human rights potency applicable de-emphasize fear pardon

Like Roosevelt and Johnson before him, Reagan spoke of "economic freedom" and proposed an "economic __ _ __." But in contrast to his predecessors, who used these phrases to support combating __ and strengthening economic security, economic freedom for Reagan meant curtailing the power of __, dismantling regulations, and radically reducing taxes. __, he declared, violated the principle that "the right to ear your own keep and keep what you ear" was "what it means to be free." In 1981, Reagan persuaded Congress to reduce the ___ tax rate from 70 percent to 50 percent and to index tax brackets to take ___ into account Five years later, the Tax __ Act reduced the rate on the wealthiest Americans to 28 percent. These measures marked a sharp retreat from the principle of ___ the idea that the wealthy should pay a higher percentage of their income in taxes than other citizens), one of the ways twentieth-century societies tried to address the ___ distribution of wealth. Reagan also appointed conservative heads of regulatory agencies, who cut back on environmental protection and workplace ___ rules about which business had complained for years

Bill of Rights poverty unions Taxation top inflation Reform progressivity unequal safety

Along with Watergate, the Pentagon Papers, and the Vietnam War itself, the __ __ revelations, seriously undermined Americans confidence in their own government. They led Congress to enact new ___ on the power of the FBI and CIA to spy on American citizens or conduct operations abroad without the knowledge of lawmakers. Congress also strengthened the __ __ __ Act (FOIA), initially enacted in 1966. Since 1974, the FOIA has allowed scholars, journalists, and ordinary citizens to gain access to millions of pages of records of federal agencies. ___, who had despised Nixon throughout his career, celebrated his downfall. They did not realize that the revulsion against Watergate undermined the foundations of liberalism itself, already weakened by the ___ of the 1960s. For liberalism rests, in part, on belief in the ability of ___, especially the federal government, to solve social problems and promote both the public good and individual freedom. Nixon's fall and the revelations of years of governmental ___ helped to convince many Americans that conservatives were correct when they argued that to protect liberty it was necessary to limit Washington's ___ over Americans' lives. The Watergate crisis also distracted attention from the economic crisis that began in the fall of 1978. Its inability to fashion a ___ to this crisis, which gripped the United States for much of the 1970s, dealt liberalism yet another blow.

Church Committee restrictions Freedom of Information Liberals divisions government misconduct power response

Perhaps Nixon's most startling initiative was his proposal for a __ __ Plan, or "negative income tax," that would replace Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) by having the federal government guarantee a ___ income for all Americans Universally known as "welfare," AFDC provided assistance, often quite limited, to poor families who met local eligibility ___. Originally a New Deal program that mainly served the white poor, welfare had come to be associated with ___, who by 1970 accounted for nearly half the recipients. The AFDC rolls ___ rapidly during the 1960s, partly because the federal government relaxed eligibility standards. This arose from an increase in births to __ women, which produced a sharp rise in the number of poor female-headed households, and from an aggressive campaign by welfare rights groups to encourage people to apply for ___. Conservative politicians now attacked recipients of welfare as people who preferred to live at the expense of honest __ rather than by working. A striking example of Nixon's willingness to break the political mold, his plan to replace welfare with a guaranteed annual income failed to win ___ by Congress. It proved too ___ for conservatives, who saw it as a reward for laziness, while liberals denounced the proposed level of $1,600 per year for a needy family of four as ___.

Family Assistance minimum requirements blacks expanded unmarried benefits taxpayers approval radical inadequate

American involvement in Central America produced the greatest scandal of Reagan's presidency, the __ affair. In 1984, Congress banned __ aid to the Contras (derived from the Spanish word for "against") fighting the Sandinista government of Nicaragua, which, as noted earlier, had ousted the American-backed dictator __ __ in 1979. In 1985, Reagan secretly authorized the sale of arms to Iran—now involved in a war with its neighbor, Iraq—in order to secure the release of a number of American __ held by Islamic groups in the Middle East. CIA director William Casey and Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North of the National Security Council set up a system that diverted some of the ___ to buy military supplies for the Contras in defiance of the congressional ban. The scheme continued for nearly two years. In 1987, after a Middle Eastern newspaper leaked the story, Congress held televised __ that revealed a pattern of official duplicity and violation of the law reminiscent of the Nixon era. Eleven members of the administration eventually were convicted of perjury or destroying ___, or pleaded guilty before being tried. Reagan denied knowledge of the illegal proceedings, but the Iran-Contra affair undermined confidence that he controlled his own ___.

Iran-Contra military Anastasio Somoza hostages proceeds hearings documents administration

In the presidential election of 1976, __ __, a former governor of Georgia, narrowly defeated Ford. A graduate of the U,S. Naval Academy who later became a peanut farmer, Carter was virtually unknown outside his state when he launched his campaign for the ___ nomination. But realizing that Watergate and Vietnam had produced a crisis in confidence in the __ government, he turned his obscurity into an advantage. Carter ran for president as an "___," making a virtue of the fact that he had never held federal office. A Popular Vote devout "born-again" ___, he spoke openly of his religious convictions. His promise, "I'll never lie to you," resonated with an electorate tired of official ___. Carter had much in common with ___ of the early twentieth century His passions were making government more ___, protecting the environment, and raising the moral tone of politics. Unlike the Progressives, however, he embraced the aspirations of ___ Americans. As president, Carter appointed an unprecedented number of blacks to important positions, including Andrew Young, a former lieutenant of Martin Luther King Jr, as ambassador to the __ __.

Jimmy Carter Democratic federal outsider Baptist dishonesty Progressives efficient black United Nations

Another crisis that began in 1979 undermined American relations with __. At the end of that year, the Soviet Union sent thousands of troops into ___ to support a friendly government threatened by an Islamic rebellion. In the long run, Afghanistan became the Soviet Vietnam, an unwinnable conflict whose mounting ___ seriously weakened the government at home. Initially, however, it seemed another example of __ American power. Declaring the invasion the greatest crisis since __ _ __ (a considerable exaggeration), the president announced the __ __, declaring that the United States would use military force, if necessary, to protect its interests in the Persian Gulf. He placed an ___ on grain exports to the Soviet Union and organized a Western boycott of the 1980 Olympics, which took place in Moscow He withdrew the SALT treaty from consideration by the Senate and dramatically increased American military spending. In a reversion to the Cold War principle that any opponent of the Soviet Union deserved American support, the United States funneled aid to fundamentalist ___ in Afghanistan who fought a decade long guerrilla war against the Soviets. The alliance had unforeseen consequences. A faction of Islamic fundamentalists known as the Taliban eventually came to power in Afghanistan. Tragically, they would prove as ___ to the United States as to Moscow

Moscow Afghanistan casualties declining World War II Carter Doctrine embargo Muslims hostile

___, as critics dubbed the administration's policies, initially produced the most severe recession since the 1980s A long period of economic ___, however, followed the downturn of 1981-1982 As companies "___" their workforces, shifted production overseas, and took advantage of new ___ such as satellite communications, they became more profitable. At the same time, the rate of ___, 18. 5 percent at the beginning of 1981, declined to 8.5 percent in 1988, partly because a period of expanded ___ production that drove down prices succeeded the shortages of the 1970s. By the end of Reagan's presidency in 1989, the real gross domestic product had risen by 25 percent and unemployment was down to 5.5 percent. These were significant ___.

Reaganomics expansion downsized technologies inflation oil accomplishments

Two decades after the war ended, former secretary of defense __ __ published a memoir in which he admitted that the policy he had helped to shape had been "terribly wrong." ___ of the history and culture of Vietnam and a misguided belief that every communist movement in the world was a puppet of ___. He wrote had led the country into a war that he now profoundly regretted The New York Times rejected McNamara's ___. The ___ of those unlived lives, the young men sent to their death "for no purpose," it declared, could not so easily be wished away. But the Times itself, like the rest of the ___ establishment, had supported the war for most of its duration. For far too long, they had accepted its basic ___ thar the United States had the right to decide the fate of a faraway people about whom it knew almost nothing.

Robert McNamara Ignorance Moscow apology ghosts political premise

Three months after his trip to Beijing, Nixon became the first Cold War American president to visit the __ __, where he engaged in intense negotiations with his Soviet counterpart, ___ __. Out of this "summit" meeting came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms-control treaties. ___ (named for the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks underway since 1969) froze each country's arsenal of intercontinental missiles capable of carrying ___ warheads. The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming ___, so that neither side would be tempted to attack the other without fearing devastating retaliation, Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful ___," in which détente (cooperation) would replace the hostility of the Cold War

Soviet Union Leonid Brezhnev SAL nuclear missiles Coexistence

The social ___ associated with the 1960s continued in the following decade. Both right and left took part in ___ movements, ranging from ___ against nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants and struggles to aid ___ workers to battles to stop the court-ordered busing of public school children and movements against abortion rights. But the most profound changes in American life arose from the continuing ___ revolution.

activism grassroots campaigns migrant sexual

The 1988 election seemed to show politics sinking to new lows. ___ advertisements and media exposés now dominated political campaigns. The race for the Democratic nomination had hardly begun before the front-runner, Senator __ __ of Colorado, withdrew after a newspaper reported that he had spent the night at his Washington town house with a woman other than his wife. Both parties ran __ campaigns. Democrats ridiculed the Republican vice-presidential nominee, Senator __ __ of Indiana, for factual and linguistic mistakes. Republicans spread unfounded rumors that Michael Dukakis's wife had __ an American flag during the 1960s. The low point of the campaign came in a Republican television ad depicting the threatening image of __ __, a black murderer and rapist who had been furloughed from prison during Dukakis's term as governor of Massachusetts. Rarely in the modern era had a major party appealed so blatantly to racial fears. Although he did not match Reagan's landslide victory of 1984, Bush achieved a substantial ___, winning 54 percent of the popular vote. Democratic success in retaining control of Congress suggested that an electoral base existed for a comeback. But this would occur only if the party fashioned a new appeal to replace traditional liberalism, which had been eclipsed by the __ of conservatism.

Television Gary Hart negative Dan Quayle burned Willie Horton majority triumph

Beginning with the dramatic 1960 contest between John F. Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon, the journalist __ __ published best selling accounts of four successive races for the presidency. Covering the 1964 election, White attended __ __ demonstrations and rallies for Barry Goldwater, the Republican nominee. White noticed something that struck him as odd: "The dominant word of these two groups, which loathe each other, is __. Both demand either Freedom Now or Freedom for All." The word has such emotive power behind it. A reporter is instantly ___ for questioning what they mean by the word freedom. The United States, White concluded, sorely needed "a commonly ___-on concept of freedom. White had observed firsthand the ___ over the meaning of freedom that emerged in the 1960s, as well as the revival of __ in the midst of an era known for radicalism. Goldwater's campaign helped to crystallize and popularize ideas that would remain the __ of conservatism for years to come. To intense anticommunism, Goldwater added a critique of the welfare state for destroying "the ___ of the individual." He demanded a __ in taxes and governmental regulations. Goldwater showed that with liberals in control in Washington, conservatives could claim for themselves the tradition of anti-government __, thus broadening their electoral base and countering their image as upper-crust elitists.

Theodore White civil rights freedom denounced agreed struggle conservatism bedrock dignity reduction populism

During the Nixon years, women made inroads into areas from which they had long been excluded. In 1972, Congress approved __ __, which banned gender discrimination in higher education, and the __ __ __ Act, which required that married women be given access to credit in their own name. The giant corporation ___ __ __ (AT&T) entered into a landmark agreement in which it agreed to pay millions of dollars to workers who had suffered gender discrimination and to upgrade employment opportunities for women. The number of women at work continued its upward ___. In 1960, only 20 percent of women with young children had been in the ___. The figure reached 40 percent in 1980, and 55 percent in 1990. Working women were motivated by varied ___. Some sought ___ in professions and skilled jobs previously open only to men. Others, spurred by the need to bolster family ___ as the economy faltered, flooded into the traditional, low-wage, pink-collar sector, working as cashiers, secretaries, and telephone operators.

Title IX Equal Credit Opportunity American Telephone and Telegraph climb workforce aims careers income

Despite Nixon's foreign policy triumphs, one issue would not go away: __. Nixon ran for president in 1968 declaring that he had a "___ plan" to end the war. On taking office, he announced a new policy, ___ . Under this plan, American troops would gradually be withdrawn while South Vietnamese soldiers, backed by continued American bombing, did more and more of the fighting. But Vietnamization neither limited the war nor ended the ___ movement. Hoping to cut North Vietnamese supply lines, Nixon in 1970 ordered American troops into neutral ___. The invasion did not achieve its military goals, but it ___ the Cambodian government and set in motion a chain of events that eventually brought to power the __ __. Before being ousted by a Vietnamese invasion in 1979, this local communist movement attempted to force virtually all Cambodians into rural communes and committed widespread __ in that unfortunate country.

Vietnam secret Vietnamization antiwar Cambodia destabilized Khmer Rouge massacres

An even more acrimonious battle emerged in the 1970s over ___ rights, another example; to conservatives, of how liberals in offce promoted sexual ___ at the expense of moral values. The movement to reverse the 1978 ___ decision began among Roman Catholics, whose church condemned abortion under any circumstances. But it soon enlisted evangelical ___ and social conservatives more generally. Life, the movement insisted, begins at ___, and abortion is nothing less than murder. Between this position and the feminist insistence that a woman's right to control her __ includes the right to a safe, legal abortion, compromise was impossible. Ironically, both sides showed how the rights revolution had ___ the language of politics. Defenders of abortion exalted "the right to choose as the essence of freedom. Opponents called themselves the "right to life" movement and claimed to represent the rights of the "___ child"

abortion immorality Roe v. Wade Protestants conception body reshaped unborn

The __ has always both reflected and contributed to national political trends. In the 1970s and 1980s it offered __ soil for various strands of conservatism. The population movements of previous decades __ this development. Many southerners had left their homes for southern California, bringing with them their distinctive form of evangelical __. Increasingly alienated from a Democratic Party that embraced the rights revolution and with it, evangelicals felt the decline of ___ values, they gravitated to the California ___ Party, from which emerged national Republican leaders such as Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan. California conservatives also embraced the new anti-__ mood. In 1978, conservatives sponsored and California voters approved __ _, a ban on further increases in property taxes. The vote demonstrated that the level of taxation could be a powerful political issue. Proposition 18 proved to be a windfall for businesses and homeowners, while reducing __ available for schools, libraries, and other public services. Many voters, however, proved willing to accept this result of lower taxes. As anti-tax sentiment ___ throughout the country, many states followed California's lead.

West fertile stimulated Christianity traditional Republican tax Proposition 18 funds flourished

From the vantage point of the early twenty-first century, it is difficult to recall how marginal conservatism seemed at the end of __ __ __ Associated in many minds with conspiracy theories, anti-Semitism, and preference for social __ over democracy and equality, conservatism seemed a relic of a discredited past. When conservative ideas did begin to __, liberals explained them as a __ of the modern world by the alienated or psychologically disturbed. Nonetheless, the 1950s and 1960s witnessed a conservative __. And in 1968, a "___" among formerly Democratic voters against both black assertiveness and antiwar demonstrations helped to propel Richard Nixon into the White House. But conservatives found Nixon no more to their __ than his predecessors. Nixon echoed conservative language, especially in his __ of student protesters and his calls for law and order, but in office he expanded the welfare state and moved to improve American ___ with the Soviet Union and China During his presidency, the social changes set in motion by the 1960s- seen by conservatives as forces of moral __- continued apace.

World War II. hierarchy spread rejection rebirth backlash liking condemnation relations decay

In the international arena, 1975 witnessed the major ___ of Ford's presidency. In a continuation of Nixon's policy of ___, the United States and Soviet Union signed an agreement at ___, Finland, that recognized the permanence of Europe's post-World War II boundaries (including the division of Germany) In addition, both superpowers agreed to respect the basic ___ of their citizens. Secretary of State Kissinger and his Soviet counterpart, __ __, assumed that this latter pledge would have little practical effect. But over time, the __ __ inspired movements for greater freedom within the communist countries of eastern Europe.

achievement détente Helsinki liberties Andrey Gromyko Helsinki Accords

Supply-side ___ insisted that lowering taxes would enlarge government revenue by stimulating economic activity. But spurred by large increases in funds for the __, federal spending far outstripped income, producing large budget deficits, despite assurances by supply-siders that this would not happen. During Reagan's presidency, the national debt ___ to $2.7 trillion, Nonetheless, Reagan, remained immensely popular. He took credit for economic expansion while blaming ___ leaders for the ballooning federal deficit. He won a triumphant __ in 1984. His opponent, __ __ (best remembered for choosing Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro of New York as his running mate, the first woman candidate on a major-party presidential ticket), carried only his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia.

advocates military tripled congressional reelection Walter Mondale

For a time, the Nixon administration also pursued __ action programs to upgrade minority employment The ___ Plan required that construction contractors on federal projects hire specific numbers of minority workers. Secretary of Labor __ __, who initiated the idea, sincerely hoped to open more jobs for black workers. Nixon seems to have viewed the plan mainly as a way of fighting inflation by weakening the ___ of the building trades unions. Their control over the labor market, he believed, pushed wages to unreasonably high levels, raising the cost of ___. And, he calculated if the plan caused dissension between blacks and labor unions--two pillars of the Democratic coalition. ____ could only benefit. Trade unions of skilled workers like plumbers and electricians, which had virtually no __ members, strongly opposed the Philadelphia Plan. After a widely publicized incident in May 1970, when a group of construction workers ___ antiwar demonstrators in New York City, Nixon suddenly decided that he might be able to woo blue-collar workers in preparation for his 1972 reelection campaign. He soon ___ the Philadelphia Plan in favor of an ineffective one that stressed voluntary local efforts toward minority hiring instead of federal requirements

affirmative Philadelphia George Shultz power construction Republicans black assaulted abandoned

During the 1960s, many members of the burgeoning evangelical churches of the suburbs, South, and West had become more and more ___ from a culture that seemed to them to trivialize religion and promote immorality. Evangelicals of different denominations increasingly came to feel that they had more in common with each other than with more ___ coreligionists. They demanded the ___ of Supreme Court decisions banning prayer in public schools, protecting ___ as free speech, and legalizing ___. Although it spoke of restoring traditional values, the __ __ proved remarkably adept at using modern technology, including mass mailings and televised religious programming to raise funds for their crusade and spread their message. In 1979, __ __, a Virginia minister, created the self-styled Moral Majority, devoted to waging a "war against sin" and electing "pro-life, pro-family, pro-America" candidates to office. Falwell identified supporters of abortion rights, easy divorce, and "military unpreparedness" as the forces of ___.

alienated liberal reversal pornography abortion Religious Right Jerry Falwell Satan

In his relations with the major communist powers, however, Nixon fundamentally ___ Cold War policies. Nixon had launched his political career as a fierce and, critics charged, unscrupulous ___. But in the language of foreign relations, he and Kissinger were ___." He had more interest in ___ than ideology and preferred international stability to relentless conflict. Nixon also hoped that if relations with the Soviet Union improved, the Russians would influence __ __ to agree to an end to the Vietnam War on terms acceptable to the United States. Nixon realized that far from being part of a unified communist ___, China had its own interests different from those of the Soviet Union, and was destined to play a major role on the ___ stage. The policy of refusing recognize ___communist government had reached a dead end In 1971, ___ flew secretly to China, paving the way for Nixon's own astonishing public visit of February 1972. The trip led to the Beijing government's taking up China's seat at the __ __, previously occupied by the exiled regime on Taiwan Full diplomatic relations between the United States and the People's Republic of China were not established until 1979 But Nixon's visit sparked a dramatic ___ in trade between the two countries.

altered anticommunist realists power North Vietnam bloc world China's Kissinger United Nations increase

The combination of domestic and international dislocations during the 1970s created a widespread sense of ___ among Americans and offered conservatives new political opportunities. Economic problems heightened the appeal of lower __, reduced government __, and cuts in social spending to spur business investment. Fears about a decline of American __ in the world led to calls for a renewal of the Cold War. The civil rights and sexual revolutions produced resentments that undermined the ___ coalition. Rising urban __ rates reinforced demands for law and order and attacks on courts considered too lenient toward criminals. These issues brought new converts to the __ cause. As the 1970s went on, conservatives abandoned overt opposition to the __ struggle for racial justice. The fiery rhetoric and direct confrontation tactics of Bull Connor, George Wallace, and other proponents of massive ___ were succeeded by appeals to freedom of association, local control, and resistance to the power of the federal government. This language of individual freedom resonated throughout the country, appealing especially to the growing, predominantly white, suburban population that was fleeing the cities and their urban problems. The suburbs would become one of the bastions of modern ___

anxiety taxes regulation power Democratic crime conservative black resistance conservatism

By 1980, Carter's ___ rating had fallen to 21 percent-lower than Nixon's at the time of his resignation. A conservative tide seemed to be rising throughout the Western world. In 1979, __ __ became prime minister of Great Britain. She promised to restore economic __ by curtailing the power of unions, reducing taxes, selling state-owned industries to private owners, and cutting back the welfare state. In the United States, Ronald Reagan's 1980 campaign for the presidency brought together the many strands of 1970s ___. He pledged to end stagflation and restore the country's dominant role in the world and its ___ in itself. "Let's make America great again," he proclaimed. "The era of self-doubt is over."

approval Margaret Thatcher competitiveness conservatism confidence

The energy crisis of the 1970s drew increased ___ to domestic energy resources like oil, coal, and natural gas. While the rest of the economy stagnated, western ___ production grew apace. Oil was discovered in ___ in 1968, and in 1977 a pipeline opened to facilitate its shipment to the rest of the country. ___ production in Wyoming boomed Western energy companies benefited from the high oil prices set by ___--the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. But rising oil prices rippled through the world ___, contributing to the combination of stagnant economic growth and high inflation known as ___. Between 1978 and 1981, the rate of inflation in developed countries was 10 percent per year, and the rate of economic growth only ___ percent, a sharp deterioration from the economic conditions of the 1960s. The So-called ___ index, the sum of the unemployment and inflation rates- stood at 10.8 percent when the decade began. By 1980, it had almost ___. As oil prices rose, many Americans shifted from large domestically produced cars known for high ___ consumption, to smaller, more fuel-efficient imports. By the end of the decade, Japan had become the world's leading ___ producer, and imports accounted for nearly 25 percent of car sales in the United States.

attention energy Alaska Coal OPEC economy stagflation 2.4 misery doubled gasoline automobile

Reagan also appealed skillfully to "white ___." He kicked off his campaign in Philadelphia, Mississippi, where three civil rights workers had been ___ inn1964, with a speech emphasizing his belief in __ rights. Many white southerers understood this doctrine as including opposition to federal intervention on behalf of civil rights. During the campaign, Reagan repeatedly condemned welfare "__," school busing, and affirmative action. The Republican platform reversed the party's long-standing __ for the Equal Rights Amendment and condemned moral permissiveness. Although not personally religious and the first ___ man to run for president, Reagan won the support of the __ __ and conservative upholders of "family values." Riding a wave of dissatisfaction with the country's condition, Reagan swept into the White House. He carried such ___ strongholds as Illinois, Texas, and New York. Because moderate Republican __ __, running for president as an independent, received about 7 percent of the popular vote, Reagan won only a bare majority, although he commanded an overwhelming margin in the electoral college. Carter received 41 percent, a humiliating defeat for a ___ president.

backlash murdered states cheats support divorced Religious Right Democratic John Anderson sitting

Although it hardly excused his ___, Nixon had a point. His departure from office was followed by Senate hearings headed by __ __ of Idaho that laid bare a history of __ actions that involved every administration since the beginning of the Cold War In violation of the law, the FBI had ___ on millions of Americans and had tried to disrupt the civil rights movement. The CIA had conducted secret ___ to overthrow foreign governments and had tried to assassinate foreign leaders. It had even recruited a secret army to fight in ___, a neighbor of Vietnam. Abuses of power, in other words, went far beyond the ___ of a single president.

behavior Frank Church abusive spied operations Laos misdeeds

No one knows precisely what the Watergate ___ were looking for (perhaps they intended to install listening devices), and the botched robbery played little role in the 1972 presidential campaign. But in 1978, Judge __ __, before whom the burglars were tried, determined to find out who had sponsored the break-in. A pair of Washington Post journalists began publishing ___ stories that made it clear that persons close to the president had ordered the burglary and then tried to "cover up" White House ___. Congressional ___ followed that revealed a wider pattern of wiretapping, break-ins, and attempts to sabotage political opposition. When it became known that Nixon had made tape recordings of conversations in his office, __ __, a special prosecutor the president had reluctantly appointed to investigate the Watergate affair, demanded copies. In October 1978 Nixon proposed to allow Senator __ __ of Mississippi to review the tapes, rather than release them When Cox refused, Nixon fired him, whereupon Attorney General Elliot Richardson resigned in protest These events, known as the __ __ Massacre, further undermined Nixon's standing The Supreme Court unanimously ordered Nixon to provide the tapes- a decision that reaffirmed the principle that the president is not above the ___

burglars John J. Sirica investigative involvement hearings Archibald Cox John C. Stennis Saturday Night law

Having won the presidency by a very narrow margin, Nixon moved toward the political __ on many issues. A shrewd politician, he worked to solidify his support among ___ while reaching out to disaffected elements of the Democratic coalition. It is difficult to characterize Nixon's ___ agenda according to the traditional categories of liberal and conservative. Mostly interested in ___ policy, he had no desire to battle Congress, still under ___ control, on domestic issues. Just as Eisenhower had helped to institutionalize the __ __, Nixon accepted and even ___ many elements of the Great Society. Conservatives applauded Nixon's __ __, which offered federal "block grants" to the states to spend as they saw fit, rather than for specific purposes dictated by Washington. On the other hand, the Nixon administration created a host of new federal ___. The __ __ Agency oversaw programs to combat water and air pollution, cleaned up hazardous wastes, and required "environmental impact" statements from any project that received federal Funding. The __ __ & __ Administration sent inspectors into the nation's workplaces. The __ __ __ Board instructed automobile makers on how to make their cars safer.

center Republicans domestic foreign Democratic New Deal expanded New Federalism agencies Environmental Protection Occupational Safety and Health National Transportation Safety

With liberals unable to devise an effective policy to counteract ___ and declining real wages, economic anxieties also created a growing constituency for conservative ___. Unlike during the Great Depression, economic distress inspired a critique of ___ rather than of business. New environmental regulations led to calls for less government ___ in the economy. The descent from affluence to __ increased the appeal of the conservative argument that government regulation raised ___ costs and eliminated jobs Economic decline also broadened the constituency receptive to demands for lower ___. To conservatives, tax reductions served the dual purpose of enhancing business profits and reducing the resources available to government, thus making new social ___ financially impossible

deindustrialization economics government intervention stagflation business taxes programs

As the war escalated, protests again spread on ___ campuses, partly because the policy of exempting students from the draft had ended. In the wake of the __ of four antiwar protesters at Kent State University by the Ohio National Guard and two by police at Jackson State University in Mississippi, the student movement reached its high-water mark. In the spring of 1970, more than 850 colleges and universities experienced ___, and __ occupied 21 campuses. The protests at Kent State, a public university with a largely ___ student body, and Jackson State, a ___ institution, demonstrated how antiwar sentiment had spread far beyond elite campuses like Berkeley and Columbia. At the same time, troop ___ in Vietnam plummeted. For most of the war, college students had received ___. As a result, the army was predominantly composed of working-class whites and members of racial ___. Of the 25 million Americans who served in the military during the war, around 80 percent came from __ and working-class families. ___-Americans accounted for one-eighth of American casualties in Vietnam. The same social changes sweeping the home front were evident among ___ in Vietnam. Soldiers experimented with ___, openly wore peace and black-power symbols, ___ orders, and even assaulted unpopular officers. In 1971, thousands deserted the army, while at home Vietnam veterans held antiwar demonstrations. The decline of discipline within the army convinced increasing numbers of ___ officers that the United States must extricate itself from Vietnam

college killing strikes troops working-class black morale exemptions minorities poor African troops drugs refused high-ranking

There have always been voices in the West insisting that the region has a __ relationship with the rest of the country. They point to federal ownership of large swaths of western land, and the __ of western development on investment from the East. In the late nineteenth century, this view helped give rise to western __, when the targets of protest were eastern banks and railroad companies, as well as a national economic policy that favored these corporations. Nearly a century later it became associated with a conservative upsurge known as the __ __ (the name given to a bill passed by the Nevada legislature in 1979) directed at the federal government. The roots of this "rebellion" lie as far back as the 1920s, when the U.S. ___ Service announced plans to increase grazing fees and mineral rights in national forests and other public lands. Nevada's ranchers went to court to block these fees but were ___ by the Supreme Court. In the 1970s, new environmental regulations won fresh recruits to the movement. The __ __ __ alarmed western coal operators. Westerners who believed the environmental policies of the Carter administration were closing the public domain to exploitation eagerly supported Ronald Reagan's presidential ___.

colonial dependence Populism Sagebrush Rebellion Forest rebuffed Clean Air Act candidacy

Just as domestic policies and social trends under Nixon disappointed conservatives, they viewed his foreign policy as dangerously "soft" on ___. To be sure, in the Third World, Nixon and __ __, his national security adviser and secretary of state, continued their predecessor's policy of attempting to undermine governments deemed ___ to American strategic or economic interests. Nixon funneled arms to ___ pro-American regimes in Iran, the Philippines, and South Africa After Chile in 1970 elected socialist __ __ as president, the CIA worked with his domestic opponents to destabilize the regime On September 11, 1978, Allende was overthrown and killed in a military coup, which installed a bloody dictatorship under General __ __. Thousands of Allende ___, including a few Americans then in Chile, were tortured and murdered, and many others fled the country. The Nixon administration knew of the coup plans in advance but failed to warn Allende, and it continued to back Pinochet despite his brutal ___. ___ did not return to Chile until the end of the 1980s.

communism Henry Kissinger dangerous dictatorial Salvador Allende Augusto Pinochet backers policies Democracy

While he implemented their economic policies, Reagan in some ways disappointed ardent ___. The administration sharply reduced funding for Great Society ___ programs such as food stamps, school lunches, and federal financing of low-income housing. But it left intact core elements of the __ state, such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid, which many conservatives wished to curtail significantly or repeal. The Reagan era did little to ___ the social agenda of the Christian Right. Abortion remained ___, women continued to enter the labor force in unprecedented numbers, and Reagan even appointed the first female member of the Supreme Court, __ __ _ In 1986, in __ v. Hardwick, in a rare victory for cultural conservatives, the Supreme Court did uphold the constitutionality of state laws outlawing homosexual acts (In 2008, the justices would ___ the Bowers decision, declaring laws that criminalized homosexuality unconstitutional.) Reagan gave verbal support to a proposed constitutional amendment ___ prayer in public schools but did little to promote its passage. The administration launched a "Just Say __" campaign against illegal drug use. But this failed to halt the spread in urban areas of crack a potent, inexpensive form of ___ that produced an upsurge of street crime and family breakdown. Reagan's Justice Department cut back on civil rights enforcement and worked to curtail affirmative action programs. But to the end of Reagan's presidency, the Supreme Court continued to approve plans by private employers and city and state governments to upgrade __ employment.

conservatives antipoverty welfare advance legal Sandra Day O'Connor Bowers reverse restoring no cocaine minority

These policies temporarily ___ inflation and reduced imports. But in 1978, a brief war broke out between ___ and its neighbors Egypt and Syria. Middle Eastern Arab states retaliated for Western support of Israel by ___ the price of oil and suspending the ___ of oil to the United States for several months. During the oil embargo, long lines of cars appeared at American ___ stations, which either ran out of fuel or limited how much a customer could buy. A second "oil shock" occurred in 1979 as a result of the revolution that ___ the shah of Iran discussed later. Because the rapidly growing demand for fuel by cars and factories outstripped domestic ___, by 1978 the United States imported one-third of its oil. Europe and Japan depended even more heavily on oil imports. To promote energy ___, Congress lowered the speed limit on interstate highways to fifty-five miles per hour, and many public buildings reduced heat and lighting

curtailed Israel quadrupling export gas overthrew supplies conservation

Christian conservatives seemed most agitated by the ongoing sexual ___, which they saw as undermining the traditional family and promoting immorality. As a result of the 1960s, they believed. American freedom was out of ___. The growing assertiveness of the new __ movement spurred an especially ferce reaction. In 1977, after a campaign led by the popular singer __ __, a familiar fixture in televised orange juice commercials, Dade County, Florida, passed an anti-gay ordinance under the banner "Save Our __"

revolution control gay Anita Bryant Children

The only war the United States has ever lost, Vietnam was a military, political, and social ___. By the time it ended, 58,000 Americans had been killed, along with 8 million to 4 million Vietnamese. The war ___ the United States man hundreds of millions of dollars and diverted __ from needs at home. But the non monetary price was far higher. Vietnam undermined Americans' ___ in their own institutions and challenged long-standing beliefs about the country and its ___. The ___ caused by the war continued in debates over its legacy that persisted for many years. The war's supporters blamed critics at home for undermining a successful and winnable military ___. Others took the lesson that the United States should be extremely ___ to commit its armed forces overseas an outlook sometimes called the Vietnam Syndrome.

disaster cost funds confidence purposes divisions effort reluctant

Like predecessors as __ as the civil rights and labor movements, conservatives organized at the grass roots. In order to spread conservative doctrines, they ran candidates for office even when they had little chance of ___, and worked to change the ___ of local institutions like school boards, town councils, and planning commissions. One set of recruits was the __, a group of intellectuals who charged that the 1960s had produced a decline in __ standards and respect for authority. Once supporters of liberalism, they had come to believe that even well-intentioned government social programs did more harm than good ___, for example, not only failed to alleviate poverty but also encouraged single motherhood and undermined the work ethic. High taxes and expensive government regulations drained ___ from productive enterprises, stifling economic growth. Neoconservatives __ the attempts by Nixon, Ford, and Carter to reorient foreign policy away from the Cold War. Carter's focus on human rights and alleged blindness to the Soviet threat, they argued, endangered the "___ of freedom." Conservative: "think tanks" created during the 1970s, like the Heritage Foundation and the American Enterprise Institute, refined and spread these ___.

diverse winning policies neoconservatives moral Welfare resources repudiated survival ideas

Economic problems ___ the presidencies of Nixon's successors. __ __, who had been appointed to replace Vice President Agnew, succeeded to the White House when Nixon resigned. Ford named __ __ of New York as his own vice president. Thus, for the only time in American history, both offices were occupied by persons for whom no one had actually __. Among his first acts as president, Ford pardoned Nixon, shielding him from ___ for obstruction of justice. Ford claimed that he wanted the country to put the Watergate ___ behind it. But the pardon proved to be widely unpopular. In domestic policy, Ford's presidency lacked significant ___. Ford and his chief economic adviser, __ __, believed that Americans spent too much on consumption and saved too little, leaving business with insufficient money for investment. They called for cutting taxes on business and lessening government regulation of the economy But the Democratic majority in Congress was in no mood to accept these traditional Republican ___. To combat inflation, Ford urged Americans to shop ___, reduce expenditures, and wear __ buttons (for Whip Inflation Now™). Although inflation fell, joblessness continued to __. During the steep recession of 1974-1975 unemployment exceeded 9 percent, the highest level since the Depression.

dogged Gerald Ford Nelson Rockefeller voted prosecution scandal accomplishment Alan Greenspan policies wisely WIN rise

The Democratic Party found itself ill-equipped to deal with the ___ crisis. The social upheavals of the 1960s had led to the emergence of politicians known as the New ___. Representing ___ urban and suburban districts, they viewed issues like race relations, gender equality, the environment, and improving the political process as more central than traditional economic matters. Although his party controlled both __, Carter often found himself at odds with Congress. He viewed inflation, not ___, as the country's main economic problem, and to combat it he promoted cuts in spending on domestic programs. In the hope that increased competition would reduce ___, his administration enacted deregulation in the trucking and airline industries. Anticipating what would come to be called the supply-side economics of the Reagan administration, Carter in 1978 inaugurated __ cuts for wealthier Americans in the hope that this would stimulate investment and encourage economic growth. In 1980, with Carter's approval, Congress repealed usury laws that limit how much interest lenders can charge allowing ___ card companies to push their interest rates up to 20 percent or even higher. Carter supported the Federal Reserve Bank's decision to raise ___ rates to curtail economic activity until both wages and prices fell, traditionally a Republican policy But ___ prices kept rising, thanks to the overthrow of the shah of Iran, discussed later, and inflation did not decline.

economic Democrats affluent houses prices tax credit interest oil

Efforts to promote greater ___ opportunities for minorities also spawned politically divisive legal issues. Many whites came to view affirmative action programs as a form of ___ discrimination. Even as such programs quickly ___ from blacks to encompass women, Latinos, Asian-Americans, and Native Americans, conservatives demanded that the Supreme Court invalidate them all. The justices refused, but they found it difficult to devise a consistent approach to this politically charged issue. In ___ v. Duke Power Company (1971), the Court ruled that even racially ___ job requirements such as a written examination were illegal if they operated to exclude disproportionate number of non-white applicants and were not directly related to job ___. Later in the decade, in United Steelworkers of America v. ___(1979) it upheld a program devised by the Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corporation and its union that set ___ for training and hiring non-white workers in skilled jobs. Since this private voluntary agreement did not involve government action, the Court ruled, it did not violate the ___ Amendments ban on state policies that discriminated among citizens.

employment reverse spread Griggs neutral performance Weber quotas Fourteenth

During the 1970s, the long period of postwar economic expansion and consumer prosperity came to an ___, succeeded by slow growth and high ___. For the only time in the twentieth century, other than the 1980s, the average American ended the 1970s ___ than when the decade began. There were many reasons for the end of capitalism's "golden age." With American prosperity seemingly unassailable and the military-industrial complex thriving, successive administrations had devoted little ___ to the less positive economic consequences of the Cold War. To strengthen its ___ allies, the United States promoted the industrial ___ of Japan and Germany and the emergence of new centers of ___ in places like South Korea and Taiwan. It encouraged American companies to ___ in overseas plants and did not complain when allies protected their own industries while seeking unrestricted access to the American market. Imports of ___ steel, for example, led to growing problems for this key industry at home. The strong dollar, linked to gold by the __ __ agreement of 1941, made it harder to sell American goods overseas.

end inflation poorer attention anticommunist reconstruction manufacturing invest foreign Breton Woods

Under Carter, a commitment to promoting human rights became a centerpiece of American ___ policy for the first time. He was influenced by the proliferation of information about global ___ of human rights spread by nongovernmental agencies like Amnesty International and the International League for Human Rights. The American membership of __ ___, a London-based organization, grew from 6,000 to 85,000 between 1970 and 1976. Its reports marked a significant break with dominant ideas about international affairs since World War I which had viewed the basic ___ in the world as between communist and noncommunist countries. Such reports, along with congressional hearings, fact-finding missions, and academic studies of human rights, exposed ___ not only by communist countries but also by American ___, especially the death squads of Latin American dictatorships. Amnesty International pressured the United States to try to do something to promote human rights __. In 1977, Amnesty International received the __ __ Prize, an indication of the rapid emergence of human rights as an international issue

foreign denials Amnesty International division misdeeds allies abroad Nobel Peace

Using the language of ___ from government tyranny, leaders in western states insisted that the ___ themselves be given decision-making power over issues like grazing rights, mining development, and whether public lands should be closed to fishing and hunting. With the federal government ___ to give up control over public lands in the West, the Sagebrush Rebellion had few concrete accomplishments, but it underscored the rising tide of ___ sentiment

freedom states reluctant anti government

The rise of religious ___ during the 1970s expanded conservatism's popular base. Challenged by the secular and material concerns of American society, some denominations tried to bring ___ into harmony with these interests; others reasserted more traditional religious values. The latter approach seemed to appeal to growing ___ of Americans. Even as membership in mainstream denominations like Episcopalianism and Presbyterianism declined, evangelical ___ flourished. Some observers spoke of a __ Great Awakening (like those of the 1740s and early nineteenth century). The election of Carter, the first "born-again" Christian to become president, highlighted the growing influence of ___ religion. But unlike Carter, most fundamentalists who entered politics did so as conservatives. Of course, there was nothing new about the involvement of ___ in political life. There is a long tradition in American history of moral stewardship- devout Christians taking on responsibility for social reform and using political means to combat what they perceive as individual or collective ___.

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In addition, the __ & ___ movement, born at the end of the 1960s, expanded greatly during the 1970s and became a major concern of the right. In 1969, there had been about fifty local gay ___ groups in the United States; ten years later, their numbers reached into the thousands. They began to elect local ___, persuaded many states to ___ homosexual relations, and succeeded in convincing cities with large gay populations to pass ___ laws. They actively encouraged gay men and lesbians to "come out of the ___"-that is to reveal their sexual orientation During the 1970s, the ___ __ __ removed homosexuality from its list of mental diseases. As pre-World War I bohemians saw many of their ideas absorbed into the mass culture of the 1920s, values and styles of the 1960s became part of 1970s America, dubbed by the writer Tom Wolfe the "__ __" The demand of student protesters that individuals be ___ to determine their own "lifestyle" emerged in depoliticized form in Americans obsession with self-improvement through fitness programs, health food diets, and new forms of psychological therapy.

gay and lesbian rights officials decriminalize antidiscrimination closet American Psychiatric Association Me Decade empowered

Since the New Deal, liberals had tried to promote economic ___ by using the power of the government to bolster ordinary Americans purchasing power. Reagan's economic program known as "___ economics" by proponents and "__ economics" by critics, relied on high interest rates to curb inflation and lower tax rates, especially for businesses and high-income Americans, to ___ private investment. The policy assumed that cutting taxes would inspire Americans at all income levels to work __, since they would keep more of the money they earned. Everyone would benefit from increased business profits, and because of a growing economy, government receipts would rise despite lower ___ rates.

growth supply-side trickle-down stimulate harder tax

The justices, however, proved increasingly ___ to governmental affirmative action policies. In Regents of the University of California v. ___ (1978), the Court overturned an admissions program of the University of California at Davis, a public university, which set aside 16 of 100 places in the entering ___ school class for minority students. Justice __ __, a Nixon appointee who cast the deciding vote in the 5-4 decision, rejected the idea of fixed affirmative action quotas. He added, however, that ___ could be used as one factor among many in admissions decisions, so affirmative action continued at most colleges and universities. Bakke continues to be the ___ by which affirmative action programs are judged today.

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Reagan inaugurated an era of ___ between the federal government and organized labor. In August 1981, when 18,000 members of ___, the union of air traffic controllers, began a strike in violation of federal law, Reagan fired them all He used the military to oversee the nation's __ __ system until new controllers could be trained Reagan's action inspired many private employers to launch ___ offensives. The hiring of workers to replace permanently those who had gone on strike, a rare occurrence before 1980, became __. Manufacturing employment, where union membership was concentrated, meanwhile continued its long-term ___. By the mid-1990s, the steel industry employed only 170,000 persons-down from 600,000 in 1978. When Reagan left office, both the service and retail sectors employed more Americans than ___, and only 11 percent of workers with non-government jobs were union members.

hostility PATCO air traffic anti-union widespread decline manufacturing

Jimmy Carter's reputation ___ after he left the White House. He went to work for __ __ __, an organization that constructs homes for poor families. In the 1990s, he negotiated a ___ between warring Muslim and Serb forces in Bosnia and arranged a peaceful transfer of power from the military to an elected government in Haiti. In 2002, Carter was awarded the __ ___ __. His presidency, however, is almost universally considered a failure. And his defeat in 1980 launched the Reagan Revolution, which completed the __ of freedom from the rallying cry of the left to a possession of the right.

improved Habitat for Humanity cease-fire Nobel Peace Prize transformation

Together, Reagan's policies, rising stock prices, and deindustrialization resulted in a considerable rise in economic ___. By the mid-1990s, the richest 1 percent of Americans owned 40 percent of the nation's wealth, twice their share twenty years earlier. Most spent their income not on productive ___ and charity as supply-side economists had promised, but on luxury goods, real-estate speculation, and corporate ___ that often led to plant closings as operations were consolidated. The income of middle-class families, especially those with a wife who did not work outside the home, stagnated while that of the poorest one-fifth of the population ___. Because of falling investment in public housing, the release of mental patients from state hospitals, and cuts in welfare, ___ persons became a visible fixture on the streets of cities from New York to Los Angeles

inequality investments buyouts declined homeless

In an unsuccessful attempt to bring down __, Carter had abandoned the Keynesian economic policy of increased government spending to combat ___ in favor of high interest rates. He had cut back on social spending and the federal government's economic ___, while projecting a major increase in the military budget. By 1980, __ had been eclipsed and the Cold War reinvigorated. Thus, many of the __ policies associated with his successor, Ronald Reagan, were already in place when Carter's presidency ended

inflation recession regulations détente conservative

Deindustrialization and the decline of the __ movement had a particularly devastating impact on ___ workers, who had only recently gained a foothold in better-paying manufacturing jobs. Thanks to the opening of colleges and professional schools to minority students as a result of the __ __ movement and affirmative action programs, the black middle class expanded considerably. But black workers, traditionally the last hired and first fired, were hard hit by economic ___. During the 1970s, __ __ had finally ended in many workplaces and unions. But just as decades of painful efforts to obtain better jobs bore fruit, hundreds of thousands of black workers lost their jobs when factories closed their doors In South Gate, a working-class ___ of Los Angeles, for example, the giant Firestone tire factory shut down in 1980, only ten years after black and Latino workers made their first breakthroughs in employment. When the national unemployment rate reached 8.9 percent at the end of 1981, the figure for blacks exceeded 20 percent. Nor did black workers share fully in the ___ that followed Few had the education to take advantage of job openings in growing "knowledge-based" industries like technology and information services. Overall, during the 1980s black males fell ___ than any other group in the population in terms of wages and jobs.

labor minority civil rights changes Jim Crow suburb recovery farther

Always a junior partner in the Democratic coalition the ___ movement found itself forced onto the defensive. It has remained there ever since. One example of the ___ of unions power came in 1975 with the New York City fiscal crisis. Deeply in debt and unable to market its bonds, the city faced the prospect of ___. The solution to the crisis required a reduction of the city's ___, severe cuts in the ___ of schools, parks, and the subway system, and an end to the century-old policy of free ___ at the City University. Even in this center of unionism, working-class New Yorkers had no choice but to absorb job losses and a drastic ___ in public services. The weakening of unions and the continuation of the economy's long-term shift from manufacturing to service employment had an adverse impact on ordinary Americans. Between 1953 and 1973, ___ family income had doubled. But in 1973, real wages began to fall. The popular song "The __," by Bruce Springsteen, captured the woes of blue-collar workers: "Is a dream a lie if it doesn't come true / Or is it something worse?"

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To the alarm of conservatives, during the 1970s the sexual revolution passed from the counterculture into the social ___. The number of Americans who told public-opinion polls that ___ sex was wrong plummeted. The number of ___ soared, reaching more than 1 million in 1975, double the number ten years earlier The __ at which both men and women married rose dramatically. The figure for divorces in 1975 exceeded the number of ___ marriages. A popular 1978 film, __ __ __, portrayed the dissolution of a marriage as a triumph for the wife, who discovered her potential for individual growth only after being abandoned by her husband. As a result of women's ___ aspirations and the availability of birth control and legal abortions, the American birthrate declined dramatically By 1976, the average woman was bearing __ children during her lifetime, less than half the figure of 1957 and below the level at which a population reproduces itself. A 1971 survey of the last five graduating classes at __ __, an elite women's college, reported the birth of more than seventy children A similar survey covering the classes of 1971 through 1975 found that only ___ had been born. (Of course, many of these women eventually did marry and have children. But unlike their mothers of the "baby-boom" generation, they postponed these decisions to pursue ___.)

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In 1971, for the first time in the twentieth century, the United States experienced a ___ trade deficit- that is, it imported more goods than it ___. By 1980, nearly three-quarters of goods produced in the United States were competing with ___-made products and the number of manufacturing workers, 38 percent of the American workforce in 1960 had fallen to 28 percent. In 1971, Nixon announced the most ____ change in economic policy since the Great Depression. He took the United States off the ___ standard, ending the Bretton Woods agreement that fixed the value of the dollar and other currencies in terms of gold. Henceforth, the world's currencies would "___" in relation to one another, their worth determined not by treaty but by international currency markets. Nixon hoped that lowering the dollar's value in terms of the German mark and Japanese yen would promote exports by making American goods ___ overseas and reduce imports since foreign products would be more expensive in the United States. But the end of fixed currency rates injected a new element of ___ into the world economy. Nixon also ordered wages and prices ___ for ninety days.

merchandise exported foreign radical gold float cheaper instability frozen

Reagan generally relied on __ aid rather than American troops to pursue his foreign policy objectives. Abandoning the Carter administration's emphasis on human __, Reagan embraced the idea, advanced in 1979 by neoconservative writer __ __, that the United States should oppose "totalitarian" communists but assist "__" noncommunist regimes Kirkpatrick became the American ambassador to the United Nations, and the United States stepped up its alliances with Third World anticommunist ___ like the governments of Chile and South Africa. The administration poured in funds to combat insurgencies against the governments of El Salvador and Guatemala, whose armies and associated death squads committed flagrant __ against their own citizens When El Salvador's army massacred hundreds of civilians in the town of __ __ in 1981, the State Department denied that the event, widely reported in the press, had taken place!

military rights Jeane Kirkpatrick authoritarian dictatorships abuses El Mozote

In retrospect, the 1980s, like the 1890s, would be widely remembered as a decade of ___ values. Buying out companies generated more profits than running them, making deals, not making products, became the way to get rich The merger of __ & ___ Tobacco Company in 1988 produced close to $1 billion in fees for lawyers, economic advisers, and stockbrokers. "Greed is healthy," declared Wall Street financier ___ ___ (who ended up in prison for insider stock trading) "___" the young urban professional who earned a high income working in a bank or stock brokerage firm and spent lavishly on designer clothing and other trappings of the good life became a household word. Taxpayers ___ the bill for some of the consequences. The ___ of savings and loan associations- banks that had generally confined themselves to financing home mortgages- allowed these institutions to invest in unsound real-estate ventures and corporate mergers. Losses piled up, and the __ __ & ___ __, which insured depositors' accounts, faced bankruptcy After Reagan left office, the federal government bailed out the savings and loan institutions, at a cost to taxpayers estimated at $250 ___.

misplaced Nabisco and R J. Reynolds Ivan Bosky Yuppie footed deregulation Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation billion

Reagan's presidency revealed the contradictions at the heart of ___ conservatism. In some ways, the Reagan Revolution undermined the very __ and institutions conservatives held dear. Intended to discourage reliance on government handouts by rewarding ___ work and business initiative, Reagan's policies inspired a speculative frenzy that enriched architects of __ takeovers and investors in the stock market while leaving in their wake plant closings, job losses, and devastated communities. Nothing proved more threatening to local traditions or family stability than __, insecurity about employment, and the relentless downward pressure on wages. Nothing did more to undermine a sense of common national ___ than the widening gap between rich and poor. Because of the Iran-Contra scandal and the enormous deficits the government had accumulated, Reagan left the presidency with his reputation somewhat ___. Nonetheless, few figures have so successfully changed the landscape and language of politics. Reagan's vice president, __ __, defeated Michael Dukakis, the governor of Massachusetts, in the 1988 election partly because Dukakis could not respond effectively to the charge that he was a "liberal" now a term of political abuse. Conservative assumptions about the virtues of the free market and the evils of "big government" ___ the mass media and political debates. Those receiving public assistance had come to be seen not as citizens entitled to help in coping with economic misfortune, but as a drain on taxes. During the 1990s, these and other conservative ideas would be embraced almost as fully by President __ _, a Democrat, as by Reagan and the Republicans.

modern values honest corporate deindustrialization purpose tarnished George H. W. Bush dominated Bill Clinton

Early in 1978, Nixon achieved what had eluded his predecessors- a __ settlement in Vietnam. The ___ __ agreement, the result of five years of talks, made possible the final withdrawal of American troops. The ___ left in place the government of South Vietnam, but it also left North Vietnamese and Viet Cong soldiers in control of parts of the South. American bombing ___, and the military draft came to an end. Henceforth, ___ would make up the armed forces. But the agreement did not solve the basic issue of the war-whether Vietnam would be one __ or two. That question was answered in the spring of 1975, when the North Vietnamese launched a final ___ offensive. The government of South Vietnam collapsed; the United States did not intervene except to evacuate the American ___, and Vietnam was reunified under communist rule.

negotiated Paris peace compromise ceased volunteers country military embassy

Ronald Reagan followed a most ___ path to the presidency. Originally a New Deal Democrat and head of the Screen __ Guild (the only union leader ever to reach the White House) he emerged in the 1950s as a spokesman for the General Electric Corporation, preaching the Virtues of unregulated __. His nominating speech for __ __ at the 1964 Republican convention brought Reagan to national attention. Two years later, California Voters elected Reagan as ___ In 1976, he challenged President __ for the Republican nomination and came close to winning it. His victory in 1980 brought to power a ___ coalition of old and new conservatives: Sunbelt suburbanites and urban working-class ethnics; antigovernment crusaders and advocates of a more aggressive foreign policy; libertarians who believed in freeing the individual from restraint and the __ __, which sought to restore what they considered traditional moral values to American life

unusual Actors capitalism Barry Goldwater governor Ford diverse Christian Right

Carter also believed that expanded use of ___ energy could help reduce dependence on imported oil. For years, proponents of nuclear power had hailed it as an ___ way of meeting the country's energy needs. By the time Carter took office, more than __ nuclear plants were operating or on order. But in 1979 the industry suffered a near-fatal blow when an accident at the __ __ __ plant in Pennsylvania released a large amount of radioactive steam into the atmosphere The rise of the environmental movement had promoted public skepticism about scientific experts who touted the miraculous promise of technological innovations without concern for their __ consequences. The Three Mile Island mishap reinforced fears about the environmental ___ associated with nuclear energy and put a halt to the industry's expansion. Since the New Deal, Democrats had presented themselves as the party of affluence and economic ___. But Carter seemed to be presiding over a period of national decline. It did not help his popularity when, in a speech in 1979, he spoke of a national "crisis of ___" and seemed to blame it on the American people themselves and their "mistaken idea of freedom" as "self-indulgence and consumption.

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Occupying a strategic location on the southern border of the Soviet Union, Iran was a major supplier of __ and an importer of American military ___. At the end of 1977, Carter traveled there to help celebrate the shah's rule, causing the internal ___ to become more and more anti-American. Early in 1979, a popular revolution inspired by the exiled Muslim cleric __ __ overthrew the shah and declared Iran an Islamic republic. The Iranian revolution marked an ___ shift in opposition movements in the Middle East from socialism and Arab nationalism to religious fundamentalism. This would have important long-term consequences for the United States. More immediately, when Carter in November 1979 allowed the deposed shah to seek ___ treatment in the United States, Khomeini's followers invaded the American ___ in Tehran and seized sixty-six hostages. Fourteen people (women, African-American men, and a white man in ill health) were soon released, leaving fifty-two __. They did not regain their freedom until January 1981, on the day Carter's term as president ___. Events in Iran made Carter seem helpless and inept and led to a rapid __ in his popularity.

oil equipment opposition Ayatollah Khomeini ideological medical embassy captives ended fall

The Supreme Court soon abandoned the idea of ___ local control of schools, or moving students great ___ to achieve integration. In 1978, it rebuffed a group of Texas ___ who sued to overturn the use of property taxes to finance public education. Because of the great ___ in wealth between districts, spending on predominantly Mexican-American schools stood far below that for white ones. But in San Antonio Independent School District v. ___, a 5-4 Court majority ruled that the Constitution did not require equality of school funding. In the following year, in ___ v. Bradley (1974), the justices overturned a lower court order that required Detroit's predominantly white suburbs to enter into a regional desegregation plan with the city's heavily ___ school system By absolving suburban districts of responsibility for assisting in integrating urban schools, the decision guaranteed that ___ segregation would be mirrored in public education. Indeed, by the 1990s, public schools in the ___ were considerably more segregated than those in the South.

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Carter's emphasis on pursuing ___ solutions to international problems and his willingness to think outside the Cold War framework yielded important results. In 1979, he brought the leaders of Egypt and Israel to then presidential retreat at __ __ and brokered a historic peace agreement, the Camp David Accords, between the two countries. He improved American relations with Latin America by agreeing to a treaty, ratified by the Senate in 1978, that provided for the transfer of the Panama Canal to local ___ by the year 2000 In 1979, he resisted calls for intervention when a popular revolution led by the left-wing ___ movement overthrew Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza, a longtime ally of the United States. Carter attempted to curb the murderous violence of death squads allied to the right-wing government of __ __, and in 1980 he suspended military aid after the murder of four American nuns by members of the country's army. He signed the __ __ agreement with the Soviets, which reduced the number of missiles, bombers, and nuclear warheads Both conservative Cold Warriors and foreign policy "realists" severely criticized Carter's emphasis on human rights. He himself found it impossible to translate ___ into action. He criticized American arms sales to the rest of the world. But with thousands of jobs and billions of dollars in corporate profits at stake, he did nothing to ___ them. The United States continued its support of allies with records of serious human rights ___ such as the governments of Guatemala, the Philippines, South Korea, and Iran. Indeed, the American connection with the __ of Iran, whose secret police regularly jailed and tortured political opponents, proved to be Carter's undoing.

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The abortion issue drew a bitter, sometimes violent line through American ___. It affected battles over nominees to judicial positions and led to __ at family-planning and abortion clinics. The anti-abortion movement won its first __ in 1976 when Congress, over President Ford's veto, ended federal funding for abortions for poor women through the ___ program. By the 1990s, a few fringe anti-abortion activists were placing bombs at medical clinics and murdering doctors who ___ pregnancies. Today, most women continue to have the legal right of access to abortion. But in many areas the procedure became more and more difficult to __ as hospitals and doctors stopped providing it.

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The second half of the 1960s and the 1970s witnessed pivotal developments that reshaped American __-the breakup of the political coalition forged by Franklin D. Roosevelt; an ___ crisis that traditional liberal remedies seemed unable to solve; a shift of ___ and economic resources to conservative strongholds in the Sunbelt of the South and West; the growth of an __, conservative ___ increasingly aligned with the Republican Party; and a series of setbacks for the United States ___. Together, they led to growing popularity for conservatives ideas, including their understanding of freedom.

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The economic crisis contributed to a breakdown of the ___ social compact. Faced with declining profits and rising overseas competition, ___ stepped up the trend, already under way before 1970, toward eliminating well-paid manufacturing jobs through automation and shifting production to low-wage areas of the United States and overseas. The effects on older industrial cities were __. By 1980, Detroit and Chicago had lost more than half the __ jobs that had existed three decades earlier. Smaller industrial cities suffered even sharper declines. As their __ bases shriveled, many found themselves unable to maintain public services In Paterson, New Jersey, where great __ factories had arisen in the early twentieth century, deindustrialization left a landscape of abandoned manufacturing plants. The ___ rate reached 20 percent, the city sold off public library buildings to raise cash, and the schools became so run down and overcrowded that the ___ government took control. The accelerating flow of jobs, investment, and population to the nonunion, low-wage states of the Sunbelt increased the ___ influence of this conservative region Of population growth in ___ areas, during the 1970s, 96 percent occurred in the South and West. San Jose and Phoenix, with populations around 100,000 in 1950, neared 1 million by 1990

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Nixon's ___ policies offer a similarly mixed picture. To consolidate support in the white South, he __ to the Supreme Court Clement Haynsworth and G. Harold Carswell, conservative southern jurists with records of support for ___ . Both were rejected by the Senate. On the other hand, because the courts finally lost patience with southern ___ tactics, extensive racial integration at last came to public schools in the South. In Nixon's first three years in office, the proportion of southern black students attending integrated schools rose from 32 percent to ___ percent.

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By the time the war ended, Richard Nixon was no longer president. His domestic policies and foreign policy successes had contributed greatly to his ___ in 1972 He won a landslide victory over liberal Democrat __ __, receiving 60 percent of the popular vote. Nixon made deep ___ into former Democratic strongholds in the South and among working-class white northerners. He carried every state but __. But his triumph soon turned into disaster. Nixon was obsessed with ___ and could not accept honest difference of opinion. He viewed every critic as a threat to national security and developed an ___ list that included reporters, politicians, and celebrities unfriendly to the administration. When the Pentagon Papers were published, Nixon created a special investigative unit known as the ___ to gather information about __ __, the former government official who had leaked them to the press. The plumbers raided the office of Ellsberg's psychiatrist in search of ___ records. In June 1972, five former employees of Nixon's reelection committee took part in a break-in at Democratic Party headquarters in the Watergate apartment complex in Washington, DC. A security guard called police, who arrested the __.

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In some manufacturing centers, political and economic leaders welcomed the opportunity to ___ their cities as finance, information, and entertainment hubs. In New York, the construction of the __ __ ___, completed in 1977 symbolized this shift in the economy. Until destroyed by ___ twenty-four years later, the 110-story "twin towers" stood as a symbol of New York's grandeur. But to make way for the World Trade Center, the city ___ hundreds of small electronics, printing, and other firms, causing the loss of thousands of manufacturing jobs.

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Reagan ___ the nation's agenda and political language more effectively than any president since Franklin D. Roosevelt. Like FDR, he seized on the vocabulary of his ___ and gave it new meaning. Reagan promised to free the government from control by "special ___," but these were racial minorities, unionists, and others hoping to use Washington's power to attack social inequalities, not businessmen seeking political favors, the traditional target of liberals. His ___ Department made the principle that the Constitution must be "color-___"- a remark hurled at the Supreme Court majority by Justice __ __ in 1896 to challenge a system of legal segregation a justification for gutting civil rights enforcement. Overall, Reagan proved remarkably successful at ___ control of the terms of public debate. On issues ranging from taxes to government spending, national security, crime, welfare, and "traditional values," he put Democrats on the defensive. But he also proved to be a ___, recognizing when to compromise so as not to fragment his diverse coalition of supporters.

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When Earl Warren ___ as chief justice in 1969, Nixon appointed Warren Burger, a federal court-of-appeals judge, to succeed him An outspoken critic of the "judicial ___" of the Warren Court- its willingness to expand old rights and create new ones by ___ acts of Congress and the states- Burger was expected to lead the justices in a conservative direction. But like Nixon, he ___ many of his supporters. While the pace of change slowed, the Burger Court, at least initially, consolidated and expanded many of the judicial ___ of the 1960s. In 1971, in ___ v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, which arose from North Carolina, the justices unanimously approved a lower court's plan that required the extensive ___ of students to achieve school integration The decision led to hundreds of cases in which judges throughout the country ordered the use of ___ as a tool to achieve integration. With many white parents determined to keep their children in neighborhood schools and others willing to move to the suburbs or enroll them in private academies to ___ integration, busing became a lightning rod for protests. One of the most bitter fights took place in ___ in the mid-1970s. Residents of the tightly knit Irish-American community of South Boston demonstrated vociferously and sometimes violently against a busing ___ decreed by a local judge

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In foreign policy, Reagan breathed new life into the ___ division of the world into a tree West and unfree East. He resumed vigorous denunciation of the Soviet Union- calling it an "__ empire" and sponsored the largest military buildup in American history, including new long-range bombers and missiles. In 1988, he proposed an entirely new strategy, the __ __ __, based on developing a space-based system to intercept and destroy enemy missiles. The idea was not remotely feasible technologically, and, if deployed, it would violate the __ __ ___ __ of 1972. But it appealed to Reagan's desire to reassert America's worldwide power. He persuaded __, over much opposition, to introduce short-range nuclear weapons into Europe to counter Soviet forces. But the renewed arms race and Reagan's casual talk of winning a nuclear war caused widespread __ at home and abroad. In the early 1980s, a movement for a nuclear freeze and a halt to the development of __ weapons attracted millions of supporters in the United States and Europe. In 1988, half of the American population watched __ __ __, a television program that unflinchingly depicted the devastation that would be caused by a nuclear war

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Week after week, revelations about the ___ unfolded By mid-1974, it had become clear that whether or not Nixon knew in advance of the Watergate break-in, he had become involved immediately afterward in authorizing ___ to the burglars to remain silent or commit, perjury, and he had ordered the FBI to halt its investigation of the crime. In August 1974, the __ __ Committee voted to recommend that Nixon be impeached for conspiracy to obstruct justice. His political support having ___, Nixon became the only president in history to resign. Nixon's presidency remains a classic example of the ___ of political power In 1978, his vice president, __ __, resigned after revelations that he had accepted bribes from construction firms while serving as governor of Maryland Nixon's attorney general, ___ __, and White House aides H. R Haldeman and John Ehrlichman, were convicted of obstruction of justice in the Watergate affair and went to jail. As for the president, he insisted that he had done nothing __ or at any rate, that previous presidents had also been guilty of lying and illegality

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The ERA debate reflected a division among women as much as a battle of the __. To its supporters, the amendment offered a guarantee of women's freedom in the public __. To its foes, Freedom for women still resided in the divinely appointed __ of wife and mother. __ __, who helped to organize opposition to the ERA, insisted that the "free enterprise system" was the "real liberator of women," since __ home appliances offered more genuine freedom than "whining about past injustices" or seeking fulfillment outside the home. Opponents claimed that the ERA would let men "off the hook" by denying their ___ to provide for their wives and ___ . Polls consistently showed that a majority of Americans, male and female, favored the ERA. But thanks to the mobilization of conservative women, the amendment __ to achieve ratification by the required thirty-eight states.

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Nixon spent lavishly on __ services and ___ initiatives. He __ the Office of Economic Opportunity, which had coordinated Johnson's War on Poverty. But he signed congressional measures that expanded the food stamp program and indexed Social Security benefits to ___- meaning that they would rise automatically as the cost of living increased. The __ __ Act prohibited spending federal funds on any project that might extinguish an animal species, The __ __ Act set air quality standards for carbon monoxide and other chemicals released by cars and factories and led to a dramatic decline in air pollution.

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In his second term, to the ___ of both his foes and supporters, Reagan softened his anticommunist rhetoric and established good relations with Soviet premier __ __. Gorbachev had come to power in 1985, bent on reforming the Soviet Union's repressive political system and reinvigorating its __. The country had fallen further and further behind the United States in the production and distribution of __ goods, and it relied increasingly on agricultural imports to feed itself. Gorbachev inaugurated policies known as glasnost (political openness) and perestroika (economic reform). Gorbachev realized that significant change would be impossible without reducing his country's __ budget. Reagan was ready to negotiate. A series of talks between 1985 and 1987 yielded more progress on __ control than in the entire postwar period to that point, including an agreement to eliminate intermediate- and short-range __ missiles in Europe. In 1988, Gorbachev began pulling Soviet troops out of ___ . Having entered office as an ardent Cold Warrior, Reagan left with hostilities between the superpowers much diminished. He even repudiated his earlier comment that the Soviet Union was an "__ empire," saying that it referred to "another era."

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Reagan came into office determined to overturn the "Vietnam __"-as widespread public reluctance to commit American forces overseas was called. He sent American troops to the Caribbean island of ___ to oust a pro-Cuban government. In 1982, Reagan dispatched marines as a peacekeeping force to __, where a civil war raged between the Christian government, supported by Israeli forces, and Muslim insurgents But he quickly withdrew them after a bomb ___ at their barracks, killing 241 Americans The public, Reagan realized, would support more operations like Grenada but remained unwilling to sustain heavy __ abroad.

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Reagan's opponents often ___ him. By the time he left office at the age of seventy-seven, he had become the ___ man ever to serve as president. He "rose at the crack of noon," as one reporter put it, and relied on his __ to arrange his official schedule. Unlike most modern presidents, he was content to outline broad policy ___ and leave their implementation to others. Reagan, however, was hardly a political ___, having governed California during the turbulent 1960s. He was an excellent public ___, and his optimism and affability appealed to large numbers of Americans. Reagan made conservatism seem __, rather than an attempt to turn back the tide of progress. He frequently quoted Thomas Paine: We have it in our ___ to begin the world over again." Reagan repeatedly invoked the idea that America has a divinely appointed mission as a "beacon of liberty and freedom." Freedom, indeed became the watchword of the Reagan ___ In his public appearances and stare papers, Reagan used the word more often than any president before him

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Public support for the war was rapidly __. In 1969, the New York Times published details of the __ __ massacre of 1968 in which company of American troops killed some 850 South Vietnamese civilians After a military investigation, one soldier, Lieutenant __ __, was found guilty of directing the atrocity. (The courts released him from prison in 1974.) While hardly typical of the behavior of most servicemen, My Lai further undermined public ___ for the war. In 1971, the Times began publishing the __ __, a classified report prepared by the Defense Department that traced American involvement in Vietnam back to World War I and revealed how successive ___ had misled the American people about it. In a landmark freedom-of-the-press decision, the Supreme Court rejected Nixon's request for an injunction to halt ___. In 1978 Congress passed the __ __ Act. The most vigorous assertion of congressional control over ___ policy in the nation's history, it required the president to seek congressional ___ for the commitment of American troops overseas.

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