The world in the 20th century

Arab-Israeli Wars (1948, 1956, 1967, 1973, 1982)

1. Pan-Arabism (nationalism) grew in response to Israel (Israel openly discussed need to expand) Pan-Arabism and Suez Canal nationalization-government expansion of resources and power (1956) 1956-Led to Israeli military build-up -Considerable help from the US 2..Britain, France, & Israel declare war on Egypt (Second Arab-Israeli War) -US and USSR sided with Egypt -Israel's aggressive foreign policy angered Arabs . 1967 - Israel attacked Egypt for supporting Palestinian guerilla attacks -Israel surprise attacked Egypt, Syria, and Lebanon - destroyed air capabilities Led to: 3.Six Day War (Third Arab Israeli War) Israel occupied rest of Palestine Occupied parts of Jordan Occupied Golan Heights (Syria) -PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) emerged as guerrilla/terrorist group for Palestinian liberation (Yasser Arafat-chairman of PLO) 4-1973 Yom Kippur War Arab alliance surprise attacks Israel - indecisive outcome Helped bring down Mapai Party (Israeli left-wing political party) 1978 - Egypt and Israeli sign peace treaty PLO only group left fighting for Palestinians 1994 - Peace process attempted and undermined Hamas attacks Israeli settlements 5-1982-Lebanon War - Israel Defense Forces (IDF) invaded southern Lebanon, after repeated attacks and counter-attacks between the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) operating in southern Lebanon and the IDF which caused civilian casualties on both sides of the border.

Macarthur Era

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peleguismo

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Keynesian and neoliberal economics

Keynesian economics: Who: first presented by British economist John Maynard Keynes. What: The view, and the various theories about why, in the short run (and especially during recessions) economic output (the total value of all goods and services produced in an economy) is strongly influenced by aggregate demand (total spending in the economy). --In the Keynesian view, aggregate demand does not necessarily equal the productive capacity (the maximum possible output-total value) of the economy; instead, it is influenced by a host of factors and sometimes behaves erratically, affecting production, employment, and inflation. -Argued that: private sector decisions sometimes lead to inefficient macroeconomic outcomes which require active policy responses by the public sector -Keynesian economics advocates a mixed economy - predominantly private sector, but with a role for government intervention during recessions. -He saw the economy as unable to maintain itself at full employment and believed that it was necessary for the government to step in and put under-utilised savings to work through government spending. Where: Britain When: 1936, during the Great Depression Why: Keynesian economics served as the standard economic model in the developed nations during the later part of the Great Depression, World War II, and the post-war economic expansion (1945-1973) -lost some influence following the oil shock Neoliberal Economics: Who: Margaret Thatcher (U.K), Ronald Reagan (U.S.) What: Advocates supported extensive economic liberalization policies such as privatization, fiscal austerity (simplicity), deregulation, free trade, and reductions in government spending in order to enhance the role of the private sector in the economy. Where: Britain, U.S. When: 1970s, 1980s. Why: The transition of consensus (general agreement) towards neoliberal policies and the acceptance of neoliberal economic theories in the 1970s are seen by some academics as the root of financialization, with the financial crisis of 2007-08 one of the ultimate results.

United Fruit Company

Who: What: An American corporation that traded in tropical fruit (primarily bananas), grown on Central and South American plantations, and sold them in the United States and Europe. -it came to control vast territories and transportation networks in Central America, the Caribbean coast of Colombia, Ecuador, and the West Indies. -Two crops represent ¾ of CA (central america) exports between 1930-60 1980s, 43% -By 1970, many peasants lost land (because land was used for banana production) -Expansion of export economy led to increased poverty for rural peoples When: 1899-1970 Where: Central and South American plantations Why: -It maintained a virtual monopoly in certain regions, some of which came to be called banana republics, such as Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala. -United Fruit had a deep and long-lasting impact on the economic and political development of several Latin American countries. -Critics often accused it of exploitative neocolonialism, and described it as the archetypal example of the influence of a multinational corporation on the internal politics of the banana republics. -Predecessor to Chiquita Brands International.

transnational

Who: What: Extending or operating across national boundaries Where: When: Why:

1973 Oil Crisis

Who: What: (also known as "first oil crisis" ): members of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC, consisting of the Arab members of the OPEC plus Egypt and Syria) proclaimed an oil embargo (official ban on trade). -The embargo was a response to American involvement in the 1973 Yom Kippur War (Arab-Israeli War). -Six days after Egypt and Syria launched a surprise military campaign against Israel to regain territories lost in the June 1967 Six-Day War, the US supplied Israel with arms. -In response to this, OAPEC announced an oil embargo (ban on trade) against Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the US When: 1973-1974 Where: Canada, Japan, U.S.A., Netherlands, and UK. Why: By the end of the embargo, the price of oil had risen from $3 per barrel to nearly $12 globally, US prices were significantly higher. -The crisis had a major impact on international relations and created a rift (split) within NATO: some European nations and Japan sought to disassociate themselves from United States foreign policy in the Middle East. -The promise of a negotiated settlement between Israel and Syria was enough to convince Arab oil producers to lift the embargo in March 1974.

The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

Who: (Also known as October Crisis) Decision by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev-agreement with Cuban president Fidel Castro. What: confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet ballistic missiles deployed in Cuba. -In response to the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961, and the presence of American Jupiter ballistic missiles in Italy and Turkey against the USSR with Moscow within range, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev decided to agree to Cuba's request to place nuclear missiles in Cuba to deter future harassment of Cuba. -Resolution: After a long time of tense negotiations, an agreement was reached between Kennedy and Khrushchev: publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a U.S. public declaration and agreement never to invade Cuba without direct provocation. Where: Cuba When: 1962, 13 days. Why: It played out on television worldwide and was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war.

Persian Gulf War (1991)

Who: (aka Operation Desert Storm) US intervention in Middle East What: War waged by coalition forces (from different military services) from 34 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait (in 1990). When: 1990-1991 Where: Persian Gulf region Why: Iraq invaded Kuwait: To spread oil wealth among Arabs Fear of US domination after Cold War Fear of demobilizing the army Needed a successful military campaign after Iran War (Up to 1990-US had good relations with Iraq-they had military and oil deals) -1991: US feared that Iraq would invade Saudi Arabia next (so they intervened) -won war quickly : this empowered Hussain (proved US was "bad") -first war with live (CNN) broadcast

Chiang Kaishek

Who: Chinese political and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China between 1928 and 1975. Influential member of the KMT (Chinese nationalist party). -close ally of Sun Ya-tsen. Led China into the Second Sino-Japanese War. What: Was socially conservative, promoting traditional Chinese culture in the New Life Movement and rejecting western democracy and the nationalist democratic socialism that Sun embraced in favour of an authoritarian government. Not able to maintain good relations with the CCP (Chinese Communist Party) -Was in search of a powerful, centralized government (unpopular search). Where: China When: 1928-1931 Why: Under Chiang's leadership, the Nationalists fought a nationwide civil war against the Communists. Defeated by CCP in 1949.

Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916)

Who: (also known as Asia Minor Agreement) the terms were negotiated by the French diplomat François Georges-Picot and Briton Sir Mark Sykes-Secret. -agreement between UK and France. What: Was a secret agreement between the governments of the United Kingdom and France,with the assent (approval) of Russia, defining their proposed spheres of influence and control in the Middle East should the Triple Entente (Russia, France, UK, Ireland) succeed in defeating the Ottoman Empire during World War I. -Britain was allocated (distributed) control of areas roughly comprising the coastal strip between the sea and River Jordan, Jordan, southern Iraq, and a small area including the ports of Haifa and Acre, to allow access to the Mediterranean. -France was allocated (distributed) control of south-eastern Turkey, northern Iraq, Syria and Lebanon. -Russia was to get Istanbul, the Turkish Straits and the Ottoman Armenian vilayets. -The controlling powers were left free to decide on state boundaries within these areas Where: ? When: May 1916 Why: The Russian Tsarist government was a minor party to the Sykes-Picot agreement, and when, following the Russian Revolution of October 1917, the Bolsheviks exposed the agreement, "the British were embarrassed, the Arabs dismayed and the Turks delighted.

Dair Yasin massacre

Who: 120 Zionist fighters What: Around 120 fighters from the Zionist paramilitary groups Irgun and Lehi attacked Deir Yassin near Jerusalem, a Palestinian Arab village of roughly 600 people. -The assault occurred as Jewish militia sought to relieve the blockade of Jerusalem by Palestinian Arab forces during the civil war that preceded the end of British rule in Palestine. When: 1948 Where: Palestine Why: The killings were condemned by the leadership of the Haganah—the Jewish community's main paramilitary force—and by the area's two main rabbis. The Jewish Agency for Israel sent Jordan's King Abdullah a letter of apology, which he rejected. -The deaths became a pivotal event in the Arab-Israeli conflict for their demographic and military consequences. The narrative was embellished and used by various parties to attack each other—by the Palestinians against Israel; by the Haganah to play down their own role in the affair; and by the Israeli left to accuse the Irgun and Lehi of violating the Jewish principle of purity of arms, thus blackening Israel's name around the world

Battle of Algiers (1957)

Who: 3 most influential leaders of FLN movement: Saadi Yacef (founder), Ali La Pointe (killed in action), Larbi Ben M'hidi (executed). What: A campaign of urban guerrilla warfare carried out by the National Liberation Front (FLN) against the French Algerian authorities from late 1956 to late 1957. -The conflict began as a series of terrorist attacks by the FLN against the French forces and civilians in Algiers, reprisals (retaliation) followed and the violence escalated leading the French Governor-General to deploy the French Army in Algiers to suppress the FLN. -Civilian authorities left all prerogatives to General Jacques Massu who, operating outside legal frameworks between January and September 1957, successfully eliminated the FLN from Algiers. When: 1956-1957 Where: Algeria Why: The use of torture, forced disappearances and illegal executions by the French later caused controversy in France. -Political consequences in France: government fell in 1958

Eddie Chibas

Who: A Cuban politician who used radio to broadcast his political views to the public. 1947-formed the Orthodox Reform Party. What: The Orthodox Reform Party had the goal of exposing government corruption and bringing about revolutionary change through constitutional means. -Castro also joined as he considered Chibás as his mentor. -The Orthodox Reform Party worked on Middle Class support. -Eddie Chibas 1952 presidential candidate (came in 3rd place-extremely critical of winner) -Chibas committed suicide on national radio (said because there was no hope of getting rid of Cuban corruption) Where: Cuba When: 1907-1951 Why: Chibás is considered to have had influence on Fidel Castro's views but his name is not mentioned in today's Cuba because he was avowedly (admittedly) anti-communist.

Platt Amendment (1901)

Who: Amendment was introduced to Congress by Senator Orville H. Platt. What: Stipulated seven conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops remaining in Cuba at the end of the Spanish-American War (April-August 1898) and an eighth condition that Cuba sign a treaty accepting these seven conditions. -It defined the terms of Cuban-U.S. relations to essentially be an unequal one of U.S. dominance over Cuba. -Though initially rejected by the Cuban assembly, the amendment was eventually accepted by a vote of 16 to 11 with four abstentions and integrated into the 1902 Cuban Constitution. Where: Cuba When: 1901 Why: According to amendment: Cuban Constitution gave US control over economy and foreign policy and the U.S. military could invade if needed (the US invaded 4 separate times). -Cuban leaders must support and protect U.S. interests: Led to political corruption.

NATO-North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949)

Who: Approved by US. First NATO Secretary General: Lord Ismay (British army officer). What: (Also called North Atlantic Alliance) Military alliance: constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. -Treaty of Brussels, precursor of NATO. -Initial goal of NATO: to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down. First created by non-communist countries to provide collective security against the Soviet Union. -Today: 28 states are members When: 1949-today Where: developed in Washington D.C., headquarters: Brussels, Belgium. Why: The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70 percent of the global total. -The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, which in many cases meant European countries adopting US practices.

Yasser Arafat

Who: Chairman of PLO (Palestinian LIberation Organization) What: -Originally opposed to Israel's existence. -1967- Araft declared "leader of the Palestinians" by Nasser. Where: Palestine When: 1929-2004 Why: Later in his career, Arafat engaged in a series of negotiations with the government of Israel to end the decades-long conflict between it and the PLO: -These included the Madrid Conference of 1991, the 1993 Oslo Accords and the 2000 Camp David Summit. -1994 Arafat received the Nobel Peace Prize

Mao Zedong

Who: Chinese communist revolutionary, founding father of the People's Republic of China. What: Chairman of the Communist Party of China. Had Marxist-Leninist theories, military strategies, and political policies similar to Marxist-Leninist-Maoist thought. Chinese Nationalist, and anti-imperialist outlook. Where: China When: 1893-1976 Why: Chairman of the Communist Party of China until his death. Founding father of the People's Republic of China. Helped found the Red Army, became head of the Communist Party of China during the Long March. -1949-Mao proclaimed the foundation of the People's Republic of China, a single-party state controlled by the CPC. -land reform campaigns against landlords.

Deng Xiaoping

Who: Chinese revolutionary and statesman, successor of Mao Zedong as Chairman of CCP (1981-1987). What: -Led his country through far-reaching market-economy reforms. -Deng became the pre-eminent figure of the "second generation" of Chinese leadership. New regime moved to right: -1972 - opening to West (Nixon visit) -Privatization of peasant land -Opened stock exchange -Allowed US firms into China -1973 oil crisis hardly affected China because they had few foreign loans -opened China to foreign investment, the global market and encouraged private competition. Where: China When: 1904-1997 Why: - He is considered "the architect" of a new brand of socialist thinking, combining the Communist Party's socialist ideology with a pragmatic (sensible) adoption of market economy practices. -Generally credited with developing China into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world for over 35 years and raising the standard of living of hundreds of millions of Chinese citizens. -He was the paramount leader of China from 1978 until his retirement in 1992.

May 4th Movement (1919)

Who: Chinese students and nationalist politicians What: Organized Mass demonstrations because they were enraged with the Entente powers who they had allied with during the war. A prolonged period of protests against Japanese inroads. This protest soon expanded from marches and petitions to include strikes and mass boycotts of Japanese goods. Where: In numerous Chinese cities When: May 4th, 1919 Why: The Entente allies decided to give Japan (who was one of the victorious allies) a hold on northern China by winning control of the former German concessions in the peace negotiations at Versailles.

Tiananmen Square (1989)

Who: Chinese students in Beijing What: Student-led popular demonstrations in Beijing which took place in the spring of 1989 and received broad support from city residents, exposing deep splits within China's political leadership. -The protests were forcibly suppressed by hardline leaders who ordered the military to enforce martial law (the imposition of the highest-ranking military officer as the military governor or as the head of the government) in the country's capital. When: April-June 1989 Where: China Why: The crackdown (government response to the protests) that initiated on June 3-4 became known as the Tiananmen Square Massacre or the June 4 Massacre as troops with assault rifles and tanks inflicted casualties on unarmed civilians trying to block the military's advance towards Tiananmen Square in the heart of Beijing, which students and other demonstrators had occupied for seven weeks. -The Chinese government condemned the protests as a counter-revolutionary riot, and has largely prohibited discussion and remembrance of the events Reason behind protests: -The protests were triggered in April 1989 by the death of former Communist Party General Secretary Hu Yaobang, a liberal reformer who was deposed after losing a power struggle with hardliners over the direction of political and economic reforms -Hu had also voiced grievances against inflation, limited career prospects, and corruption of the party elite (all aligning with wishes from young generation). -The protesters called for government accountability, freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and the restoration of workers' control over industry. Affects to Chinese foreign relations: -The Chinese government was widely condemned internationally for the use of force against the protesters. -Western governments imposed economic sanctions and arms embargoes (ban on trade).

Quit India (1942)

Who: Civil disobedience movement launched by Gandhi, demanding an end to British rule in India. What: Gandhi called Indians to "Do or Die". The All-Indian Congress Committee launched a mass protest demanding an "orderly British withdrawal" from India. Where: India When: 1942-1945 Why: Movement had outside support from American president Roosvelt, who pressured British prime minister Winston Churchill to concede some demands to India. Movement failed, but British government realized that India was non-governable in the long run.

Common Program

Who: Communist Party of China (who was winning the civil war against the KMT) and its eight aligned parties. What: -an interim (temporary) Constitution, specifying the structure of the new government, and determining the name and symbols of the new state. -also elected leaders of the new central government, including Mao Zedong as Chairman of the Central People's Government. -The People's Republic of China government functioned for the next five years under the Common Program, with a degree of democracy and inclusion that was not seen again in Chinese government to the present day Under the Common Program: -Freedom of speech, press, association, etc. - except "reactionaries" (conservatives) -Equal rights for women -Democratic dictatorship of working class -Stop inflation, raise agricultural production, rebuild and expand industry -Land reform program sought to eliminate old landed elite (40% of cultivated land redistributed to 60% of population) -CCP promoted violent confrontation with landlords When: 1949 Where: China Why: After the end of the conference, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 October 1949.

Suez Canal

Who: Construction of the Suez Canal, contributing to the first phase of globalization. What: Vital in cutting time off world travel. Relatively open borders (tariffs were low in many places, and rigid passport controls had yet to come into play) also facilitated global trade and migration. -Suez Crisis (1956)-invasion of Egypt by Israel, Britain and France: . The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal and to remove Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser from power. US, USSR, and UN forced invaders to withdraw. Attacked again-Egyptian forces were defeated but they did manage to block the Suez Canal to all shipping (closed from 1956-1957) US not happy. Where: Egypt When: 1869 Why: Movement of people and goods could occur on a far bigger scale, and faster, than ever before. 1948 Arab Nations boycotted Suez Canal route. -Suez Crisis: signified the end of Great Britain's role as one of the world's major powers

Fidel Castro

Who: Cuban politician and revolutionary who served as Prime Minister of the Republic of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and then President from 1976 to 2008. What: -Cuban nationalist (not communist) -Widespread support - populist alliance -Incorporated rural lower and urban middle -Under his administration, Cuba became a one-party socialist state (under rule of Communist Party); industry and business were nationalized, and state socialist reforms were implemented throughout society. When: 1926-today Where: Cuba Why: -Fidel Castro implemented revolution: -Reforms favored rural lower class -Urban middle class also received benefits 15% increase in wages Lower utility costs -Other Revolutionary reforms End to racial discrimination Limited importation of luxury items Middle-class withdrew support -Moderate land reform program with compensation (money awarded for loss of land).

Constitution of 1917

Who: Drafted by the constitutional convention, during the Mexican Revolution. What: The political constitution of the United Mexican states, the current constitution of Mexico. Approved by the Constitutional Congress by 1917. -Restricted Roman Catholic Church, established the basis for a free, mandatory, and secular education, empowered the labor sector. Where: Queretaro, Mexico. When: February 1917 Why: First document in the world to set out social rights, model for the Weimar Constitution of 1919. -Display profound changes in Mexican political philosophy that helped frame the political and social backdrop for Mexico in the twentieth century.

Washington Consensus

Who: English economist John Williamson What: A set of 10 economic policy prescriptions considered to constitute the "standard" reform package promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, D.C.-based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and the US Treasury Department. -Fiscal policy discipline, Redirection of public spending (health care, education), Tax reform, Interest rates (determined and positive), competitive exchange rates, Trade liberalization, liberalization of inward foreign direct investment, Privatization of state enterprises, deregulation: abolition of regulations that impede market entry or restrict competition, Legal security for property rights. Where: Washington, D.C. Why: Williamson used the term to summarize commonly shared themes among policy advice by Washington-based institutions at the time, such as the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and U.S. Treasury Department, which were believed to be necessary for the recovery of countries in Latin America from the economic and financial crises of the 1980s When: Invented in 1989

Kwame Nkrumah

Who: First Prime Minister and President of Ghana (1960-1966), icon of Pan-Africanism. What: Led Ghana to independence from Britain in 1957 -first gained power as leader of the colonial Gold Coast, and held it until he was deposed in 1966. -envisioned himself as African Lenin Political philosophy: against capitalism, -non-aligned Marxist perspective on economics -argued that socialism was the system that would best accommodate the changes that capitalism had brought, while still respecting African values. -Hoped to promote socialist, state-led development When: 1909-1972 Where: Ghana Why: founding member of the Organization of African Unity. -winner of the Lenin Peace Prize in 1963.

Greco-Turkish War (1920-22)

Who: Fought between Greece and the Turkish National Movement during the partitioning (dividing) of the Ottoman Empire. What: -The Greek campaign was launched primarily as the western Allies, particularly British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, had promised Greece territorial gains at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. -The armed conflict started with the Greek occupation of Smyrna, which is contemporary Izmir, on 15 May 1919, and Greek forces occupied several other cities in Anatolia during the war, including Manisa, Balıkesir, Aydin, Kütahya, Bursa, and Eskişehir, but their advance was checked at the Battle of Sakarya in 1921. -The Greek front collapsed with the Turkish counter-attack on August 1922 and the war effectively ended with the re-capture of Smyrna by the Turkish forces. Where: Anatolia (Now Republic of Turkey) When: 1920-1922 Why: Results: the Greek government accepted the demands of the Turkish national movement and returned to its pre-war borders, thus leaving East Thrace and Western Anatolia to Turkey. -end to the Occupation of Constantinople by the British forces. -Greek and Turkish governments agreed to engage in a population exchange. -Treaty of Lausanne (1923)-recognized the independence of the Republic of Turkey and its sovereignty over Asia Minor, Constantinople, and Eastern Thrace.

Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

Who: Founded by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao What: Founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China. Now the sole governing party of China. Ideology: communism, socialism with Chinese characteristics. - Modeled on Vladimir Lenin's theory of a vanguard party -Communist wing of KMT (nationalist) party-split with rise of right-wing leader Chiang. Where: China When: 1921-today Why: Drove the KMT government from mainland China after a 10-year civil war, leading to the establishment of the People's Republic of China. -Currently the world's second largest political party.

Baath Party

Who: Founded by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar What: ideology mixing Arab nationalism, pan-Arabism, Arab socialism and anti-imperialist interests. -calls for unification of the Arab world into a single state. -motto:"Unity, Liberty, Socialism"- Arab unity + freedom from non-Arab control and interference (interaction) Where: Syria When: 1947-1966 Why: Quickly established branches in other Arab countries (main power held in Iraq and Syria) -became the second-largest party in the Syrian parliament in the 1954 election. This, coupled with the increasing strength of the Syrian Communist Party, led to the establishment of the United Arab Republic (UAR).

Guomindang (Nationalists)

Who: Founded by Sun-Yatsen out of the Revolutionary Alliance-opposed the Qing Dinasty. What: Also known as the Kuomintag, the nationalist party of China. Term is in Mandarin. Sun stated his political position in terms of Three Principles of the People: nationalism, democracy, and economy (socialism). Where: China When: 1912 Why: Became KMT party-joined with CCP until civil war. -Promotes Confucianism against materialist individualism -unfamiliar with peasants

Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO)

Who: Founded by the Arab League What: An organization founded in 1964 with the purpose of the "liberation of Palestine" through armed struggle. Initially committed terrorist attacks in Israel. Where: Palestine When: 1964 Why: considered by the United States and Israel to be a terrorist organization until the Madrid Conference in 1991.

National Liberation Front (FLN)

Who: Founder Ahmed Ben Bella (1916-2012) -also first Algerian president. What: A socialist political party in Algeria. Set up as a merger of other smaller groups, to obtain independence for Algeria from France. -Started out as 1945 violence spurred independence movement led by FLN When: 1945-today Where: Algeria Why: The principal nationalist movement during the Algerian War of Independence and the sole legal ruling political party of the Algerian state until other parties were allowed in 1989.

Indian National Congress

Who: Founder: Allan Ocativain Humme. Ghandi, promoted peaceful reform. What: Considered to be the largest and most prominent Indian public organization, from its foundation to India's independence in 1947. Indian nationalist movement opposed to British rule. Where: India When: 1885-1947 Why: Central and vital for the success of the Indian Independence Movement (1757-1947), fought first against the East India Company rule and then against the British Raj.

Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)

Who: Founder: Ichirō Hatoyama, Japanese politician and 3-time Prime Minister of Japan. What: (also known as LDP) A major conservative political party in Japan. -Formed as a merger between two of Japan's political parties: the Liberal Party and the Japan Democratic Party: both right-wing conservative parties, as a united front against the then popular Japan Socialist Party. -Party won following elections, making it the first conservative government in Japan. -The LDP began with reforming Japan's international relations, ranging from entry into the United Nations, to establishing diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union. When: 1955-today Where: Why: One of the most consistently successful political parties in the world, having continuously been in power since its foundation in 1955, with the exception of a brief 11-month period between 1993 and 1994, and from 2009 to 2012.

The Third World

Who: French demographer, anthropologist and historian Alfred Sauvy invented term. What: A way of broadly categorizing the nations of the Earth into three groups based on social, political, cultural and economic divisions. -Arose during the Cold War to define countries that remained non-aligned with either NATO (Belgium, Canada, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the United States,etc.), or the Communist Bloc (Soviet Union, and Communist countries of Eastern Europe). First World: US, and Western Allies Second World: Soviet Union, Cuba, China, and allies Third World: include many countries with colonial pasts in Africa, Latin America, Oceania and Asia. -(Dependency Theory): Third World has also been connected to the world economic division as "periphery" countries in the world system that is dominated by the "core" countries. -Third World countries were extremely poor, and non-industrialized. Where: Countries non-aligned with either NATO or the Communist blockade (previously colonial countries and neutral countries-i.e.: FInland, Sweden, etc) When: Cold War (1947-1991) Why: It became a stereotype to refer to poor countries as "third world countries."

Lazaro Cardenas (1934-40)

Who: General in the Mexican Revolution, served as President of Mexico (1934-1940) What: Re-examined agrarian reform, created ejidos (areas of communal land used for agriculture) which gave peasants access to land, but did not give individual titles to it. Integrated the Mexican army into the Mexican Revolution Party. Where: Mexico When: 1895-1970 Why: Nationalized the oil industry (1838), created Permex (the Mexican government oil monopoly)

Manchuko (1932-1945)

Who: Governed under Quing Dynasty-homeland of the ruling family's ethnic group What: A puppet state in Northeast China and Inner Mongolia, governed under a form of Constitutional Monarchy. Where: Northeast China and Inner Mongolia. When: 1932-1945 Why: 1931-seized by Japan, 1 year later pro-Japanese government instituted under emperor Puyi (the last Qing emperor).

March to Sea- Salt March (1930)

Who: Indians protesting British civil rule in India, led by Gandhi. What: Act of civil disobedience led by Gandhi to protest British civil rule in India. During the march, thousands of Indians followed Gandhi from his religious retreat near Ahmedabad to the Arabian Sea coast. Where: India When: March-April 1930 Why: Britain's salt acts prohibited Indians from selling salt, a staple in the Indian diet. Indians were forced to buy it from the British (with tax)-so they decided to march to non-violently defy Britain's salt act. Resulted in the arrest of 600,000 people including Gandhi himself. This incident (which was recorded by american journalists) promoted widespread outcry against British policy in India.

keiretsu

Who: Japanese What: A type of informal business group (a collection of parent and subsidiary corporations that function as a single economic entity through a common source of control.) A set of companies with interlocking business relationships and shareholdings. -The member companies own small portions of the shares in each other's companies, centered on a core bank; this system helps insulate (protect) each company from stock market fluctuations and takeover attempts, thus enabling long-term planning in innovative projects. It is a key element of the automotive (self-reliant) industry in Japan. -Introduced state-led development Low interest loans and subsidies to spur new technology sector. Where: Japan When: 1952 Why: The keiretsu maintained dominance over the Japanese economy for the last half of the 20th century - The preferential buying habits of the keiretsu kept foreign investors and foreign goods out of their markets, which America criticized as "barriers to free trade". -By 1960s, Japan was the world's 3d largest producer.

World Bank (WB)

Who: John Maynard Keynes (Britain) and Harry Dexter White (U.S.) considered the "founding fathers" of the World Bank What: International bank that seeks to promote economic growth and development. Made up of 2 institutions: ( International Bank for Reconstruction and Development-IBRD): loans to middle-income developing countries. (International Development Association-IDA): offers concessional loans and grants to the world's poorest developing countries. Where: Washington, D.C. When: 1944-today Why: The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty.

Pan-Africanism

Who: Kwame Nkrumah (1909-1972), an icon of Pan-Africanism. What: An ideology and movement that encourages the solidarity of Africans worldwide. Based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, and political progress and aims to "unify and uplift" people of African descent. -The ideology asserts that the fate of all African peoples and countries are intertwined. -Belief that African peoples, both on the continent and in the diaspora (other non-African countries), share not merely a common history, but a common destiny. Belief: Solidarity will enable self-reliance, allowing the continent's potential to independently provide for its people to be fulfilled. Crucially, an all-African alliance would empower African people globally. -Supporters of Pan-Africanism: often champion socialist principles and tend to be opposed to external political and economic involvement on the continent. Where: Africa When: from start of 20th century Why: Led to the organization of African Unity (now the African Union), established in 1963. Goal: United, African nations will have the economic, political and social clout (power) to act and compete on the world stage as do other large entities, such as the European Union and the United States.

Fllahin (peasantry)

Who: Large peasantry who worked (picked) the Egyptian cotton for export, under British command. What: Egypt British unofficial colony: Major supplier of cotton - 80% of Egypt's exports. Where: Egypt When: 1883 Why: After Civil war-Britain became interested in Egypt (cotton tariffs)- made cotton more expensive when sold from abroad.

Revolution of 1930

Who: Led by the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais, Paraíba and Rio Grande do Sul. -Getulio Vegas assumed leadership of the provisional government. What: Armed movement against Brazil's Old Republic culminating in a coup (sudden and illegal seizure of a state). Where: Brazil When: October 1930 Why: Cause: 1929- Sao Paolo leaders broke "coffee with milk policy" with the people from Minas Gerais. Outcome: Expelled Old Republic President Washington Louis, and brought end to Old Republic.

Balfour Declaration (1917)

Who: Letter from the United Kingdom's Foreign Secretary, Arthur James Balfour, to Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community. What: Confirming support from the British government for the establishment in Palestine of a "national home" for the Jewish people ( Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland.) -Balfour stated: it is to be clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country -Was published in the press one week later When: 1917 Where: Britain Why: The "Balfour Declaration" was later incorporated into both the Sèvres peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire, and the Mandate for Palestine. -The declaration was in contrast to the McMahon-Hussein correspondence, which promised the Arab independence movement control of the Middle East territories "in the limits and boundaries proposed by the Sherif of Mecca" in exchange for revolting against the Ottoman Empire.

Cultural Revolution (1966)

Who: Mao Zedong (although he did step down as Chairman of CCP after Great Leap Forward) What: A social-political movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from 1966 until 1976. -stated goal was to preserve 'true' Communist ideology in the country by purging (getting rid of) remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society, and to re-impose Maoist thought as the dominant ideology within the Party. Where: China When: 1966-1968 Why: Results: The Revolution was launched in May 1966, after Mao alleged that bourgeois elements had infiltrated the government and society at large, aiming to restore capitalism. He insisted that these "revisionists" (conservatives) be removed through violent class struggle. -China's youth responded to Mao's appeal by forming Red Guard groups around the country. -The movement spread into the military, urban workers, and the Communist Party leadership itself. Negative aftermath: -Peasants, students, and military attack conservative wing of CCP -Attacked old customs and Western traditions alike -1968, movement out of control - Mao stopped it.

Great Leap Forward (1958)

Who: Mao Zedong, Chairman of CCP What: an economic and social campaign by the Communist Party of China (CPC)-led by Mao Zedong. -aimed to rapidly transform the country from an agrarian economy into a socialist society through rapid industrialization and collectivization. Where: China When: 1958-1961 Why: results: -Industrialization outgrew agriculture production, Private markets allowed peasants to sell foodstuffs, Shifted industrial production to countryside, Mass collectivization (forced consolidation of individual peasant households into collective farms). -Industry = 43% of national income. -Some critics consider this campaign to have caused the Great Chinese Famine (20 million people died).

CNC-National Confederation of Peasants

Who: Mexican President Lazaro Cardenas What: To provide a political base for the land-redistribution program (extended the services of government banks so that the peasants who had received land under the reform could borrow money.) When: 1938 Where: Mexico Why: Allowed peasants a meaningful voice through political structure.

Getulio Vargas (1930-40)

Who: President of Brazil (1930-1945 dictator), and in a democratically elected term (1951-1954). What: Favored nationalism, industrialization, centralization, social welfare. He incorporated urban working and the middle class. -"Father of the poor": proponent of workers' rights as well as a staunch anti-communist. -Brought to power by Armed Forces in the Revolution of 1930. - Brought an end to the (coffee with milk) oligarchic Old Republic. -instituted an authoritarian corporatist regime in 1937 known as the New State, prolonging his hold on power. -Vargas sought to transform Brazil from a plantation-based economy into an industrialized powerhouse under the guidance of the government intervention. When: 1930-1940 Where: Brazil Why: Led Brazil for 18 years, the longest term of any president. -His policies shaped the Brazilian economic debate for decades -Was the first president in the country to draw widespread support from the masses and is regarded as the most influential Brazilian politician of the twentieth century.

Jacobo Arbenz (1951-54)

Who: President of Guatemala (1951-1954) What: -expanded right to vote, the ability of workers to organize, legitimizing political parties, and allowing public debate. -centerpiece of his policy was an agrarian reform law that granted cultivable land to poverty stricken peasants in an attempt to end the system of debt peonage (a person's pledge of their labor or services as security for the repayment for a debt or other obligation.) -Arbenz promoted social reform for rural lower class Two goals: 1.Reduce social and economic inequality 1.Independent pattern of capitalist economic development Where: Guatemala When: 1951-1954 Why: Major figure in the Guatemalan Revolution (1944-1954). -His popular policies ran in conflict with the United Fruit Company. -(1954) Árbenz was ousted (expelled) in a coup d'état engineered by the United States Department of State and the Central Intelligence Agency.

Efrain Rios Montt

Who: President of Guatemala from 1982 to 1983. What: -corrupt and US-backed, came to presidency through US coup d'état on March 23, 1982, with exile of former president Arbenz. -presidency marked by Guatemalan Civil War (Marxist rebels vs. Guatemalan state) -Rios' policy during the civil war: Ríos Montt is best known outside Guatemala for being tried for heading a military regime (1982-1983) that was partly responsible for having defeated the guerrillas through the "guns and beans" campaign, maintaining "If you are with us, we'll feed you, if not, we'll kill you" When: 1982-1983 Where: Guatemala Why: Committed genocide (backed by Reagan): -documented widespread human rights abuses committed by Ríos Montt's military regime, including widespread massacres, rape, torture, and acts of genocide against the indigenous population.

The Long March (1934/50)

Who: Red Army of the Communist Party of China. What: military retreat undertaken by the Red Army of the Communist Party of China, the forerunner of the People's Liberation Army to avoid the pursuit of the KMT army. There was not one long march but a series of marches, as various Communist armies in the South escaped to the north and west. Where: China, from Jiangxy to Shaanxi When: 1934-1935 Why: Came to represent a significant episode in the history of the Communist Party of China, and would seal the personal prestige of Mao and his supporters as the new leaders of the party in the following decades.

Evian Accords (1962)

Who: Signed by France and the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic. What: A treaty which was signed on 18 March 1962 in Évian-les-Bains, France by France and the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic, the government-in-exile of FLN (Front de Libération Nationale) which sought Algeria's independence from France. -Consisted of 93 pages of detailed agreements and arrangements. In essence, these covered cease-fire arrangements, prisoner releases, the recognition of full sovereignty and right to self-determination of Algeria, in addition to guarantees of protection, non-discrimination, and property rights for all Algerian citizens. When: 1962 Where: Évian-les-Bains, France Why: The Accords ended the 1954-62 Algerian War with a formal ceasefire proclaimed for 19 March, and formalized the idea of cooperative exchange between the two countries.

East and West Pakistan

Who: The "One Unit" policy was instituted by the governor of Pakistan and announced by Prime Minister Chaudhry Muhammad Ali. What: After gaining independence from the British, the state of Pakistan was clearly separated: with the western and eastern wings separated from each other by the Republic of India. West Pakistan adopted the stance that it was the TRUE Pakistan (it comprised 3 Governor's Provinces). Western wing was politically dominant. -The "One Unit" program (instituted by the Pakistani government) was believed to be enacted after the government faced difficulty of administering the two unequal organized societies (polities) of Pakistan separated from each other by more than a thousand miles. -To diminish the differences between the two regions, the program merged the Four Provinces of West Pakistan into a single province as was the case with East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). Where: Pakistan/India When: 1954-1970 Why: After the Cold War, West Pakistan emerged as one of South Asia's largest economies and military powers. West Pakistan's economy boomed and at its highest peak it was called the "West Germany of East." Its economic progress was only limited to the western side, and the majority of promised funds for East Pakistan were never issued. -West Pakistan was re-named "Pakistan" and East Pakistan became the new country of Bangladesh.

Jawaharal Nehru

Who: The Prime Minister of India, and central figure in Indian politics before and after independence. What: He emerged as the paramount leader of the Indian independence movement under the tutelage of Mahatma Gandhi and ruled India from its establishment as an independent nation in 1947 until his death in 1964 When: 1889-1964 Where: India Why: considered to be the architect of the modern Indian nation-state: a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic.

1911 (Chinese) Revolution

Who: The Revolutionary Alliance, a group of nationalist revolutionaries in Southern China What: Led a successful revolt against the Qing Dynasty. Ended the imperial system and established in its place the Republic of China. Where: China/revolutionaries in Southern China When: 1899-1913 Why: Ended Chinese imperial system, new president: Sun Yat-Sen

Warsaw Pact (1955)

Who: The Supreme Commander was Peter Lushev What: Was a collective defense treaty among eight communist states of Central and Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War, led by the USSR. -primarily motivated by Soviet desires to maintain control over military forces in Central and Eastern Europe. When: 1955-1991 Where: Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Soviet Union, and Albania. Why: The Warsaw Pact was in part a Soviet military reaction to the integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955, by the Paris Pact of 1954. -the Pact failed to function when the Revolutions of 1989 spread through Eastern Europe

Mohandas Gandhi

Who: The distinguished leader of the Indian Independence Movement in British-ruled India. What: Employed nonviolent civil disobedience. Led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. Where: India When: 1869-1948 Why: Leadership of Indian Independence Movement, philosophy of nonviolence/pacifism.

cafe-com-leite politics (1889-1930)

Who: The first presidents of the Old Republic were from São Paulo and thereafter succeeded by an alternation (every 4 years) between the outgoing governors of the two leading states in the presidency. What: Term that referred to the domination of Brazilian politics under the Old Republic (1889-1930) by the landed gentries of São Paulo (dominated by the coffee industry) and Minas Gerais (dominated by dairy interests). Sao Paulo was stronger. When: 1889-1930 Where: Brazil Why: Under Brazil's Old Republic, the patron-client political machines of the countryside enabled agrarian oligarchs, especially coffee planters in the dominant state of São Paulo, to dominate state structures to their advantage, particularly the weak central state structures that effectively transferred power to local agrarian oligarchies.

David Ben-Gurion

Who: The primary founder of the State of Israel and the first Prime Minister of Israel. What: Major Zionist leader and Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization in 1946 -leader of the Jewish community in Palestine, and largely led its struggle for an independent Jewish state in Mandatory Palestine. When: in office 1955-1963 Where: Israel/Palestine Why: 1948, he formally proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel, and was the first to sign the Israeli Declaration of Independence, which he had helped to write.

Zionism

Who: Theodor Herzl is considered the founder of the Zionism movement. What: A nationalist and political movement of Jews and Jewish culture that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel (roughly corresponding to Palestine, Canaan or the Holy Land). -Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in central and eastern Europe as a national revival movement, called Hovevei Tziyon -Advocated the return of Jews to Israel as a means for Jews to be a majority nation in their own state -Most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the desired state in Palestine, then an area controlled by the Ottoman Empire. Where: central and eastern Europe When: Late 19th century Why: The primary goals of Zionism until 1948, were the re-establishment of Jewish sovereignty in the Land of Israel: ingathering of the exiles, and liberation of Jews from the antisemitic discrimination and persecution that occurred in their diaspora (disperse from the holly land). -Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and address threats to its continued existence and security.

Knesset

Who:? What: Israeli-established democratic parliament. Knesset passes all laws, elects the President and Prime Minister (although the latter is ceremonially appointed by the President), approves the cabinet, and supervises the work of the government. Name has biblical origins. Where: Jerusalem When: 1949 Why: First Israeli-established democratic parliament. -Tel Aviv -1919-1939 (World's first Jewish-only city (very prosperous Jewish community emerges)

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

Who: UN, specifically American Harry Dexter White. What: The world's central bank. -goal of reconstructing the international payment system. Today: -Countries contribute funds to a pool through a quota system from which countries experiencing balance of payments difficulties can borrow money. -an international organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., of "188 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world. Where: Washington, D.C. When: 1945-today Why: During the Great Depression (1929-1939), countries sharply raised barriers to trade in an attempt to improve their failing economies. This led to the devaluation (lowering of monetary value) of national currencies and a decline in world trade. This breakdown in international monetary co-operation created a need for oversight. -The IMF was one of the key organisations of the international economic system; its design allowed the system to balance the rebuilding of international capitalism with the maximisation of national economic sovereignty and human welfare.

Pan-Arabism

Who: Under Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser, pan-Arabism dominated politics in the 1950s and 1960s. What: An ideology espousing (supporting) the unification of the countries of North Africa and West Asia from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea, referred to as the Arab world. -closely connected to Arab nationalism, asserts that the Arabs constitute a single nation. When: 1950s, 1960s Where: Egypt Why: United Arab Republic (UAR-Union between Egypt, Syria, and Iraq) in 1958 was the first case of the actual merger of two previously independent Arab countries lasted until 1961. President of union was Nassar.

Iraq-Iran War (1980-88)

Who: Under Hussein What: Was an armed conflict between the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Republic of Iraq lasting from September 1980 1988, making it the 20th century's longest conventional war (doesn't include Cold War). Where: Iraq/Iran When: 1980-1988 Why: began when Iraq invaded Iran via air and land on 22 September 1980 (Husain feared Iran-supported Shii groups and Wanted greater power in the region.) -motivated by fears that the Iranian Revolution in 1979 would inspire insurgency among Iraq's long-suppressed Shia majority, as well as Iraq's desire to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state. Results : -Hundreds of thousands killed yet war resulted in stalemate (deadlock: no action or progression can be made at this point) -US and USSR sold arms to both sides

1938 Nationalization of Oil

Who: Under Mexican president Lazaro Cardenas. What: Nationalized Mexico's oil fields. In 1938, President Cardenas expropriated all the nation's oil production from foreign entities, namely the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and the United States. When: 1938-today (now national holiday) Where: Mexico Why: Was widely popular in Mexico: -Support from all sectors of society -Secured and widened populist alliance -Britain and the US boycott

Estado Novo

Who: Under leadership of Getulio Vargas. What: Also known as "New Estate" -period of leadership after the Revolution of 1930 when Brazil was under the command of President Vegas. 3 successive phases: 1-The period of the Provisional Government (1930-1934)-Vegas governed, pending the adoption of the new Constitution for Brazil. 2-The period of the Constitution of 1934-when, in the wake of the adoption of a new Constitution by the Constituent Assembly of 1933-34, Vargas - elected by the Constituent Assembly under the transitional provisions of the Constitution - governed as President, alongside a democratically elected Legislature. 3-Estado Novo period (1937-1945), that began when, in order to perpetuate (preserve) his rule, Vargas imposed a new, authoritarian Constitution in a coup d'état, and shut down Congress, assuming dictatorial powers: -Presidency was due to expire: in order to keep his power Vargas made a radio address in which he said there was a communist plot to overthrow the government (Cohen Plan) -In reality, however, Plano Cohen was forged in the government with the objective of creating a favourable atmosphere for Vargas to stay in power, perpetuating his rule and assuming dictatorial powers. -In his address of 10 November 1937, Vargas, invoking the supposed Communist threat, performed several acts that were contrary to the 1934 Constitution: he decreed a state of emergency, dissolved the Legislature, and announced the adoption by Presidential fiat of a new, severely authoritarian Constitution, that effectively placed all governing power in his hands. The 1934 Constitution was thus abolished, and Vargas proclaimed the establishment of a "Estado Novo" (New State). Where: Brazil When: 1937-1945 Why: Under this dictatorial regime the powers of the National Security Tribunal were streamlined, and it focused on the prosecution of political dissenters (who didn't agree with the New Estate of Vargas.

Bretton Woods Agreement (1946-1948)

Who: United Nations What: A landmark system for monetary and exchange rate management established in 1944. The Bretton Woods Agreement was developed at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, from July 1 to July 22, 1944. Where: Bretton Woods, New Hampshire (U.S.) When: 1946-1948 Why: Major outcomes of the Bretton Woods conference included: -the formation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and -the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (WB) -most importantly, the proposed introduction of an adjustable pegged (fixed) foreign exchange rate system.

Marshall Plan (1947)

Who: United States (largely the creation of state department officials)-Named after general George Marshall (who had the idea-presented it in commencement speech at Harvard University, as Secretary of State). What: (also known as European Recovery Program-ERP) Was an American initiative to aid Western Europe, in which the United States gave $13 billion (approximately $130 billion in current dollar value as of August 2015) in economic support to help rebuild Western European economies after the end of World War II (in an effort to avoid another World War.) -Aid was divided among the participant states, roughly on a per capita (for each person, in relation to people taken individually) basis. Larger amount given to major industrial powers. -largest recipient of Marshall Plan money was the United Kingdom (receiving about 26% of the total), followed by France (18%) and West Germany (11%). Where: When: 1947-1951 Why: -Avoided radicalism in war-torn regions -By providing economic assistance to nations including the USSR, the United States was informing nations of the squalid and depraved conditions that they lived in. In order to combat the effects of the Marshall Plan, the USSR developed and forcefully imposed its own economic plan, known as the Molotov Plan (system created to provide aid to rebuild the countries in Eastern Europe that were politically and economically aligned to the Soviet Union) Results: The years 1948 to 1952 saw the fastest period of growth in European history. Industrial production increased by 35%. Agricultural production substantially surpassed pre-war levels. (overall pretty successful)

Nuri al-Said

Who: Was an Iraqi politician during the British Mandate (Iraq under British control) and during the Kingdom of Iraq (1921-1932: under British control). He served in various key cabinet positions, and served eight terms as Prime Minister of Iraq. What: he signed the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, which, as a step toward greater independence, granted Britain the unlimited right to station its armed forces in and transit military units through Iraq. It also gave legitimacy to British control of the country's oil industry. When: 1888-1958 Where: Iraq Why: Throughout his career Nuri was a supporter of a continued and extensive British role within Iraq. These policies were always matters of great (hateful disagreement). -1958, the day after the republican revolution, he attempted to flee the country disguised as a woman, but was captured and killed. -under his leadership, Iraq was allied to the US during the Cold War

Mustafa Kemal-Ataturk

Who: a Turkish army officer, revolutionary, and the first President of Turkey. What: Fought in World War I and led the Turkish National Movement in the Turkish War of Independence (1919-1923). His military campaigns led to victory in the Turkish War of Independence. - Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern and secular (non-religious) nation-state. -The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism. Where: Turkey When: 1923-1939 Why: Credited with being the founder of the Republic of Turkey -Under his leadership, thousands of new schools were built, primary education was made free and compulsory, and women were given equal civil and political rights, while the burden of taxation on peasants was reduced

glasnost and perestroika

Who: based on Mikhail Gorbachev's (8th and last leader of the soviet union) "openness" reform policy What: - perestroika=restructuring (in Russian), referring to the reconstruction of the Soviet political and economic systems. -A political movement for reformation within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the 1980s, widely associated with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and his glasnost (meaning "openness") policy reform. Based on increased government transparency. -Perestroika allowed more independent actions from various ministries and introduced some market-like reforms. -Goal of Perestroika: to make socialism work more efficiently to better meet the needs of Soviet consumers. When: 1980s Where: Soviet Union Why: Perestroika is sometimes argued to be a cause of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe, and the end of the Cold War. -The process of implementing perestroika arguably exacerbated already existing political, social, and economic tensions within the Soviet Union and no doubt helped to further nationalism in the constituent republics (forming Soviet Union).

Saddam Husain

Who: fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 1979-2003. What: - leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party -1980-1988 took over Baath Party Under his leadership: -Killed opponents -Semblance of democracy -Women played central role in party -Some Shiis and Kurds co-opted -Dramatic urbanization (2/3 of the population) -Baath Party controlled unions, schools, government posts, etc. -In the early 1970s, Saddam nationalized oil and other industries. Where: Iraq When: 1937-2006 Why: Saddam cemented his authority over the apparatuses of government as oil money helped Iraq's economy to grow at a rapid pace.

Chinese Civil War (1927-50)

Who: forces loyal to the Kuomintang (KMT)-led government of the Republic of China vs. forces loyal to the Communist Party of China (CPC) What: The war represented an ideological split between the Communist CPC and the KMT's brand of nationalism. Where: China When: 1927-1936/1946-1950 Why: In 1950, the People's Republic of China, controlling mainland China, won the war. Communist party still rules china today.

Hundred Flowers Movement (1956)

Who: implemented by Mao Zedong (Communist Party Chairman) What: Was a period in 1956 in the People's Republic of China during which the Communist Party of China (CPC) encouraged its citizens to openly express their opinions of the communist regime. Differing views and solutions to national policy were encouraged based on the famous expression by Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong: "The policy of letting a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend is designed to promote the flourishing of the arts and the progress of science." Where: China When: 1956 Why: Sought to promote intellectual discussion and debate about revolution ( encouraged its citizens to openly express their opinions of the communist regime.) -Taught people basics of communism -Led to anti-government reaction Result: The crackdown continued through 1957 as an Anti-Rightist Campaign against those who were critical of the regime and its ideology. Those targeted were publicly criticized and condemned to prison labor camps. Mao remarked at the time that he had "enticed the snakes out of their caves."

Khedives (prices)

Who: princes of Egypt (puppets through whom Britain ruled)-offered benefits in return. What: Rule over Egypt, guided by British interests Where: Egypt When: 1833 Why: 1883 military rebellion threatens British interests Send in troops - stay until 1922 -had to rule through princes

Rowlatt Acts (1919)

Who: the Imperial Legislative Council-a legislature for British India. What: also known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, a legislative act passed by the Imperial Legislative Council in Delhi, India. Authorized the government to imprison any person suspected of terrorism living in the Raj for up to two years without a trial, gave the imperial authorities power to deal with all revolutionary activities. Where: Delhi, India. When: 1919, repealed in 1922. Why: Enacted in light of perceived threats from revolutionary nationalist organizations.

Settler and non-settler colonies

Who:? What: -In settler colonies, land and resources where appropriated (devoted ) for the benefit of the European descendants who had no intention of returning to the motherland (ex: South Africa, Zimbabwe). Led to (inter-racial breeding) and a separate community to accommodate people of mixed heritage.-discouraged interracial breeding. - In non-settler colonies, trading and mining were more likely the economic activities with the colonialist manpower all serving a term with a view to returning to the motherland more prosperous than when they arrived. Mixed race children were normally absorbed back into the local native environment and their heritage lost except at the genetic level. Where: Ghana, Kenya, Algeria (non-settler), South Africa (settler) When: 1945 Why: -Peaceful / Negotiated independence was typically achieved in non-settler colonies, ex = Ghana -In settler colonies, the white settler minority was given political power during decolonization. (ex: South Africa) -violent independence (settler colonies often had to fight for independence) -Treatment of settler colonies pushed them toward the USSR.