Theatre History Test 3
Gestamtkunstwerk
"total work of art", "ideal work of art", "universal artwork", "synthesis of the arts", "comprehensive artwork", "all-embracing art form" or "total artwork" - a work of art that makes use of all or many art forms or strives to do so. - idea by Richard Wagner
"Sturm Und Drang" Movement
*German Theatre - discord between nobility and young poets, artists and musicians about following neoclassical ideals of the past; artistic and political revolutions were tied. - no more neoclassical ideals: idea of "decorum" and "to teach and please" were thrown out.
Significance of Joseph Addison's Cato (1712)
*romantic period: - during the dreadful winter at Valley Forge, Washington had it performed for his troops to inspire them with determination, despite a congressional resolution condemning stage performances as contrary to republican principles. - declaration of independence - past was "tyrannical"; infringing on our freedom - innovation!
Melodrama in America
- "poetic justice": Good wins! - 1850s and 60s - "Uncle Tom's Cabin" by Harriet Beecher Stowe (1852), and the stage adaptation by George L Aiken - Blackface - Minstrelsy: overtook what used to be slave characters and turned them into caricatures. - Bert Williams (1874- 1922) - Nicholas Brothers
Who was Duke of Saxe-Meiningen (1866-1914)? And the Meiningen Ensemble?
- "the first director"; super influential with realism - introduction to importance of ensemble and stage pictures: founded the Meiningen Ensemble and allowed them to tour (his radical innovations were seen all over! Moscow, Russia, influenced Konstantin Stanislavski) - he was an antiquarian; focused on the accuracy of plays - used pictorial realism and realistic directing
plays by Friedrich Schiller (1761-1819)
- "the robbers" - "mary stuart" - "william tell" - "maid of orlean"
Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle) (1783-1842)
- 19th century French writer. - known for his acute analysis of his characters' psychology and for the dryness of his writing-style. - "Racine and Shakespeare": major critical work where Stendhal vigorously championed the spontaneous vitality of Shakespeare while condemning the rigid imitators of Corneille and Racine; It is a brilliant tour de force, an exchange of letters between an old classicist and a young Romanticiist, in which Stendhal defined Romanticism not only for his age but for all time.
J.R. Planche
- A British antiquarian and designer - he did thorough research about historical accuracy and translated it into the plays he worked on
German Expressionism
- A film style that emerged in the 1910s in Germany. - influenced subsequent horror films and film noir - leads to WW1 - poetry, aesthetics, design; nightmarish landscapes - free the inner unconsciousness of the artists - potential in machinery and industrialization to dehumanize: *automation takes away the individual - very dark! protagonist's POV (dramaturgy idea specific to german expressionism); anticipation of something to come
Charles Kean
- Actor-manager - antiquarian; celebrated by other antiquarians - First to use focused limelight (lighting)
Edward Gordon Craig (1872-1966)
- Aestheticism movement - worked as an actor, director and scenic designer, as well as developing an influential body of theoretical writings.
Cabaret Voltaire, Zurich nightclub: 1916
- Avant-garde art exhibits, live jazz, plus a hip cafe/bar in the spiritual & quirky home of Dadaism. - founded by Hugo Ball as a cabaret for artistic and political purposes.
Dion Boucicault (1820-1890)
- Dionysius Lardner "Dion" Boucicault was an Irish actor and playwright famed for his melodramas. - By the later part of the 19th century, he had become known on both sides of the Atlantic as one of the most successful actor-playwright-managers then in the English-speaking theatre. - wrote "The Colleen Bawn", "The Octoroon"
Who were three of the most revolutionary Symbolist influencers?
- Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849): best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and the macabre. - Baudelaire (1821-1867): a French poet who also produced notable work as an essayist, art critic, and pioneering translator of Edgar Allan Poe. - Stephen Mallarme (1842-1898): a symbolist French poet and critic. His work anticipated and inspired several revolutionary artistic schools of the early 20th century, such as Cubism, Futurism, Dadaism, and Surrealism.
Tristan Tzara (1896-1963)
- French poet (born in Romania) who was one of the cofounders of the Dada movement - performance artist, "The Gas Heart" (1921)
Richard Wagner (1813-1883)
- German Composer; wrote new operas "Total Theatre": - complete immersion; big emotional impact; used legendary myths - tried to eliminate seeing the orchestra (unseen to audience) *romantic style - didn't think past his audiences experience visually with the theatre designs (nothing revolutionary with his sets, no radical design elements)
Gerhart Hauptmann (1862-1946)
- German dramatist and novelist. - wrote "The Weavers", the "The Assumption of Hannele" - one of the most important promoters of literary naturalism, though he integrated other styles into his work as well - received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1912. - realism and naturalism
George Kaiser (1878-1945)
- German expressionist - wrote "from morn to midnight"
plays by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), and *fun fact
- Goetz Von Berlichingen" - "Faust I & II" *appointed artistic director of Weimar Court Theatre
George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)
- Irish born British author/playwright - wrote "Arms and the Man", "Saint Joan", "Major Barbara", "Man and Superman", and "Pygmalion" - inspired by Ibsen - realism and naturalism
Futurism Movement
- Italy, before WW1 - let the past die! move forward! (hard in italy bc there was so much established art and culture) - aesthetics of speed, energy, technology, and NEW! *technological revolution; glorify machinery - weird attachment to patriarchy; anti-feminist; angry manifesto
Robert Edmond Jones (1887-1954)
- New Stagecraft movement - American scenic, lighting, and costume designer.credited with incorporating the new stagecraft into the American drama
Martha Graham (1894-1991)
- New Stagecraft movement - Firmly established modern dance as an accepted artistic form
What "isms" are within Modernism? And what were they?
- Symbolism, Aestheticism, Dadaism, Expressionism, Surrealism, Futurism, etc. - these were all reactionary movements with manifestos; not exclusively driven by theatre: also with art, painting, music, etc
Oscar Wilde's the Decay of Lying
- Wilde presents the essay in a Socratic dialogue between with Vivian and Cyril, two characters named after his own sons. Their conversation, though playful and whimsical, promotes Wilde's view of Romanticism over Realism. - Vivian tells Cyril of an article he has been writing called "The Decay Of Lying: A Protest". According to Vivian, the decay of Lying "as an art, a science, and a social pleasure" is responsible for the decline of modern literature, which is excessively concerned with the representation of facts and social reality. - we have gotten worse at lying!
J.T. Grein (1862-1935)
- a British drama critic of Dutch origin who helped establish the modern theatre in London. - The Independent Theatre - realism and naturalism
Alexandre Dumas Pere (1802-1870)
- a French writer; His works have been translated into many languages; one of the most widely read French authors. - historical spectacles including melodramas and domestic dramas - "The Three Musketeers" and "The Count of Monte Cristo."
Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968)
- a French-American painter, sculptor, chess player, and writer whose work is associated with Cubism, Dada, and conceptual art. - not directly associated with Dada groups.
Ernst Toller (1893-1939)
- a German left-wing playwright, best known for his Expressionist plays. - wrote "Man from the Masses"
Erwin Piscator (1893-1966)
- a German theatre director and producer and, along with Bertolt Brecht, the foremost exponent of epic theatre - Lehrstucke: a form of drama that is specifically didactic in purpose and that is meant to be performed outside the orthodox theatre. - "dramaturgical collective" designed to tackle the problem of finding new plays for its "epic, political, confrontational, documentary theatre"
Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko
- a Russian theatre director - co-founded the Moscow Art Theatre with his colleague, Konstantin Stanislavsky - naturalism
Modernism (1880s-1935)
- a philosophical movement that, along with cultural trends and changes, arose from wide-scale and far-reaching transformations in Western society; national affiliations - avante garde- a french term for experimentation - roots in romanticism - "what is the new" - not solely with theatre - manifestos: people claiming revolutionary ideas - interpretation is in the eye of the beholder (room for interpretation); art wasn't universally loved/recognizable; artistic ambiguity; evoking new truths, instead of just regurgitating (like realism); more subjective (modern dance)
Anton Chekhov (1860-1904)
- a physician, and Russian short story writer and playwright. - his playwriting career, though brief, has had a great impact on dramatic literature and performance. - "in displaying the psychology of your characters, minute particulars are essential. God save us from vague generalization" - wrote "the seagull", "uncle vanya", "the three sisters" and "the cherry orchard"
Epic theatre movement
- a theatrical movement arising in the early to mid-20th century from the theories and practice of a number of theatre practitioners who responded to the political climate of the time through the creation of a new political theatre. - emphasizes the socio-political content of drama, rather than its emotional manipulation of the audience or the production's formal beauty.
Charles Macready
- actor-manager - antiquarian - believed you should actually rehearse the play before you perform it
Charles Kemble
- actor-manager - managed Covent Theatre (1817-1832); brother of John Philip Kemble
what were the acting and blocking/staging shifts with Realism and Naturalism?
- actors had to shift their processes bc of the idea that the audiences weren't there; only feedback the actors got was from fellow actors - blocking and staging changes; no longer playing for/to the audience (intro of back to the audience) - actors no longer just memorized lines, they BECAME their characters - theatres got smaller to accommodate the intimacy of realism
Harley Granville Barker (1867-1950)
- an English actor, director, playwright, manager, critic, and theorist. - acted in the plays of George Bernard Shaw - turned to directing and was a major figure in British theatre in the Edwardian and inter-war periods. - his plays tackled difficult and controversial subject matter; met with a mixed reception during his lifetime but have continued to receive attention. - realism and naturalism
William Poel (1852-1934)
- an English actor, theatrical manager and dramatist best known for his presentations of Shakespeare. - realism and naturalism
John Galsworthy (1867-1933)
- an English novelist and playwright. - wrote "Justice" and "Strife" - He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1932. - realism and naturalism
Melodrama
- appeared first in French theatre; Paris in early 19th century - a pop culture movement - intro to Vaudeville - spectacle: big emotional charge; constantly keeping audiences on the edge of their seats - intro to polarity: good vs evil; imminent threats to characters that we care about - not sophisticated; driven by facade of innocence vs villainy in conflict - dialogue is limited; driven by spectacle and drama - always have comedic characters - paved the way for movies (moving pictures) in the late 19th century
Aestheticism movement
- art for art's sake - refined sensitivity toward the beauty of art or nature - geographically located in England and Ireland
What was significant about realism and naturalism?
- artists wanted to be cutting edge, political, radical - looking to russia for artists in 1930s bc of the new radical "moscow art theatre" - doing theatre for ART, not MONEY - "The Group Theatre" - Provincetown Players - radical american theatre group; the little theatre movement began in 1912 (susan glaspell was a co-founder)
Oscar Wilde (1854-1900)
- became successful during Aestheticism movement - his aesthetics and arguments are very anti-realism - his "Decay of Lying" became a manifesto: people are getting worse at lying; a sassy attack on society within the title - "life imitates are, not visa versa": nobody knew the beauty of the sunset until we saw it portrayed in art - believed that the job of the artist was to show the unseen; "vibrating" soul who can see what nobody's seen before; we are connected trans-nationally and inter-generationally - believed that we will be better with more art surrounding us; once we have beauty in our lives, art is going to change the world - wrote "The Importance of Being Earnest", "Picture of Dorian Gray", and "Salome" - valued the aesthetics of the italian renaissance
innovations with staging in realism
- box set (roots in french theatre): static set with 4th wall - the fourth wall: idea that the audience isn't there (peering inside a private residence); audience must pretend that they're not seeing a play; fly on the wall - not about spectacle, but real life
Madame Vestris (1797-1856)
- burlesque - An accomplished and successful opera singer and a fine actress, especially in breeches roles - actor manager at the Olympic Theatre in London • Introduced the "box set" to England 1832 and furnished them like real rooms
Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852)
- by Harriet Beecher Stowe - dramatized the horrors of slavery; It heightened Northern support to end slavery and escalated the sectional conflict. - most owned book in America besides the bible - book came out by chapter within magazines; Stowe had no rights to her own work, and people produced several versions of her work without her permission. - Stowe wrote the Uncle Tom character to be christ-like: poetic justice; he dies and "escapes" to end up with god. - story was about violation/destruction of family bonds
"Preface to Cromwell"
- by Victor Hugo - became the manifesto for French romantic drama in its battle against the sclerotic neo- classical rules. - abandon unities, no distinction of genre, historical accuracy, combine the sublime and grotesque
Konstantin Stanislavsky (1863)
- co-founder of the Moscow Art Theatre - actor, director, producer, acting teacher - inspired by Meningen ensemble; wants to figure out how to find truth in acting for himself - "my life in art, building a character, creating a role, an actor prepares" - worked with Nemirovich-Danchenko to make their art Russian and able to compete with European things: "Moscow Art Theatre" 1898 - radical shift in how to tap into subconscious of actors and characters - *an actor must believe in everything that takes place onstage - radical shift in how we train actors: actors as artists are conduits for playwrights words - realism and naturalism
Verfremdungseffekt
- epic theatre - "alienation effect": a technique used in theater and cinema that prevents the audience from losing itself completely in the narrative, instead making it a conscious critical observer.
Kurt Weill (1900-1950)
- epic theatre - German composer of "Three penny Opera" and "mahagony"
Gestus (Brecht)
- epic theatre - Socially motivated expressions using actions and body language to show social class and relationships between characters, a movement or pose with a symbolic meaning relating to social or political motivations. Demonstrates the attitude of the character.
what differentiated naturalism from realism?
- even more real than realism; not idealized at all - more nitty-gritty - tried to give audiences a "slice of life" - lower class; get rid of all artifice
Andre Antoine (1858-1943)
- formed his own club and theatre company; provided model for "independent theatre movement" and sold memberships - "theatre-libre" (1887) The Free Theatre; model for non-profits and memberships - aesthetic and political agenda; critique issues in society - find "new voice" for individual countries (french Ibsen, Irish Ibsen, etc.) - realism and naturalism
Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956)
- german - before WW1, he was a part of the German Cabaret Movement; his early poetry and plays were German Expressionism. - *shifts from nihilism (Godlessness of German Expressionism) to Marxism; shifts the way he writes his plays: -- he integrates politics --man of the theatre, playwright and director --founds his own theatre company -- modernist -goes into exile in WW2 -founded the Berliner Ensemble in East Germany - fights against Aristotle "Epic Theatre": anti-realistic and consciously political (marxist) - nothing onstage is real (anti-stanislovsky) - staging and dramaturgy to disrupt narrative flow (prevent people from being passive in theatre) - wants people to start a revolution through theatre; people MUST talk about the issues - Aesthetics change: see lighting and sound equipment onstage! (makes actors take crazy concepts into their present realities) - ACTION, REVOLUTION!!
Otto Brahm (1856-1912)
- he helped establish and then directed the theatre company Freie Bühne ("Free Stage") Freie Bühne ("Free Stage") - It had no official home and presented its productions in various rented auditoriums throughout Berlin. - Its main contribution was to provide a private showcase for plays banned on public stages. - modeled after André Antoine's celebrated naturalistic Théâtre-Libre in Paris. - realism and naturalism
What is antiquarianism?
- introduced in the 1800s - concerned with the study of the past - highly educated people took up antiquarianism; they traveled and did research about historical accuracy (of dress, style, weaponry, staging, etc.) - definitely helped with theatre, but wasn't solely pertaining to theatre (also associated with historians and archaeologists)
Hugo Ball (1886-1927)
- introduction to sound poetry - Dada Manifesto; a founder of the dada movement
Court of Weimar
- lack of structure; break away from unity from the past - The city was a focal point of the German Enlightenment and home of the writers Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller. - "anti-art"
German Romanticism
- late 18th century and early 19th century - stemmed from Sturm Und Drang Movement - music, art, painting, playwrighting, etc. - "there are no rules", "the sky's the limit", "infinite" - In contrast to the seriousness of English Romanticism, the German variety of Romanticism notably valued wit, humor, and beauty.
What were the rules of the New Theatre (the Moscow Art Theatre)?
- made by Stanislavsky and Dancheko; trying to find Russian Voice 1) no small parts, just small actors 2) even as an extra, the actor must be an artist 3) all artists serve one purpose: to express playwrights main idea 4) theatre begins with a cloakroom 5) every violation of the creative life of theatre is a crime 6) don't be lazy, late, hysteric, capricious, etc...it's harmful to theatre. - realism and naturalism
Adolphe Appia
- mystical designs; not entirely realistic; very evocative - admired Wagner's music and storytelling; wanted to stage Wagner's operas in his design style. *revolutionized how shows were staged - use of space (3D); radical lighting, staging, and sets to "sculpt" the body - horizontal stage and vertical scenery - designed spaces for "rhythmic space" -a reaction to realism: to somehow be radically connected through vibrations
Donald Oenslager (1902-1975)
- new stagecraft movement - Donald Oenslager was a celebrated American scenic designer who has won the Tony Award for Best Scenic Design.
Jo Melziner (1901-1976)
- new stagecraft movement - an American theatrical scenic, and lighting designer born in Paris, France. - He was described as "the most successful set designer of the Golden era of Broadway", and worked on both stage plays and musicals.
Isamu Noguchi (1904-1988)
- new stagecraft movement - set designer for Martha Graham
Dadaism movement
- nonsensical theatre (poetry, plays, cabarets, etc) - no deeper meaning, just a bunch of words - anything can be art, but nothing is art - we shouldn't put so many rules and expectations on art - no need for linear coherence
Comedie Francaise
- one of the few state theatres in France. It's the only state theatre to have its own troupe of actors. - sharing company till 1830 when actors ceded authority to a manager
Symbolist Movement
- opposite of realism (through design, staging, dramaturgy, etc) - elite audiences; not necessarily rich people, just those who GET it - we are united by ART and understanding - experimental (def didn't succeed all the time); trying to be ARTISTIC; open to anything (actors are puppets; represent crazy things! *issues arose with how not to be realistic when humans were playing humans) - why turn to art to show us our OWN WORLD?! BE CREATIVE! - performances behind a skrim; more abstract; see "behind the veil"
Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (1876-1944)
- poet - founder of Futurism - "The Futurist Manifesto" (1909): a rejection of the past and a celebration of speed, machinery, violence, youth and industry. It also advocated the modernization and cultural rejuvenation of Italy.
Franz Wedekind (1864-1918)
- pre-expressionist (german) - wrote "Spring Awakening" and "Pandora's Box"
innovations of Realism in theatre
- shift into realism started visually (colors, costumes, representation of historical figures, etc.); tried to be as authentic and "real" as possible - costumes: in the 1800s, actors began to dress how their characters would have actually dressed, rather than wearing the clothing that was fashionable at the time. - introduction to realistic directing - antiquarianism - influenced by melodrama - intro to gas light; limelight; darker auditorium so audiences could disappear into the action onstage
George L. Aiken's Adaptation of "Uncle Tom's Cabin"
- staged version - focused on Eliza and George's story (allowed audiences to cheer for escaped slaves_ - became an international sensation; he even wrote another stage adaptation after this one became so popular. - other adaptations were written and performed with a completely different message - some were even pro-slavery - very radical political message
characteristics of a box-set in realism
- static set with idea of the fourth wall - within a home; not outside - actors acted IN the scenery - actors could sit; use of furniture and props - shift in aesthetic: less of a spectacle, audiences were silent viewers; the goal was to OBSERVE and relate to; not an idealized or unrecognizable place - meant to reflect REAL LIFE - practical sets; audiences weren't expected to use imagination as much (affected the way plays were written as well) - eating and drinking during plays were popularized (tea sets)
Paul Fort (1872-1960)
- symbolism movement - a French poet; At the age of 18, reacting against the Naturalistic theatre, Fort founded the Théâtre d'Art (1890-93).
August Strindberg (1849-1912)
- symbolism movement - wrote "miss julie", "a dream play", "the road to damascus"
Maurice Maeterlinck (1862-1949)
- symbolism movement - wrote "pelleas and melisande"
Duke Karl August
- the first Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, reigning from 1815 until 1828. - One of his first official acts was appointing Goethe to his privy council; Karl August worked to promote education and the arts. - He rebuilt the Court Theatre (1791) and established a permanent company with Goethe as director. - "Weimar Theatre"
Influence of Napoleon on Melodrama (late 18th century, early 19th century)
- theatre was seen as a potential threat to politics during Napoleon's time - Napoleon regulated "regular drama" to be performed at common theatres (ex/ the Drury Lane Theatre) - Napoleon designated any dramas that weren't performed in common theatres to the "Boulevard Theatre"
significance of french revolution (1789)
- tried to completely wipe out the past (genocide against nobility)(ex: Louis 16th, married to Marie Antoinette; both got their heads chopped off) - guillotine came from revolution: desperate attempt to erase the past
Antonin Artaud (1896-1948)
- used theatre to unleash unseen forces that make up life (drugs, magic, seances, etc) - actor during silent movie era. poet, surrealist - dream-like; awaken the unconscious - had multiple nervous breakdowns; institutionalized ( for being a drug addict); went through electroshock therapy - wrote his most famous essays within the sanitarium: "The Theatre and it's Double" ("double" refers to the forces that make up life) - wasn't really famous for his artistry, rather the essays and his ideas about theatre (his plays weren't full realizations of his ideas) -rejected the idea of a "masterpiece"; we are killing ourselves trying to reach perfection - felt that we didn't have enough of a profound physical connection to art: wants our nervous system to be severely impacted by art (needs to be visceral) - wants smaller performance spaces that force audiences and actors to be together - believed that actors were totems: mediums between what we see and don't see. - "vibrations" - reject language: use of sound and light - believed we could save the world one person at a time
"sensation scenes"
- w/in melodramas - super dramatic, action-filled scenes with little-to-no speaking (ex. falling off a cliff into a whirlpool like in "The Colleen Bawn")
what were the playwriting shifts with Realism and Naturalism? Who was Henrik Ibsen, and what did he contribute?
- went from french concepts: included some scandal within households (usually by women; women got shunned), "well-made play": 3 act structure popular plays (not a lot of depth), to Henrik Ibsen's ideas... Henrik Ibsen: -realism and naturalism writer - translated french plays into norwegian; didn't like translating these plays: *shifts this structure so we aren't critiquing women, rather the bourgeois middle class reality - his plays dealt with intellectual debates, rather than scandal - debates about social issues within plays; critiqued unfair social norms. (ex: "Ghosts" is about what would have happened if Nora had stayed at the end of "A Doll's House") *extremely controversial!!
controversy of Realism
- why would we go to art to show us the world we already know and can see? - what's artistic about realism? especially with the camera that can literally capture our reality.
Total Theatre
A term derived from Richard Wagner's concept of a Gesamtkunstwerk: a total or unified work of art, in which all elements - music, voice, movement and spectacle - work together
Beyreuth Festival Theatre
An opera house north of Bayreuth, Germany, built by the 19th-century German composer Richard Wagner and dedicated solely to the performance of his stage works.
Berliner Ensemble
Highly successful state theatre in East Berlin;devoted to Brecht Plays; produced Mother Courage; After Brecht's death in 1956, his wife became Artistic Director
Helene Weigel (1900-1970)
Legendary Austrian-born stage actress and theater director who was married to the dramatist Bertolt Brecht.
Emile Zola (1840-1902)
Naturalist French author who wrote "Therese Raquin"
The Theatre of Cruelty
Originated by Antonin Artaud, stylized, ritualized performances intended to attack spectators' sensibilities and purge them of destructive tendencies.
Rene Charles Guilbert de Pixerecourt (1773-1844)
a French theatre director and playwright, active at the Théâtre de la Gaîté and best known for his modern melodramas such as "The Dog of Montarges", the performance of which at Weimar roused the annoyance of Goethe.
The Group Theatre (1931-1941)
a theater collective based in New York City and formed in 1931 by Harold Clurman, Cheryl Crawford and Lee Strasberg. It was intended as a base for the kind of theatre they and their colleagues believed in— a forceful, naturalistic and highly disciplined artistry.
Provincetown Players (1915)
an avant-garde theater group of authors, artists, and actors; a collective of artists, writers, intellectuals, and amateur theater enthusiasts.
Little Theatre Movement (1912)
art theatre movement; theatre was about the ART, not for profit
what was the issue with Uncle Tom's Cabin?
became very corrupted over time: - propaganda making it seem like slaves wanted to become and were happy being slaves - worked their way into pop culture (advertising and merchandise); super commercialized and institutionalized racism. - there was a children's book written about it - one of the first moving pictures was a caricature of Uncle Tom (super racist) - vaudeville acts about Topsy and Eva
"New Stagecraft" movement
divorced theater from the structures of bourgeois realism; simplified details and abstract settings and costumes.
"Mother Courage and Her Children"
epic play by Brecht
"The Caucasian Chalk Circle"
epic play by Brecht
"The Good Woman of Setzuan"
epic play by brecht
Ambigu-Comique and Theatre de la Gaite
theatres where melodramas and pantomimes were performed
What is pictorial realism?
trying to be as authentic as possible, visually (scenic design, sets, staging, etc.)
Victor Hugo (1802-1885)
wrote "preface to cromwell", "cromwell", "Hermani"