Theories of Persuasion Ch. 3

two factors that the subjective norm is based on:

1) normative beliefs: based on perceived social pressure by relevant others to engage in the behavior in question 2) motivation to comply: based on how willing a person is to conform to social pressure by relevant others

explanation offered by cognitive dissonance theory for CAA

CAA causes physiological conflict within the individual. They are aware of the inconsistency between their privately held beliefs and attitudes and his or her public behavior. One means of resolving the conflict is to make one's private beliefs and attitudes more consistent with one's public behavior. The person should choose to participate in CAA, not be forced.

definition of attitude

a learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably toward some attitude object. They are learned, not innate. They are predispositions to respond, which means they precede and, to some extent, direct people's actions. They are the "precursors of behavior." They represent favorable or unfavorable evaluations of things. They reflect likes or dislikes, agreement or disagreement, positive or negative feelings. They also are always directed toward an attitude object. People hold attitudes about things or toward things. -evaluative dimension: the most central feature of attitudes -measured indirectly `

behavior

a person's overt actions, mannerisms, habits, and nonverbal cues can be used to infer attitudes. One's actions tend to give one away. Behavior can be extremely revealing of attitudes, but care must be exercised in determining which attitudes are germane to which behaviors.

the theory of planned behavior

extension of the theory of reasoned action and has an added third prong; perceived behavioral control. TRA presumes that behavior is generally under the person's control, TpB acknowledges that behavior is not always volitional.

cognitive dissonance theory

focuses on decisions people make or behaviors in which they engage and how they rationalize those decisions and behaviors. After making a decision or performing a behavior, a person worries about whether they made the right decision or did the right thing. The person is therefore motivated to reduce the resulting dissonance. Often referred to as "post-decision theory." Cognitive dissonance can be largely internal in nature, such as when a person is confronted with a moral dilemma. Can also arise when one's self-image is inconsistent with one's beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

roundabout methods of measuring attitudes

include inferring attitudes from appearances, from associations, and from behavior.

Visually-Oriented Self-Report Scales

include simple drawings of facial expressions that represent different degrees of favorability or unfavorability toward the attitude object, ranging from smiling to frowning. Visually oriented approaches make it easier for respondents to conceptualize their attitudes.

buyer's remorse

lingering doubts that buyers often experience after making a purchase.

image-oriented advertising

links products with favorable attitudes, values, and lifestyles. Beer commercials always advertise the beer being drunk in groups/socializing/having a good time

Brand Personality Scale

measures brand traits based on the dimensions sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and ruggedness. A brand's personality must leverage associations that add value to the product itself.

mudslinging

negative political campaigning/ when a candidate seeks to link his or her opponent with negative associations

methods of maintaining consistency

not done in logical ways; tends to be psycho-logical (psychologically satisfying or comforting but may or may not be strictly logical). 1) Denial: denying or ignoring any inconsistency 2) Bolstering: rationalizing or making excuses 3) Differentiation: separating or distinguishing the attitudes that are in conflict. 4) Transcendence: focusing on a larger or higher level 5) Modifying one or both attitudes: altering the attitudes themselves to become more consistent. 6) Communicating: trying to convince others to change or convince others one did the right thing.

individual differences such as reacting negatively to perceived threats can be measured with the...

psychological reactance scale

physiological measures of attitude

pupil dilation can signify arousal, galvanic skin response (GSR) refers to changes in the electrical conductivity of the skin, facial electromyography (EMG) is based on micro momentary facial movements, and event-related brain proposals (ERP) measure momentary electrical activity near the surface of the brain. -some of these measures aren't all that reliable: some of them are bi-directional indicators of attitude, meaning they can signal positive or negative reactions.

sloganeering

slogans that have positive associations designed to instill respect into the product. "when you're home, you're family" olive garden. "breakfast of champions" wheaties. "I'm lovin' it." McDonalds

psychological consistency

socially motivated, as much an attempt to manage face and project a favorable self-image as it is an internal drive. The recognition that most people strive to remain consistent in their thoughts, words, and deeds reveals a good deal about processes of social influence.

the most basic way to measure attitudes is by...

asking people since attitudes exist "inside" people

two additional components that TRA proposes intentions are results of...

1) attitude toward the behavior in question that will be based on beliefs about the outcome of performing the behavior and the evaluation of the outcome. 2) subjective norm: a person's perception of what others, especially relevant others, think about the behavior in question.

ways to avoid making unwanted commitments

1) don't allow persuaders to "box you in" by getting you to commit to something you don't want to. 2) don't paint yourself into a corner by making public commitments you don't want or intend to keep. 3) if you do happen to make an ill-advised commitment, admit it and see what you can do to correct it. 4) when buying anything, ask about the return or refund policy.

factors that affect the magnitude of dissonance

1) free choice paradigm: the more free choice one has in making a decision, the more dissonance one will suffer. Dissonance only occurs only if the negative outcome of a freely chosen decision was foreseeable at the time the person made his or her choice. 2) belief disconfirmation: dissonance is aroused when a person encounters information contrary to his or her beliefs. A person will tend to engage in selective exposure or distort information that contradicts his or her belief system. 3) induced compliance: when a person is forced to do something, little dissonance is aroused because the person can rationalize the action by saying "I had no choice" 4) effort justification paradigm: centers on the amount of effort or sacrifice required. The greater the effort, the greater the dissonance.

pitfalls in measuring attitudes

1) social desirability bias: when people know their words or actions are on display, they may exhibit what they perceive to be socially acceptable norms of conduct. 2) non-attitudes: people don't want to appear uninformed or unintelligent, so they make up attitudes on the spot. 3) acquiescence bias: some respondents are inclined to agree with any statement contained in a survey or questionnaire. This tendency is especially pronounced in oral, in-person interviews. 4) mindfulness: in order for a person to mark the space on any self-report measure, they must first know what their attitude is. Respondents often don't know their own minds.

T or F: attitudes are persistent

False. They change over time.

how to personally capitalize on inconsistency

align message with audience's frame of reference, adapt your message to the attitude of audience, highlight potential inconsistencies in receivers attitudes (cautiously).

why is attitude important to persuasion?

attitudes help to predict, explain, and modify behavior. Persuaders rely on attitudes as a means of bringing about changes in receivers.

Semantic Differential Scales

based on the connotative meanings words have for people. consists of a series of bipolar adjective pairs or, stated more simply, opposites, such as light-dark, fast-slow, happy-sad, etc. In completing the scale, a respondent checks the "semantic" space between each adjective pair that best reflects his or her overall attitude toward the concept in question. The respondent's overall attitude is represented by the average of the spaces checked on all of the items. -ex: "ethos scale" which is used to measure source credibility.

to be successful, persuaders need to...

bolster receivers' perceived behavioral control- their confidence that they can perform the recommended action. One approach is to address ways of overcoming obstacles. They should design their message to actively promote central processing (increase receiver's involvement, explain why a topic or issue is relevant to receivers and how it effects them which will increase their motivation to use central processing, and adapting receiver's level of understanding will increase their ability to engage in central processing.

to assuage buyer's remorse, consumers engage in...

dissonance-reduction strategies. 1) selective exposure: seeking out consonant information and avoiding dissonant information. Reading articles for the brand the purchase was made from, avoiding articles from other competing brands.

brand authenticity

emphasizes genuineness and integrity. May be hand-made or eco friendly. Not based on luxury, but fuel efficiency.

appearances

observers were able to make reliable determinations about another person's sexual behavior based on the other's clothing. -The danger of relying on such appearance-based cues is that the person may be making a "sweeping generalization."

theory of reasoned action (TRA)

offers a rational model of the persuasion process. Assumes that people are rational decision makers who make use of all the information available to them. The endpoint of the theory is a person's overt behavior- what they actually do. The theory presumes that intentions are the best guide to behavior.

standardized self-report scales

informally referred to as paper-pencil measures of attitude. Likert scales, semantic differential scales.

factors that impinge on an individual's behavioral control

internal factors: lack of knowledge or skill external factors: limited resources or extenuating circumstances.

counter attitudinal advocacy (CAA)

involves having a person create and present (orally or in writing) a message that is at odds with his or her existing attitudes. has the person persuade himself or herself. The attitude will tend to shift in the direction of the position advocated. some degree of change takes place but not a full turnaround.

Likert Scales

measures gradations in attitudes. "equal appearing interval" scales remain the gold standard for measuring attitudes today. consists of a series of statements about some attitude object, followed by a continuum of choices ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree"

aspirational brands

those that consumers admire and aspire to one day own. Luxury brands such as Rolex, Viking stoves, Gucci, etc.

brand loyalty

offers another useful illustration of psychological consistency. Advertisers want us to experience psychological discomfort if we change brands. "Don't leave home without it" American Express, "Like Nothing Else" Hummer, "Only in a Jeep" Jeep -active participation: American Idol allows us to vote, prizes offered for calling a radio station, merchandising (wearing branded clothing). Active Participation increases commitment. We don't necessarily think or act rationally when our allegiance to a particular brand takes over.

association

people enter careers, join organizations, and establish affiliations with groups of like-minded people. -segmentation analysis: when marketers target their advertising campaigns to specific groups of consumers, such as soccer moms, NASCAR dads, or Gen Yers. -the danger of relying on associations is that people join different organizations for all kinds of reasons, some of which have little or nothing to do with the group's avowed purpose.

marketing inconsistency

some advertisers aim for the opposite as brand loyalty and try to get people to switch brands. Smaller companies with newer products and a smaller market share tend to do this by creating a psychological imbalance. "think different" mac "think outside the bun" taco Bell "I could have had a v8!" v8. Such slogans are based on the recognition that consumers can be set in their ways and seek to overcome this inertia by encouraging brand switching.

magnitude of dissonance

the amount of dissonance one experiences. Occurs in varying degrees.

associative networks

the interrelation of attitudes, beliefs, and values that create a delicate balance. operate implicitly- without the individual's conscious awareness. A change in one attitude affects other attitudes, beliefs, opinions, and values. Persuaders want to link their messages with favorable attitudes and avoid associations with unfavorable attitudes.

psychological reactance

the tendency to react defensively to perceived encroachments on our freedom. AKA "reverse psychology"

in order for a persuader to use psychological reactance...

they should acknowledge the listener's autonomy

once we become committed to a given course of action...

we tend to remain steadfast in our determination, even if the original reason for selecting that course of action is diminished, altered, or eliminated. Once we invest our time and energy or poured our hearts and souls into a cause, a person, an idea, a project, or group, we find it difficult to let it go. We repress any second thoughts.

polarization of alternatives

when a person has to make a tough decision, he or she tends to polarize the attractiveness of the alternatives once the decision is made. Buyer will tend to disparage the unchosen brand and value the chosen brand even more. The tendency to spread the alternatives is a form of self-justification.

attitude-behavior consistency (ABC)

when attitudes coincide with behavior. There is greater ABC when: 1) multiple attitudes aren't confused with single attitudes 2) "multiple act criteria" are employed 3) The attitudes are based on personal experience 4) Attitudes that are central to the belief system are involved 5) self-monitoring behavior is taken into account 6) the attitude is accessible or can be activated

sponsorship

when corporate logos and insignia are plastered all over race cars, or even celebrity endorsement.

phycological discomfort

when we experience inconsistencies in what we think, say, or do. The degree of discomfort depends on the centrality of the attitudes involved.