Tillverkningsteknik och digitala tillverkningsmetoder

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Which two parameters are key when selecting a machine-tool spindle?

1. Feed 2. depth of cut

Beskriv de viktigaste huvudstegen som man bör genomgå för att få ut en lyckad produkt för additiv tillverkning.

1. Konstruktion (CAD) 2. CAE/FEM 3. Filkonvertering 4. Applicering av tillverkningsstrategi (beredning) 5. Printning 6. Ta bort objektet från maskinen 7. Borttagning av stöd och efterbearbetning (värmebehandling, sintring, färgning, ytbehandling) 8. Kvalitetssäkring

Hur kan man räkna fram kostnaderna för en detalj som är tillverkad via additiv jämfört med traditionella metoder?. What are the major aspects of Industry 4.0?

1. Solitt block med konventionell bearbetning och borrning - inte aktuellt att tillverka med AM men medtaget för jämförelse 2. Förberett för AM men med ganska mycket supportstruktur 3. Optimerad design fullt ut med minimal stödstruktur som tas bort enkelt

What is meant by 5-axis milling? What are its advantages and name a common parts (and its geometry) that is machined this way.

5-axis machining refers to a machine's ability to move a tool or a part in five different axis simultaneously. The advantages are that you can machine much more complex and curved parts. It's also much easier to reach hard-to-access areas on the workpiece without having to re-clamp the workpiece. A common part is an impeller.

Illustrate and describe the concept of a hydrostatic guide.

A chamber system is charged with hydraulic oil. The oil is fed to the pressure side under continuous pressure, this feeling in the pressure pockets.

Describe and sketch the hydrodynamic (friction) guides.

A hydrodynamic bearing is typically a low-clearance assembly that relies on a film of oil (and occasionally air) that develops space while the spindle is rotating. The bearings transmit (float) the load on self-renewing film of lubricant. The most basic hydrodynamic bearing is the journal bearing. (Oil is pumped from the oil reservoir to the space between the slide and base of the guide.)

Describe linear motors for machine drives/tables.

A linear motor is an electric motor that has had its stator and rotor 'unrolled' so instead of producing torque (rotation) it produces a linear force along its length, so that it can move forward and backward, along guides.

What is a machining center?

A machining center is a CNC machine tool capable of performing multiple types of cutting operations involving rotating spindles (e.g., milling, drilling); the machine is typically equipped with automatic tool changing, pallet shuttles to speed workpart changing, and automatic workpart positioning.

Define a manufacturing system and list major components of a manufacturing system.

A manufacturing system can be defined as a combination of humans, machinery and equipment that are bound by a common material and information flow. The major components are: ● Production machines ● Tools, fixtures, and other related hardware ● Assembly/disassembly ● Material handling system ● Human workers ● Computer systems

Explain the difference between roughing and finishing operations in machining.

A roughing operation is used to remove large amounts of material rapidly and to produce a part geometry close to the desired shape. A finishing operation follows roughing and is used to achieve the final geometry and surface finish.

Manufacturing processes are usually accomplished as unit operations. Define a unit operation.

A unit operation is a single step in the sequence of steps required to transform the starting material in to the product

What are the basic constituents of a grinding wheel?

Abrasive grains and bond. The abrasive grains, also called grit, is for cutting, and the bond holds the abrasive grains in place and establishes the shape and structure of the wheel.

What are the fundamental differences between machine's accuracy, repeatability and resolution? Illustrate.

Accuracy: the ability to tell the truth -Can two machines make exactly the same part? -Are the parts the exact size shown on the drawing? Repeatability: the ability to tell the same story each time -Can the machine make the exact same motion each time? -Are the parts all the same size? Resolution: the detail to which you tell a story -How fine can you adjust a machine? -How small a feature can you make?

How can excessive tool wear affect the machining process output?

Because tool wear affects in following items: - increased cutting forces - increased cutting temperature - increased deformation of workpiece - decreased accuracy of produced parts Can also affect in following ways: - Damaged components - Damaged tool holders - reduced productivity

How is stiffness related to compliance (flexibility)?

Compliance is inversely proportional to stiffness. The complementary concept is flexibility or pliability: the more flexible an object is, the less stiff it is.

Chips can generally be grouped in two categories. Which ones are they? Explain their characteristics.

Continuous and discontinuous chips. Continuous chips are the chips formed during machining without breakage or without segments. These chips are formed by the continuous plastic deformation of metal without fracture in front of the cutting edge. If the chips during the machining process are not continuous i.e. formed with breakage are called discontinuous chips. Discontinuous chips are formed when brittle or hard metals like brass, bronze and cast iron are used as workpieces in the machining process.

What are continuous chips and why should they be avoided? What is a common way to avoid continuous chips?

Continuous chips are chips that do not break into smaller chips. Continuous chips should be avoided because they tend to tangle around the tool holder and could cause breakage/damage. They can be avoided by using a chip breaker on the tool, which increases the curl on and breaks the chip into smaller pieces.

Metaller kan deformationshårdna. Vid vilka förhållanden sker detta samt vad får det för konsekvenser under och efter tillverkningen (med plastisk bearbetning)?

Deformationshårdnande fås i kallt tillstånd och innebär att det krävs högre kraft för fortsatt deformation. Materialets hållfasthet kan höjas, men materialet blir sprödare. ● Då det krävs högre och högre kraft för att deformera en metall ● Vid kallt tillstånd, kallbearbetning ● Under: Krävs mer kraft för att forma materialet, man måste värmebehandla för att kunna fortsätta deformera ● Efter: Materialet blir sprödare, materialets hållfasthet har höjts

Visa på två eller tre olika sätt att fylla formen (med smälta) och peka ut den fördelaktigaste ur ett kvalitetsperspektiv. Varför är resultatet beroende av fyllnadsförloppet?

Den fyllningsmetod som är mest fördelaktig ur ett kvalitetsperspektiv är stigande gjutning. De olika metoder ger upphov till olika mängder turbulens i smältan och påverkar därför kvaliteten, och i stigande gjutning är den lättast att undvika. Samtidigt så sker endast ytoxidering som är lätt att avlägsna.

A ballscrew is a linear drive that translates rotational motion to linear motion. Sketch the design of such a typical ballscrew. How does the design of a nut affect the preload?

Depending on the design of the nut, various contacts occur which affect the preload that arises. Double nuts lead to tensile preload or compressive preload while single nuts don't.

Vilka är de största drivkrafterna för att använda additiv tillverkning i stället för konventionell tillverkning? Beskriv utifrån bland annat vikt, innovation, led-tid och kostnader.

Det är möjligt att spara en hel del vikt. Till exempel är det möjligt att spara vikt genom att fokusera materialet till de områden som kommer att ta mycket kraft och behöver ha hög hållfasthet, medan de områden som inte behöver ta lika mycket kraft kan produceras smalare och med mindre material. Går också i vissa fall att använda lättare material, exempelvis är titan ganska svårt att bearbeta men relativt enkelt att 3D-printa. Det är också möjligt att korta ner ledtider. Exempel brännaren i föreläsningen. En 3D-skrivare kan samtidigt skriva ut tiotals eller ännu fler produkter, vilket en traditionell maskin inte kan göra, vilket kapar ledtider markant. Additiv tillverkning minskar även ställtider. Det är dessutom enkelt att producera prototyper och ger därför mer utrymme för innovation. ● Lättare produkter ● Unika designlösningar utan ökad kostnad ● Möjlighet till kundanpassad produktion ● Innovativa tillverkningsmetoder, kortare och effektivare ● Digital lagerhållning

Jämför drag- och sträckpressning med avseende på aspekter som funktion, verktyg, detaljer (applikationer) och problem (defekter)

Dragpressning: Speciellt för formning av enkla geometrier, gärna cirkulär-symmetriska. Tillhållartrycket relativt lågt. Kan göras i flera steg enligt föregående. Sträckpressning: Hög tillhållarkraft Plåttjockleksreduktion Risk för brott Hela plåten plasticeras → Komplexa detaljer kan formas Materialet sträcks och avbildas av verktyget

What is dressing in reference to grinding wheels?

Dressing the wheel refers to removing the current layer of abrasive, so that a fresh and sharp surface can be exposed to the workpiece surface.

Gjutning i sandform och pressgjutning är två vanliga metoder. Peka ut några typiska skillnader mellan metoderna, som t ex material som gjuts och någon annan faktor där metoderna skiljer sig.

En stor skillnad är att sandformarna slås sönder och är förbrukade efter de har använts. I sandformarna behöver man även använda/tillverka en kärna ifall man vill gjuta något med håligheter, medan man i pressgjutning istället kan använda sig av slider. Permanenta formar är mer lämpliga för metaller/legeringar med lägre smältpunkt, ex Al-, Mg, Cu-legeringar.

Vad är en matare vid gjutning? Varför behövs denna och var på/i gjutsystemet är den typiskt placerad?

Ett grundproblem är att smältan har större volym än materialet i fast tillstånd. Det innebär att gjutningen kommer att krympa och det bildas sugningsområden. Inget annat material kan rinna till, så då använder man sig av matare som tillför smälta till dessa områden. Det finns både sidomatare och toppmatare.

Briefly explain (sketch) three common tool wear forms/types.

Flank wear: Caused by abrasion, low wear resistance(hardness) of tool and High abrasiveness of work material. Crater wear: Results from chip contact with rake face of tool. Caused by oxidation, diffusion and dissolution processes due to high cutting temperatures and high chemical interaction between tool/workpiece material. Notch wear: Occurs at the depth of cut line. Caused by adhesive wear and abrasion.

What are the most important requirements metal cutting tool materials need to fulfill? Explain each briefly.

Hardness - the tool must be harder than the cut material Toughness - tool must stand discontinuous cutting and variation of chip thickness Heat resistance - tool's mechanical properties must stand cutting temperatures Low friction - Low friction between tool and workpiece reduced wear and improves surface quality Low chemical reactivity - tool must not react chemically with workpiece elements, cutting fluids or air

How can high cutting forces negatively affect the machining process?

High cutting force can cause higher friction that leads to more generated heat. Can cause damage to the workpiece and the operating tool. Can cause a shorter lifetime for the machine/tool.

Describe and illustrate a honing operation.

Honing is an abrasive process common in finishing the bores (inside diameter) of internal combustion engines and gears. The process uses fixed abrasive tools - abrasive stones (sticks) - as the cutting medium. The process creates a cross-hatched surface that retains lubrication.

Why are abrasive processes (e.g. grinding) technologically and commercially important?

It can be used on all types of materials, can produce extremely fine surface finishes and can hold dimensions to extremely close tolerances.

Cemented tungsten carbide is one of the most common tool materials. What does this composite material consist of and what are the roles of the constituents?

It consists of Wc (Tungsten carbide) and Co (Cobolt). The Wc creates a hard, brittle phase and the Co creates a soft, tough phase. These two complement each other to create a both hard & tough product.

Explain the phenomenon of built-up-edge and how it affects the process and its outcome.

It forms on the rake face of the tool when cutting 'sticky' materials, like stainless steel. Highly deformed and hardened material adheres to the tool surface and can be periodically sheared off. The problem is that it can pluck-out and remove parts of the tool and/or be transferred to the workpiece surface.

What are the differences between lapping and polishing?

Lapping produces a rough surface processed with coarse abrasives and a hard plate tool, while polishing produces a mirror-like surface processed with fine particle abrasives and a soft pad.

Elaborate on the key performance indicators associated with linear motors.

Linear motors have no mechanical limitations on acceleration and velocity. The velocity is only limited by encoder bandwidth or by the power electronics. No mechanical transmission components, eliminates almost all backlash, elasticity and friction effects.

What is the difference between longitudinal and face turning?

Longitudinal turning - feed along the axis of the workpiece. Face turning - feed towards the center of the part.

Fill in the gaps in a G-code (turning or milling) which is supposed to machine a simple part shown in a figure.

Look at a G-code which was written to machine a shown part (turning/milling) and check if it contains any errors. Mark errors and briefly comment by providing the correct answer. (Note: Same as above is valid here)

What are the criteria commonly used to describe the machinability of a material?

Machinability: ● Tool life ● Material removal rate ● Cutting force ● Surface integrity ("Surface quality") ● Chip shape Machinability of material: ● Hardness - Deformation resistance ● Ductility - Elongation to breakage ● Strain hardening - Strain hardening factor ● Abrasiveness - Composition/microstructure ● Thermal conductivity - Heat conduction ● Chemical activity - Diffusion, Oxidation

Hur gör man rent praktiskt för att kunna göra (forma) djupare burkar än vad maximala dragförhållandet medger? Förklara kort varför det fungerar.

Man kan göra pressningen i flera steg istället, och minska den tillhållande arean och därmed också den tillhållande kraften.

How does a manufacturing cell differ from a machining center?

Manufacturing cells are sets of machines that are grouped by the products or parts that they produce. This type of system is used in the cellular manufacturing concept and is distinct from the traditional functional manufacturing system, which groups all similar machines together.

What is the role of industrial robots in manufacturing?

Material handling, spot welding, finishing operations (deburring, grinding, polishing), spray painting, automated assembly etc. Systems that consist of several machines whose operations are integrated (linked together) by means of a material-handling system.

Vilka delar brukar energin (arbetet) vid plastisk bearbetning typiskt delas in i? Diskutera vilka faktorer som påverkar respektive del av arbetet.

Materialets friktion har en inverkan på friktionsarbetet och skjuv arbetet. Inhomogen deformation har påverkan på skjuv arbetet.

Vilka fördelar har gjutning generellt - jämför med t.ex smide eller resonera helt generellt

Mycker mer designfrihet, går teoretiskt sätt att göra väldigt komplexa detaljet så länge smältan kan rinna in överallt. Finns möjlighet att integrera många funktioner i en detalj. Det går att tillverka så att man kommer väldigt nära slutlig form, kan minimera mängden efterbearbetning som krävs. Det är också billigt.

Illustrate the Stribeck curve and elaborate on the stick-slip phenomenon.

Stick-slip phenomena can be described as surfaces alternating between sticking to each other and sliding over each other, with a corresponding change in the force of friction. Typically, the static friction coefficient (a heuristic number) between two surfaces is larger than the kinetic friction coefficient. If an applied force is large enough to overcome the static friction, then the reduction of the friction to the kinetic friction can cause a sudden jump in the velocity of the movement

What is the role of stiffness in machine-tool design?

Stiffness is the capacity of a ''mechanical system'' to sustain loads without excessive changes of its geometry. If the system has a low stiffness it will get large deformations/displacements when loaded. Stiffness can be modified only by selection of the component geometry, shape & size

What is superfinishing?

Superfinishing is a fine finishing process which uses abrasive grits bonded in a stone for cutting.

What is meant by surface integrity of a component? Briefly explain why it is important for the functional performance of a component.

Surface integrity is the surface condition of the machined surface. Alteration of a thin layer below the surface which is caused by heat and plastic deformation. It combines: - Surface roughness - Hardness - Residual stresses - Microstructure - Microcrack Unwanted changes: ● Tensile residual stresses ● Cracks ● Severe plastic deformation - Harder and more brittle material Wanted changes: ● Compressive residual stresses Problems with surface integrity led to initiation of fatigue crack that slowly grew and remained undetected during inspection.

How are machine tools linked together and controlled in a Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS).

Systems that consist of several machines whose operations are integrated (linked together) by means of a material-handling system. Three main components of integrated systems are: Machine tools, Material-handling equipment and CNC. And in addition humans workers are required

Which are the main techniques to measure accuracy and calibrate machine tools?

The accuracy of machine tools is measured with an increasing number of new and revised inspection and acceptance tests. Parallelism Straightness Positioning Angle measurement Machine calibration can be done using a BallbarTM system. Enables to measure variations in radius as the machine follows a programmed circular path around the mount on the machine table.

What are the differences between manual machining and CNC machining (how does each work)? Explain briefly the advantages that come with CNC machining.

The difference between manual machining and CNC is that CNC works from a code which is programmed and manualing machining basically the human totally controls the movement of the machine Advantages with CNC: - Higher productivity, could run 24/7 - Fewer operators required - Production of advanced/complex part-geometries - Better and more constant part quality

Why are heat resistant superalloys considered to have low machinability? What are the consequences for machining such materials?

The heat resistant superalloys are considered to have low machinability due to: ● Very high cutting temperatures ● high cutting forces ● short tool life ● low cutting speeds & feed rates

What are the main heat sources in the machining process? What measures can be taken to reduce the cutting temperature?

The main heat sources in the machining process is from friction and plastic deformation. Around 90% of the mechanical work is transformed into heat. The biggest measure to reduce the temperature is to use cutting fluids. The main purpose of the cutting fluid is to remove the heat from the tool and workpiece, and also to lubricate which lowers the friction.

What are the most important process parameters of a machining operation (e.g. turning) that affects the material removal rate (productivity)?

The most important parameters for turning is: ● Cutting speed v (m/min) ● Feed f (mm/rev) ● Depth of cut a (mm) ● Spindle speed n (rpm) This affects the surface roughness of the machined surface

Describe the purpose of G-code in machining. Name one G-code command as an example and briefly describe its function/working principle.

The purpose of G-code in machining is to tell the machine where to move, how fast to move, which path to take etc. G00- Rapid movement. Tool moves along the shortest route to programmed coordinates.

What are the main effects of high cutting temperatures on the machining process and outcome?

The temperature in the cutting zone primarily affect: - The cutting tool → higher temperature increase tool wear - The generated workpiece surface → high temperatures can affect the structure & properties negatively

What is the benefit of using coated tools? Name two common tool coating materials.

Tool coating can mitigate (lindra) the base material's weaknesses. By creating a hard and durable coating. Two common tool coatings are TiN (Titanium Nitride) and CrN (Chromium Nitride)

What is the difference between tool wear mechanisms and tool wear forms/types?

Tool wear mechanisms are the physical/chemical processes at the cutting tool surface that are the reason for the development of wear forms. Are mostly occurring at the microscopic scale (or even smaller). Examples: Abrasive wear, Adhesive wear, Dissolution/diffusion, plastic deformation, fatigue, oxidation. Tool wear types are the (macroscopic) change of tool geometry due to wear. Different types of tool wear that can possibly occur. Examples: Flank wear, crater wear, notch wear, Plastic deformation, Chipping and flaking, Complete fracture.

1. Name and briefly describe the three most common machining processes.

Turning (Svarvning) : Workpiece rotates and the tool moves in x-z plane(linear motion). Used for axisymmetric parts with requirements on accuracy & surface finish. Three common operations: - Longitudinal turning - feed along the axis of the part - Face turning - feed towards the center of the part - Profiling - combination of both Milling(fräsning): Rotating tool and either workpiece or tool moves in x-y plane. Large variety of milling methods and milling tools. Ex. Face milling, High-feed milling, Chamfering, Cutting off, Profile milling. There's two different ways to mill, Up-milling or Down-milling, depends on if the teeth goes up or down from the workpiece. Hole making(borrning): Tool is rotating and workpiece is stationary. Feed in only one direction, often done as the last machining process. Large variety of drilling tools, for different uses.

Name the three most common machining processes. For each of them, explain typical part-geometries that can be produced using this process.

Turning: shafts, bearing parts, pump parts Milling: Drilling:

What are common steps done in a CAM program to get a G-code for machining a part from a workpiece (assuming that you have CAD files for both)?

Use both CAD-files, the part and the workpiece, and put them in the CAM-program. Then simulate the machining of the part until your workpiece looks like your wanted part. Convert the CL-file from the machining process to a machine tool specific G-code.

Are there any negative effects of inadequate stiffness on machining performance?

Yes, the less stiffness, the more deflection which results in a lower machining accuracy. Machine will deform when under heavy load.

What are the advantages of CAM software tools like Creo Parametric?

You have the opportunity to test how a machine will work based on the g-code you create. This allows you to make adjustments without having to work with real material that incurs unnecessary costs in terms of time and materials. It's also possible to avoid mistakes in reality, because all the problems can be found in the software. Another advantage is reduced lead time and costs. You can also get a simulation of the final part shape and the surface roughness.

Give the basic rules for designing machine structural components in view of (a) bending and torsional loads, (b) structural cross-sections, and (c) geometry.

a) Bending and torsional stiffness can be improved with reinforcements. Longitudinal ribs(Bending and torsional stiffness is particularly increased with "oblique" longitudinal ribs). Cross ribs (Increasing the bending stiffness with cross ribs is less effective -weight increase) b) Square profile has 34% higher bending stiffness compared to circular profile of the same weight. c) The machine should be designed symmetrically to ensure a robust design.

Vid dragpressning (plåtformning) finns ett maximalt dragförhållande. a) Definiera vad dragförhållandet är matematiskt och med tydlig figur. b) Varför finns ett maximalt dragförhållande?

a) Dragförhållandet är förhållandet mellan den oformade plåtrondellens diameter och den färdigformade stämpeldiamteren. Maximala dragförhållandet definieras därav som β = D/d , där β är dragförhållandet, D plåtrondellens diameter d innerdiamteter på´koppen'. b) Vid stor rondelldiameter i förhållande till stämpeldiameter d får man risk för brott, eftersom det totala kraften som krävs då blir väldigt hög och man får en 'sträckning' i koppen. Även för att det krävs en viss kraft för att förhindra att det skapas väck i koppen, så för att inte få en för hög kraft kan man inte ha en alldeles för stor diameter D.

a) Beskriv metoden sänksmide. b) Vid sänksmide bildas oftast skägg. Varför detta? Går det att smida utan skägg? c) I verktyget ('sänket') kan man inte låta skägget slippa ut hur som helst - varför?

a) Smidande bearbetning där ett arbetsstycke med hjälp av ett eller flera slag deformeras mellan två slutna formhalvor. Arbetsstycket värms upp och placeras i en gjutform halva. Den övre gjutform halvan slås eller trycks ned mot arbetsstycket med en kraft, vilket då deformeras och formas efter de båda formhalvorna. b) Det beror på att materialet kommer att ha konstant volym genom hela processen, alltså både före och efter smidningen. För att säkerställa att man fyller ut hela formen med material så använder man något mer än vad som egentligen behövs. Det överflödiga materialet kommer då pressas ut ur formen/verktyget och skapa skägg. Det går givetvis att smida utan skägg, men då kan det vara svårt att få god formfyllnad. c) Det är nästan oundvikligt att undvika skägg bildning vid sänksmide så det är material som pressas och materialet trycks därför ut vid pressningen, detta behöver dock trimmas bort.

What are the four hard materials typically used in grinding wheels?

● Aluminium Oxide ● Silicon Carbide ● Cubic Boron Nitride ● Diamonds

What are the key components of a motorized machine-tool spindle?

● Bearings ● Lubrication System ● E-motors ● Cooling system ● Control/sensor system ● Tool interface

Beskriv de viktigaste process parametrarna inom Pulver-bädd processen (PBF-Laser).

● Laser effekt (W) ● Spot storlek(μm): Stråldiameter vid fokuspunkten ● Scan speed(mm/s): Stålens hastighet över materialet ● Puls hålltid ● Puls-frekvens

Vilka olika tekniker finns och för vilka material kan de användas till? Namnge samtliga tekniker och välj 3 olika tekniker och beskriv utförligt deras för och nackdelar? Beskriv principiellt hur de 3 valda teknikerna fungerar.

● VAT photopolymerisation ( lågt energikrav) ● Material extrusion ● Powder bed fusion ● Material jetting ● Binder Jetting ● Directed energy deposition (högt energikrav) ● Sheet lamination 1. Binder Jetting Denna teknik använder ett 3d-utskriftshuvud som rör sig på x-, y- och z-axlarna för att avsätta omväxlande lager av pulveriserat material och ett flytande bindemedel som ett lim. 2. Directed energy deposition Tillverkning av direkt energideposition kan användas med en mängd olika material inklusive keramik, metaller och polymerer. En laser, en elektrisk ljusbåge eller en elektronstrålepistol monterad på en arm flyttar horisontellt smältande tråd, filamentråvara eller pulver för att bygga upp material när en bädd rör sig vertikalt. 3. Material extrusion Denna vanliga AM-process använder spolade polymerer som antingen extruderas eller dras genom ett uppvärmt munstycke som är monterat på en rörlig arm. Detta bygger upp smält material lager för lager när munstycket rör sig horisontellt och bädden rör sig vertikalt. Skikten fäster genom temperaturkontroll eller kemiska bindemedel. 4. Powder bed fusion Pulverbäddssmältning omfattar en mängd AM-tekniker inklusive direkt metalllasersmältning (DMLM), direkt metalllasersintring (DMLS), elektronstrålesmältning (EBM), selektiv lasersintring (SLS) och selektiv värmesintring (SHS). Elektronstrålar, lasrar eller termiska skrivhuvuden används för att smälta eller delvis smälta fina lager av material varefter överskottspulver blästras bort. 5. Sheet lamination Plåtlaminering kan delas upp i två teknologier; laminerade föremålstillverkning (LOM) och ultraljudstillverkning (UAM). Tillverkning av laminerade föremål är lämpad för att skapa föremål med visuell eller estetisk tilltalande och använder omväxlande lager av papper och lim. UAM använder ultraljudssvetsning för att sammanfoga tunna metallplåtar; en lågenergiprocess med låg temperatur, UAM kan användas med olika metaller som aluminium, rostfritt stål och titan. 6. Vat Polymerisation Denna process använder ett kärl av flytande hartsfotopolymer för att skapa ett objekt lager för lager. Speglar används för att rikta ultraviolett ljus som härdar de på varandra följande lagren av harts genom fotopolymerisation. 7.Material Jetting Material jetting (MJ) är en av de snabbaste och mest exakta 3D-utskriftsteknikerna. Den bygger delar med hjälp av flytande fotopolymerdroppar, som härdas (görs fasta) med UV-ljus. Eftersom fotopolymerhartset sprayas i droppar innan det stelnar, jämförs MJ ofta med 2D.


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