TopHat Practice

CHAPTER 1: REASONING

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CHAPTER 2: MINDSET

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CHAPTER 3: CLARITY

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CHAPTER 4: ENTAILMENT

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Match each item with the effect that it causes (not its definition). Take care to choose the best match for each answer: Causes: introspection illusion possibility freeze pretending to take the other side being reminded to avoid bias in our evaluation keeping in mind that our beliefs don't need to be on/off Effects: finding it easier to revise our beliefs too much confidence in our first or favored view no change assuming we're being more honest than those who disagree with us reduction in biased evaluation

introspection illusion - assuming we're being more honest than those who disagree with us possibility freeze - too much confidence in our first or favored view pretending to take the other side - reduction in biased evaluation being reminded to avoid bias in our evaluation - no change keeping in mind that our beliefs don't need to be on/off - finding it easier to revise our beliefs

Given the premises: If groks are tibbs, then snurfs are tibbs Snurfs are not tibbs. Which of the following can we conclude? a. Groks are not tibbs b. Groks are snurfs c. Groks are tibbs d. none of the above

a. Groks are not tibbs

If I believe something based on the support of other beliefs, then... a. I have made an inference b. I have made a claim c. I have made a deductive argument d. I have made an inductive argument

a. I have made an inference

Which of the following statements is true? a. If an argument has a deductively valid form, its premises entail its conclusion b. If an argument's premises entail its conclusion, the argument has a deductively valid form c. The disjunction of two sentences is only true if both sentences are true d. Even if an argument has the form of modus ponens, its premises may not entail its conclusion

a. If an argument has a deductively valid form, its premises entail its conclusion

Consider this argument: If there's a rainbow in the sky, I'll have good luck tomorrow There's a rainbow in the sky. So, I'll have good luck tomorrow. This argument has the form of: a. Modus ponens b. Modus tollens c. Disjunctive syllogism d. Hypothetical syllogism

a. Modus ponens

Learning all about how to reason well... a. is not enough to become a good reasoner; the right skills and mindset are also necessary b. is enough to become a good reasoner as long as your knowledge is paired with the right skills c. is not important because, just like in sports, the only thing that matters is skill d. is unnecessary: all you need is the right mindset of curiosity, openness, and perseverance

a. is not enough to become a good reasoner; the right skills and mindset are also necessary

If System 1 is not naturally skilled at a certain kind of reasoning task, ... a. it may still be possible, under the right conditions, to train it to improve b. it is easy to tell that it is not skilled and avoid trusting its responses when faced with that kind of task. c. then that task is not the sort of task that System 1 performs٫ because there is a clear division between System 1 tasks and System 2 tasks d. the only way that reasoning task can ever be performed reliably is with effortful and deliberate thought processes

a. it may still be possible, under the right conditions, to train it to improve

Failing to think of sufficiently many possibilities... a. leads to having over-confidence in the possibilities we do think of b. leads us to not imagine our first or favored possibility with sufficient vividness c. makes us almost twice as likely to choose information that supports our pre-existing attitudes and beliefs d. leads us to revise our estimate of the first view that occurred to us

a. leads to having over-confidence in the possibilities we do think of

The bat-and-ball example and the bags-of-fruit example both illustrate... a. that in certain cases we should be wary of our immediate intuitions b. that our System 1 is not very good at solving math problems c. that we are "cognitive misers" when it comes to answering very difficult numerical problems d. that under the right conditions, our System 1 can be trained to provide quick and reliable intuitions

a. that in certain cases we should be wary of our immediate intuitions

If we have support for a claim that we can present either as an inductive or a deductive argument... a. the inductive version is likely to have better-supported premises b. the deductive version will be suppositionally stronger and thus a better argument c. there can't be a deductive version whose premises entail its conclusion d. it never matters which type of argument we choose because both can be good arguments

a. the inductive version is likely to have better-supported premises

The text discusses studies in which people could flip a coin to make a decision in order to illustrate... a. the lengths we go to believe that we're being fair even when we're not b. that we too often allow ourselves to be influenced by random factors like coin tosses c. that we tend to choose positive outcomes (e.g. cash bonuses) for ourselves d. that we should never use random factors like coin tosses to make fair decisions

a. the lengths we go to believe that we're being fair even when we're not

Which of the following statements is not true? a. In the metaphor about drawing category boundaries, ambiguity has to do with how many circles we need, while generality has to do with how many objects are inside the circle b. If we choose to use a descriptive word, we should always be able to say exactly where to draw the line between things the word applies to and things it doesn't apply to c. Even distinctions that are fairly well-defined, like species distinctions, are vague if you look closely enough. d. Syntactic ambiguity has to do with more than one possible sentence structure that might have been meant by the speaker or writer e. Some sentences containing vague words are clearly true.

b. If we choose to use a descriptive word, we should always be able to say exactly where to draw the line between things the word applies to and things it doesn't apply to

Which of the following is not true? a. Directly perceptual beliefs need not be supported by other beliefs b. It is reasonable to treat any claim as self-evident as long as we are clear in our argument that we are doing so c. Usually, believing what our senses clearly present to us is a fairly reliable way of forming beliefs d. If we think we know something with certainty, there is often a decent chance we are wrong.

b. It is reasonable to treat any claim as self-evident as long as we are clear in our argument that we are doing so

Suppose someone says: "Imposing taxes takes money from people without their consent; and any action that takes money from people without their consent is theft. So, you can't avoid the conclusion that raising taxes is theft!" Two of the answers below would NOT be lines included in a correct reconstruction of the argument. Which ones are they? a. P1. Imposing taxes takes money from people without their consent. b. P2. Any action that takes money from people without their consent is theft. (from P1 by induction) c. P2. Any action that takes money from people without their consent is theft. d. P3. You can't avoid the conclusion e. C1. So raising taxes is theft (from P1 & P2 by deduction)

b. P2. Any action that takes money from people without their consent is theft. (from P1 by induction) d. P3. You can't avoid the conclusion

Consider this argument: Bob is 13 feet tall So, Bob is taller than most other people Suppose there are no implicit premises: this is the whole argument. Which of the following is true about this argument? a. The premise entails the conclusion because, if the premise is true, the conclusion has to be true b. The premise does not entail the conclusion because, if the premise is true, the conclusion could still be false (setting aside facts not supplied by the premise) c. The premise entails the conclusion because, setting aside facts not supplied by the premise, there is no way the premise could be true and the conclusion false. d. The premise does not entail the conclusion because it has no suppositional strength.

b. The premise does not entail the conclusion because, if the premise is true, the conclusion could still be false (setting aside facts not supplied by the premise)

In the sense used in this text, curiosity is primarily about... a. having degrees of confidence rather than binary beliefs that are entirely "on" or "off" b. having the right goal--namely, that our beliefs reflect how the world really is c. not letting ourselves be affected by strong feelings in the midst of a disagreement d. having a high degree of interest in rare and unusual things or occurrences

b. having the right goal--namely, that our beliefs reflect how the world really is

System 1 has the name it does because... a. it is the most important system, and therefore considered primary b. it is older and responds more quickly in a given situation c. it was the first to be identified by cognitive psychologists who study thought processes d. it is more accurate and effective and therefore considered primary

b. it is older and responds more quickly in a given situation

Which best describes how confirmation bias operates at the evaluation stage of reasoning? a. when we are motivated to believe something, we construe potential evidence as favoring it b. our first or favored beliefs influence our assessment of the strength of potential evidence c. we assume that people on the other side of a controversial issue are evaluating information in a biased way, but we are not d. we decouple our prior degree of confidence in a claim from the strength of a new piece of evidence

b. our first or favored beliefs influence our assessment of the strength of potential evidence

Our standard for how much effort we put into a search... a. should be that additional search for information is always better b. should be based on the importance of the issue under investigation c. should be that we search for evidence until we have enough to support our favored belief d. should be that we search for evidence until every view has equal support

b. should be based on the importance of the issue under investigation

Asking what we'd expect to observe if our first or favored view were true... a. helps balance our natural tendency to focus on how things would look if alternative views were true b. should not be the focus of our search because it's already our natural tendency c. is important because those are the facts we're likely to learn the most from d. helps us notice that different views can do an equally good job of explaining certain facts

b. should not be the focus of our search because it's already our natural tendency

The "transparency" of System 2 refers to the fact that a. System 2's processes can be turned on or off at will b. the processes of System 2 are open to our awareness c. our threat-detection system has innate knowledge of several ancient threats to humans d. System 2 cannot be monitored because it is invisible

b. the processes of System 2 are open to our awareness

This chapter discusses how biased evaluation can incline us to... a. think an argument is deductively valid because it has a deductively valid form b. think an argument is deductively valid because we already accept the conclusion c. look closely and notice that an argument's premises don't entail its conclusion d. evaluate a logical form by looking for an argument with that form that actually has true premises and a false conclusion

b. think an argument is deductively valid because we already accept the conclusion

It is good to minimize vagueness in our language... a. because if we use vague terms we are committing the sharp borders fallacy b. when we might be dealing with borderline cases c. because real and important categories have sharp borders d. because vagueness is a kind of ambiguity

b. when we might be dealing with borderline cases

Consider this argument: If Jane likes Hugo, she will text him. She will text him. So, she likes him. This argument has the form "If P, then Q. Q. So, P". Which of the following is a counterexample clearly showing that this form is not deductively valid? a. If the history books are right about his height, Lincoln was tall. Lincoln was tall. So the history books are right about his height. b. If the history books are right about his height, Lincoln was tall. The history books are right about his height. So Lincoln was tall. c. If Hilary Clinton is president, then someone is president. Someone is president. So Hilary Clinton is president. d. If Hilary Clinton is president, someone is president. Hilary Clinton is president. So, someone is president.

c. If Hilary Clinton is president, then someone is president. Someone is president. So Hilary Clinton is president.

Consider this argument: All dogs bark No fish are dogs So, no fish bark What would it mean to "flip" this argument? a. Suppose that no fish bark, and ask whether it could also be true that all dogs bark and no fish are dogs. The answer is "yes", so the premises do not entail the conclusion. b. Suppose that at least some fish bark, and ask whether it could also be true that all dogs bark and no fish are dogs. The answer is "no", so the premises entail the conclusion. c. Suppose that at least some fish bark, and ask whether it could also be true that all dogs bark and no fish are dogs. The answer is "yes", so the premises do not entail the conclusion. d. Suppose that no fish bark, and ask whether it could also be true that all dogs bark and no fish are dogs. The answer is "no", so the premises entail the conclusion.

c. Suppose that at least some fish bark, and ask whether it could also be true that all dogs bark and no fish are dogs. The answer is "yes", so the premises do not entail the conclusion.

Focusing on general reasoning skills and not just specific reasoning skills... a. is important because acquiring specific reasoning skills does not improve general reasoning skills b. is the only way to become better at reasoning c. is a more effective way to improve general reasoning skills d. is unhelpful because acquiring specific reasoning skills is just as effective a way to become a good reasoner in general

c. is a more effective way to improve general reasoning skills

According to the text, the initial "map and territory" analogy has to be adapted for degrees of confidence because... a. maps don't make decisions, but our degree of confidence makes a big difference to our decisions b. unlike a map, we are capable of revising our beliefs when we encounter more evidence c. marks on a map don't represent things as being probably or possibly a certain way d. we have beliefs about things that are not represented in maps, like bikes and non-existent mountains

c. marks on a map don't represent things as being probably or possibly a certain way

For an argument to be suppositionally strong means... a. that its premises are convincing and would give us good reason to accept the conclusion b. that its premises are well-supported and provide strong evidence for the conclusion c. that its premises would give us good reason to accept the conclusion if they were true d. that it is a good inductive argument but should not be presented as deductive

c. that its premises would give us good reason to accept the conclusion if they were true

The murder case was used to illustrate... a. that motivated reasoning can color how we interpret ambiguous evidence b. that our System 1 is not very good at estimating probabilities c. that our beliefs are often affected by which pieces of evidence we get first d. that we are more likely to judge a person as being guilty than as being innocent when we are given evidence on both sides

c. that our beliefs are often affected by which pieces of evidence we get first

If the truth of the premises in an argument does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion, then... a. the argument is not an acceptable argument b. the argument is not suppositionally strong enough to make an inference c. the argument should not be presented as deductive but may still be a good argument d. there is no reason to accept the conclusion even if you know the premises are true

c. the argument should not be presented as deductive but may still be a good argument

When we interpret evidence in a biased way due to motivated reasoning, we tend to... a. simply decide that we want to believe something and then figure out ways to convince ourselves that it is true b. knowingly apply selective standards in order to discredit conflicting evidence c. deliberately ignore evidence on the other side so that we can bolster our own view d. think we are actually being unbiased and fair

d. think we are actually being unbiased and fair

Someone says, "I think dogs are better pets than cats. After all, it's easier to teach dogs to do tricks, which require intelligence. And also, since dogs care more about humans, they're more fun to be around. So that's two reasons why they're better pets." Suppose we want to reconstruct this argument, as it was intended by the speaker, using standard form. This is a complex and tricky problem; take care and make sure that the improvements you choose fit with a charitable reconstruction of what the speaker intended. P1. It is easier to teach dogs to do tricks than to teach cats to do tricks. P2. Tricks require intelligence. C1. So dogs are smarter than cats (from P2 by deduction) P4. Dogs care more about humans than cats do C2. So dogs are more fun to be around than cats are (from P4 by induction) C3. So dogs are better pets than cats (from C2 by induction) Choose the two best ways to improve the following reconstruction. a. P2 should be labelled as directly supported by P1 b. C3 should be labelled as directly supported by P4 & C2 c. C2 should be labelled as a premise and not as a conclusion d. C1 should be labelled as directly supported by P1 & P2 by induction e. C3 should be labelled as directly supported by C1 & C2 by induction f. C1 should be labelled as directly supported by P1 & P2 by deduction

d. C1 should be labelled as directly supported by P1 & P2 by induction e. C3 should be labelled as directly supported by C1 & C2 by induction

Identify which of the following is a case of entailment: a. If Napolean got married, he conquered Alsace. Napolean did not conquer Alsace. So, he got married b. All foxes are mammals. Some mammals are hedgehogs. So, some foxes are hedgehogs c. If Napolean got married, he conquered Alsace. Napoleon did not get married. So, he did not conquer Alsace. d. Every mouse is larger than my cat. Freddie is a mouse. So Freddie is larger than my cat.

d. Every mouse is larger than my cat. Freddie is a mouse. So Freddie is larger than my cat.

Consider this argument: Some F are G No G are H Which conclusion would make this a deductively valid logical form? a. No F are H b. Some H are F c. All G are F d. Some F are not H

d. Some F are not H

Consider this argument: If I'm tall, then I'm a good basketball player I'm not a good basketball player So, I'm not tall Is this argument deductively valid? Does it have any of the deductively valid forms given in the text? a. The argument is not deductively valid b. The argument is deductively valid, but it doesn't any of the deductively valid forms given in the text c. The argument is deductively valid, and has the form of modus ponens d. The argument is deductively valid, and has the form of modus tollens

d. The argument is deductively valid, and has the form of modus tollens

Pretending to take the opposing side of an issue... a. is a bad idea because it triggers a confirmation bias in the direction of the side we're pretending to take b. does not work as well as thinking carefully about weaknesses in our own case c. will allow us to perceive bias in ourselves through introspection d. helps counter the confirmation bias we already have in favor of our side

d. helps counter the confirmation bias we already have in favor of our side

In this section, the example of prosopagnosia was primarily used to illustrate... a. the difference between the process that recognizes faces and the process that interprets emotions b. the difference between transparency and control in facial recognition c. the fact that facial recognition occurs in a specialized region of the brain d. how different it would feel if we had to use System 2 to recognize faces

d. how different it would feel if we had to use System 2 to recognize faces

Visual illusions are like cognitive illusions in that... a. they illustrate how System 1 can be trained to become more accurate in automatic judgments b. the illusions do not arise at all for people who are sufficiently careful to monitor their System 1 c. they show us that we can't know the truth about how the world really is d. it is hard to shake the incorrect impression even after we are aware that it is incorrect

d. it is hard to shake the incorrect impression even after we are aware that it is incorrect

Subjects assessing studies that provided evidence about capital punishment... a. were asked to guess how much money an actual judge awarded to the plaintiff, and predicted a higher award when pretending to be the plaintiff b. successfully decoupled after being instructed to be fair and impartial in their assessment of evidence c. overcame biased evaluation by taking great care to examine the evidence offered by the study that challenged their view d. successfully decoupled after asking what they would have thought of a study if its result had gone the other way

d. successfully decoupled after asking what they would have thought of a study if its result had gone the other way

When someone presents an argument that seems unconvincing, we should proceed as though... a. the premises are intended to guarantee the conclusion b. there are no implicit premises that the speaker is taking for granted c. the argument should not be treated as inductive d. the argument was not explicitly presented in its most convincing form

d. the argument was not explicitly presented in its most convincing form