tourism 3
TENSIONS IN MANAGING IMPACT tourists and environment
bali, indonesia (2012): a/t indonesia's central statistics agency, 2.9 million int'l tourists visited that year. as the island has 4.2 million residents, the large inflow of tourists resulted in tension. tourist sites are often congested d/t the busloads of ever-increasing tourists, making it more difficult for locals to conduct their daily businesses. e.g. kuta large number of hotels, resorts, convention centres and other facilities may deprive locals of water supply. the poor are the most vulnerable as they used to rely on dug wells that have now gone dry, and are unable to afford being connected to the city's water supply. e.g. a/t a political ecology of water equity and tourism - a case study by dr stroma cole, tourism consumes 65% of the island's water supply, resulting in water shortage in some areas. locals expect tourists to respect local customs, but some may fail to do so. e.g. tourists may still engage in PDA, which some locals still are against.
dilution of local customs and heritage
cultures and values of a place can be lost when tourism becomes the main activity of an area. commercial activities, such as hotels, souvenir shops, food outlets and travel agencies can become the main commercial activity of an area. old buildings are converted to new and larger ones and locals are forced to relocate their original, changing the original atmosphere, appearance and function of an area. to meet the demands of tourists, local cultural festivals and religious rituals are sometimes modified. dancers may deliberately pose for photographs, rituals may be shortened to fit into tourists' itinerary and may be repeated several times a day to cater to different groups of tourists. the significance and authenticity of cultural events may be lost when these activities are commercialised. e.g. thailand: visitors have to pay hefty fees to enter the village of the kayan lahwi women. they sometimes treat them as exhibits they have paid for and aggressively take photos of them without permission.
ECONOMIC IMPACTS employment opportunities
employment is the work done for a wage or salary, in cash or in kind. the tourism industry is part of the service sector. the rise in tourism has led to the increase in tourism-related jobs. employment opportunities such as workers in hotels, retail and souvenir shops are offered. jobs can be directly linked (hotel staff, waiter, tour guides, travel agents) or indirectly linked when tourists consume goods and services (taxi drivers, shop owners). e.g. a/t UNWTO (2011), 235 million people were employed in the tourism sector, accounting for 6 to 8% of all jobs worldwide.
littering and pollution
excessive litter by tourists can be a major problem. authorities sometimes fail to implement measures that can help properly manage waste, leading to degradation of such areas. irresponsible tourists may throw plastic bottles, food packaging and old batteries overboard ships, polluting marinas, harbours and oceans. e.g. islands of the carribean: there is limited space on land to treat solid and liquid waste from ships, thus they dump it into the sea, causing pollution.
measures for managing tension
governments play an important role in balancing and resolving tensions. they may set up agencies or organisations that can help manage tensions by imposing measures that will balance the needs of tourists with locals and the environment. measures: 1) limit the number of tourists that can enter sites to minimise congestion and degradation 2) employ locals that can maintain and repair sites and prevent tourists from tampering with it 3) withhold permission to proceed with tourism-related projects that are harmful to the environment, including landscape and flora and fauna 4) restrict tourists from entering sites that are only for locals 5) hold discussions with locals regarding needs and concerns difficulties: locals may be happy with the limit in number of tourists but business owners may be unhappy but the low pedestrian traffic. the need for employment may defeat conservation efforts.
increased crime rate
high crime rates may occur at popular tourist sites. some carry valuable belongings such as cameras, clothes and watches. thus, they are vulnerable to muggings near hotels, transport terminals, ATMs and tourist sites. tourists often share their experiences online to warn others. tourists are also prone to being scammed and cheated. places where this happens often are known as 'tourist traps' where information and G&S are sold at highly inflated prices, or where scams are common. the police is usually there to help sort out conflicts with locals over purchases. e.g. london, UK (2010)
growth in income
individuals and companies: pamilacan islands, philippines: local fishermen are hired by tour companies to take domestic and int'l tourists on their boats to see and swim with the dolphins and whale sharks. they earn US$80 to $100 for per boat for their service, which is a significant amount for an average filipino fishermen. with a high demand for their service, they can expect to earn additional income on top of their fishing livelihood. similarly, tour companies will also experience an increase in revenue. hence, there will be an overall increase revenue for the country from taxes paid by both. tourism receipts: money received from tourist spending, which generates large revenue for the country. however, the money collected may not always stay in the country as a large portion can be lost due to leakage. leakage: money is sent to the country that imported G&S to meet demands and needs of tourists. it is common in LDCs. e.g. phuket, thailand: tourists may eat foreign food, stay in a foreign-owned hotel and fly a non-local airline. as a result, money spent will be contribute to paying for these imported items. profits from hotels, FFR and rental companies are then sent back to another country. as a result, the money spent may not always stay in the local economy, bringing few benefits to local workers and businesses.
development in infrastructure and facilities
infrastructure development is the construction of transport and communication networks, electrical frameworks and systems for water and waste disposal. without sufficient and appropriate facilities, tourism is unable to operate on such a large scale. roads that link airports, cities and tourist sites allow tourists better access to tourist attractions, and locals better access to jobs, HC, education and markets. hence, infrastructure enhanced for tourism can benefit locals as well. sports venues and other major infrastructure built for major sporting events such as world cup and the olympic games can enhance the sporting infrastructure of the host country and be used after key events. e.g. athens, greece (2004) and beijing, china (2008): underground railway systems were expanded to accommodate the large number of visitors during the games, but continue to serve locals now. constructing infrastructure can also create job opportunities for locals as many workers are needed and local materials may be used, boosting local industries. the increased spending in the local economy can lead to economic growth.
carbon footprint
it refers to GG emitted by activities that involve the use of FF. it includes travelling by planes and tour buses, or electricity consumption by hotels. with more tourists, there will be higher CF and hence, higher CO2 produced. e.g. a one-way CF from KL to s'pore is 30kg of CO2 per person
it refers to a group of people living in the same territory. they can play a key role in conserving and protecting tourist areas. they benefit economically from tourism, especially community-based tourism. CBT refers to tourism that has close contact with, and mainly benefits LCs. it can be done in partnership with NGOs and governments. e.g. candirejo village, near borobudurin central java, indonesia: with support from the government, villagers set up a cooperative in 2003 to manage and implement the community's tourism-related programmes. they held discussions and consultations with the cooperative about how the programmes were to be carried out, such as developing homestay accommodations, developing organic farms and organising transport routes. locals were also taught how to produce handicraft, provide catering and to work as tour guides. there were 22 homestays, 22 andongs (local transport of horse-drawn carts) and 6 restaurants. this was in contrast to 2002 when there was 10 homestays, 6 andongs and no restaurants. there was also 63 new jobs, 5 new businesses and a 12.5% increase in average income of villagers c/t 2001. strengths: 1) locals are involved in decision-making through discussions and consultations about tourism management strategies, and make tourism-related decisions about the community. 2) CBT makes locals a priority when it comes to employment and businesses opportunities, thus they can work as guides, reception staff, waiters, cleaners and drivers, leading to an increase in tourism-related and businesses for locals. difficulties: 1) some LCs, especially disadvantaged ones, may face difficulties obtaining funding to set up businesses or invest in transportation to facilitate tourism. 2) they may not have enough skilled labour, such as managers and consultants, that can successfully manage the impact of tourism. they would have to approach NGOs or other organisations to provide skilled labour or training.
it refers to a group of people living in the same territory. they can play a key role in conserving and protecting tourist areas. they benefit economically from tourism, especially community-based tourism. CBT refers to tourism that has close contact with, and mainly benefits LCs. it can be done in partnership with NGOs and governments. e.g. candirejo village, near borobudurin central java, indonesia: with support from the government, villagers set up a cooperative in 2003 to manage and implement the community's tourism-related programmes. they held discussions and consultations with the cooperative about how the programmes were to be carried out, such as developing homestay accommodations, developing organic farms and organising transport routes. locals were also taught how to produce handicraft, provide catering and to work as tour guides. there were 22 homestays, 22 andongs (local transport of horse-drawn carts) and 6 restaurants. this was in contrast to 2002 when there was 10 homestays, 6 andongs and no restaurants. there was also 63 new jobs, 5 new businesses and a 12.5% increase in average income of villagers c/t 2011. strengths: 1) locals are involved in decision-making through discussions and consultations about tourism management strategies, and make tourism-related decisions about the community. 2) CBT makes locals a priority when it comes to employment and businesses opportunities, thus they can work as guides, reception staff, waiters, cleaners and drivers, leading to an increase in tourism-related and businesses for locals. difficulties: 1) some LCs, especially disadvantaged ones, may face difficulties obtaining funding to set up businesses or invest in transportation to facilitate tourism. 2) they may not have enough skilled labour, such as managers and consultants, that can successfully manage the impact of tourism. they would have to approach NGOs or other organisations to provide skilled labour or training.
SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACTS preservation of local customs and heritage
it refers to the protection of the way people live, including economic activities, traditional beliefs and religious practices. heritage: traditional beliefs, values and customs of a family, country or society. customs: traditional ways of behaving or doing things that are specific to a certain society. preservation can make sites more attractive to tourists and enhance SOB of locals to a community. revenue generated from tourism can be used to fund the preservation and conservation of cultural heritage. e.g. great pyramids of giza, egypt: entry fees are directly used to fund conservation efforts
shortage of services
large amounts of land, water and power is needed for tourist infrastructure. this can lead to shortage of services, such as water and power. tourist infrastructure has various effects on resource allocation. large amount of water is needed to water the grass on golf courses, thus drinking water supply may be diverted from nearby residents. large amount of electricity is needed to power tourist facilities. these can lead to water and power shortage, especially when locals are unable to pay as much as the tourists.
increased congestion
large number of tourists can cause overcrowding in areas near tourist sites. this can cause more tourist shops and accommodation to cluster near such areas, making these areas even more congested. this often causes vehicular and pedestrian congestion. e.g. rome, italy: many older walkways and narrow streets are filled with tourists. apart from adding to local traffic, huge inflow of cars and tour buses can cause air pollution as well.
between tourists and environmemnt
machu picchu, peru (2011): a/t cusco's regional director of culture, ministry of culture, its rich history and breathtaking landscape draws an average 3,300 visitors daily. however, this has caused tensions between the needs of tourists and the need to conserve the environment. physically-able tourists opt to go for the inca trail, which features mountainous scenery, cloud forests and several inca ruins. it is also populated with rare indigenous plant and wildlife. however, the trail is slowly being eroded by the footsteps of 75,000 tourists yearly, and some may leave behind water bottles and plastic wrappers as litter. tourists may prefer to reach the site by helicopter for convenience, but this was banned for the fear that the noise would disturb the area's indigenous wildlife. tourists visit for its rich history and breathtaking landscape, but the sheer weight and combined footsteps of tourists slowly damage the land and artefacts.
destruction of habitats
popular tourist sites, such as quiet stretches of sandy beaches and scenic villages can be overwhelmed by visitors during busy times of the year. some may carelessly trample on plants or collect eggs and feathers of birds as souvenirs, and they may make too much noise that frightens off and disturbs animals. e.g. egypt's red sea coast: it has become a major diving and snorkelling destination with more than 1.2 million visitors yearly. however, swimmers collected shells and CR as souvenirs and hotels dumped sewage and waste into the water, damaging habitats of corals and exotic fish.
underuse of facilities at certain times of the year
since certain types of tourism are seasonal, key facilities may be under-used at certain times of the year. they can be costly to maintain, especially since the money from tourists is used to do so. as a result, they can become neglected due to the drastic drop in tourists. e.g. beijing, china: facilities built for the SOG in 2008 were reported to be deteriorating a few years after. certain parts had to be renovated to be more profitable, such as a part of BNAC that was renovated to a water park. a/t BSU, only 1/3 of majorsporting venues have managed to break even.
SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
sustainable tourism is the form of tourism organised in the way that allows it to continue without harming the environment or leaving negative impacts on the surrounding society and culture. it addresses the needs of visitors, industry and host communities. conservation is the careful management and use of resources that prevent it from being depleted. it is especially important for fragile environments that are easily affected by change. these include CR and mangroves that are easily affected by the removal of vegetation to construct buildings and roads, disposal of waste into rivers, lakes and CE, and dumping of waste from tourist facilities. conservation of fragile environments and promoting sustainable tourism can be done through laws and regulations and support from locals. some countries adopt different strategies, such as training locals in skilled tourism jobs like management and marketing, developing homestay accommodation where visitors pay locals directly for accommodation, and promoting local food and drink in restaurants to provide a market for local food producers and distributors. e.g. australia's GBR: it receives 14 million tourists yearly. it is threatened by tourism activities such as fuel leaks from pleasure boats (usually in marinas or harbours) and the removal of corals as souvenirs. a well-protected environment can attract both new and returning tourists. the repeated, steady arrival of tourists will benefit locals economically. in turn, locals will care properly for tourist sites to ensure that tourists visit, ensuring a regular and viable stream of income from tourism.
vandalism
the act of deliberately damaging property belonging to other people. natural, historical or cultural sites may be vandalised by developers or individuals. e.g. great wall of china: thousands of stones and bricks have been vandalised with graffiti. it is visited by 10 million tourists yearly.
NGOs
they are non-profit organisations that operate independently of governments. some are concerned with the impact on natural and human environments. e.g. since 1990, TIES has developed guidelines, conducted training courses, provided technical assistance and published research papers on tourism and the environment. they work with numerous organisations, including travel associations, in 124 countries. groups such as TIES are instrumental in achieving sustainable tourism and protecting areas frequented by tourists. strengths: 1) they can facilitate communication between stakeholders, such as LCs and TOs, and TOs and PAs. they encourage other stakeholders, such as LCs to actively participate in managing the impact of tourism. 2) they can support various stakeholders in managing the impact of tourism, such as LCs and PAs, through providing additional manpower, expertise, or marketing campaigns. difficulty: 1) as a non-profit organisation, they rely on donations. they may be hampered by the lack of financial resources.
planning authorities
they can greatly influence the future quality of environments by determining the number of visitors a site can cope with, and allocating space for infrastructure, such as roads and hotels. they are the most important group in ensuring tourist areas are protected. they have to consider local sensitivities in the area while maintaining its socio-cultural and physical condition, and be the first to enforce rules, regulations, values and principles in sustainable tourism, in consultation with the industry and the community. in turn. LCs and TOs should refer to these guidelines while organising tours. e.g. STB ensures that while attracting large numbers of tourists to s'pore, its development plans also take into consideration preserving national heritage. they implement programmes to conserve the ethnic districts of s'pore by enhancing cultural zones in chinatown, kampong glam and little india. this allows tourists and locals greater appreciation for s'pore's culture. successes: 1) they often successfully develop, approve, fund and maintain infrastructure in tourist sites that help manage the impact of tourism in an area. 2) as part of the government, they can cooperate more easily with them to manage the impact of tourism and utilise a wide range of government resources. 3) they can draft laws and policies to manage the impact of tourism, such as restricting the number of visitors and regulating the type of commercial activity in an area. they can also impose entrance fees. difficulties: 1) the most well-planned and well-funded events can fail d/t unforeseen factors such as extreme weather conditions, natural disasters and the general lack of interest from the public. 2) stakeholders may oppose when measures change the way they live or affect their livelihood, or if they think that a different approach should be taken to solve a problem. tourism management strategies may be limited without cooperation from them.
visitors
they have the responsibility to respect the environment and locals of the place they are visiting (i.e. without causing damage or offence). e.g. in 2007, the TSG (set up by the european commission in 2004) encouraged tourists to select their destination based on conservation efforts of the place, since some tourists want to minimise their CF when travelling. they consider factors such as amount of water used and waste recycled. in turn, their visits become more rewarding as they know that they have done their part in avoiding damage to these environments. successes: 1) tourist spending contributes to income of locals in employment and businesses, as they would require the service of hotel staff, waiters and tour guides, which are positions locals can easily fill. it also allows locals to set up new businesses, such as travel agencies and shops. 2) entrance fees and spending on souvenir can contribute to funds for preserving culture, conserving environments and maintain attractions. 3) they may realise the value of conserving and preserving destinations and share their experiences back home via word of mouth. difficulties: 1) large numbers of tourists in an area can cause the place to lose its identity (e.g. when dancers deliberately pose for photographs). tourists may complain that the place is not as authentic. this is worsened when the number of tourists outnumber the number of locals, and when tourism has become the major commercial activity of an area. 2) some may litter and vandalise, causing damage to the environment. in some cases, the sheer number of tourists at an area can cause damage with footsteps, noise and touch.
tour organisations
they may belong to associations that are increasingly concerned with conserving and protecting environments visited by tourists. this is because fewer tourists are likely to visit a place if unspoilt landscapes, rich biodiversity and unique culture is deteriorating. e.g. PAT, set up by a team of tour operators in 2006: tour operators who wish to operate under PAT must sign an environmental and cultural code of practice, which commits them to operate in an environmentally sustainable way, seek ways to enhance the natural environment and the way the industry uses it, and create awareness about environmental conservation when visitors visit phuket. successes: 1) tour guides offer feedback to operators about social and environmental conditions of an attraction, which is used by LC and PA to plan tourism management strategies in an attraction. 2) tourists spend much of their time with tour guides or other staff of an operator when visiting tourist sites. thus, they are in the best position to regulate behaviour, such as preventing them from littering, wandering into restricted areas or making too much noise, preventing damage. they also have an incentive to maintain these sites as it is their source of income. difficulty: 1) they are businesses, hence they need to be profitable to survive. this can cause conflicts between stakeholders or override concerns for environmental conservation when addressing these concerns would reduce profits.
seasonal unemployment
this is because some tourist activities depend on climatic conditions. hence, they may experience an increase in tourist visits for a number of months, followed by a drop in the next few. this causes people to be unemployed temporarily. some may search for other sources of income, while others may move away temporarily until the next tourism season arrives. the decrease in income of seasonally employed people affects the economy. e.g. european countries surrounding the mediterranean (croatia, france, greece): a/t EU eurostat, most hotel stays are during the summer season of june to september. this is mainly d/t the warmer weather that allows people to do a variety of activities (relaxing by the beach, hiking). during this season, the employment in hotels and restaurants reaches its peak for the year. e.g. saporro, japan: most visits are during the winter season of december to february as many would like to engage in winter sports such as snowboarding and skiing. mountain ski resorts hire more people to cater to the high tourist demand.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS conservation of natural environments
tourism can provide funding to converse environments such as CR, TRF and mountainous areas. revenue from entrance fees to national parks and diving sites, or levies on nearby accommodation can be used to conserve and protect these environments. e.g. sepilok orang-utan rehabilitation centre, sabah, m'sia: they partly rely on entrance fees to pay the staff that help rehabilitate the orang-utans that have been orphaned or injured. e.g. kenya: the survival of animals in the country's nature reserve and nat'l parks rely on funding from int'l tourists that wish to see them in the wild. a/t KTA, a lion can generate US$70,000 in TR, while a herd of elephants can generate US$600,000 each year. the money collected becomes a way to continue to preserve the animals and their habitats.
