Towards a New Worldview Chapter 16

Law of Inertia

A law formulated by Galileo that states that motion, not rest, is the natural state of an object, and that an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force.

Rococo

A popular style in Europe in the 18th century, known for its soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids

Enlightenment

The influential intellectual and cultural movement of the late 17th centuries that introduced a new worldview based on the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress

Natural Philosophy

An early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned; it encompassed what we would call "science" today.

Public Sphere

An idealized intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where the public came together to discuss important issues relating to society, economics, and politics.

Sensationalism

The idea that all human ideas and thoughts are produced as a result of sensory impressions

Philosophes

A group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow humans in the Age of Enlightenment

Copernican Hypothesis

The idea that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe.

Deism

Belief in a distant, noninterventionist deity; common among Enlightenment thinkers

Cartesian Dualism

Descartes's view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter.

Cameralism

View that monarchy was the best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch, and that, in turn, the state should use its resources and authority to increase the public good.

Empiricism

A theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation rather than deductive reason and speculation

Law of Universal Gravitation

Newtons law that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the objects quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

Enlightened Absolutism

Term coined by historians to describe the rule of 18th century monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance

Haskalah

The Jewish Enlightenment of the second half of the eighteenth century, led by the Prussian philosopher Moses Mendelssohn.

How did the Enlightenment emerge, and what were major currents of the Enlightenment thought?

The political, intellectual, and religious developments of the early modern period that gave rise to the Scientific Revolution further contributed to a series of debates about key issues in 18th century Europe and wider world that came to be known as the Enlightenment. The conflicts of the Reformation that led to the devastating violence of the 30 years war brought old religious certainties into question; the strong states that emerged to quell the disorder soon inspired questions about political sovereignty and its limits. Increased movements of peoples, goods, and ideas within and among the continents of Asia, Africa, Europe, and America offered examples of surprisingly different ways of life and values. Finally, the tremendous achievements of the Scientific Revolution inspired intellectuals to believe that answers to all the questions being asked could be found through observation and the use of reason. Intellectual turmoil in the later 17th century thus gave rise to the new worldview of the 18th century Enlightenment. This worldview, which has played a large role in shaping the modern mind, grew out of a rich mix of diverse and often conflicting ideas that were debated in international networks. Despite the diversity, three central concepts stand at the core of Enlightenment thinking. The first and foremost idea was that the methods of natural science could and should be used to examine and understand all aspects of life. This was what intellectuals meant by reason, a favorite word of Enlightenment thinkers. Nothing was to be accepted on faith; everything was to be submitted to rationalism, a secular, critical way of thinking. A second important Enlightenment concept was that the scientific method was capable of discovering the laws of human society as well as those of nature. These tenets led to the third key idea, that of progress. Enlightenment thinkers believed that, armed with the proper method of discovering the laws of human existence, human beings could create better societies and better people

What revolutionary discoveries were made in the 16th and 17th centuries, and why did they occur in Europe?

Until the middle of the 16th century, Europeans relied on an understanding of motion and matter drawn from the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle and adapted to Christian theology. The rise of the university, along with the intellectual vitality of the Renaissance and technological advancements, inspired European scholars to seek better explanations. From the sun created universe proposed by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus to the great synthesis of physics and astronomy accomplished by the English scientist Isaac Newton, a revolutionary new understanding of the universe has emerged by the end of the 17th century. Collectively known as the "Scientific Revolution", the work of these scientists constituted highly significant milestones in the creation of modern science. Hailed today as pioneers of a modern worldview, the major figures of the Scientific Revolution were for the most part devout Christians who saw their work as heralding the glory of creation and who combined older traditions of magic, astrology, and alchemy with their pathbreaking experimentation. Their discoveries took place in a broader context of international trade, imperial expansion, and cultural exchange. Alongside developments in modern science and natural philosophy, the growth of natural history in this period is now recognized by historians as a major achievement of the Scientific Revolution

Rationalism

A secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was to be accepted on faith, and everything was to be submitted to reason

What impact did new ways of thinking have on political developments and monarchical absolutism

How did the Enlightenment influence political developments? To this important question there is no easy answer. Most Enlightenment thinkers outside of England and the Netherlands, especially in central and eastern Europe, believed that political change could best come from above - from the ruler - rather than from below. Royal absolutism was a fact of life, and the monarchs of Europe's leading states clearly had no intention of giving up their great power. Therefore, the philosophes and their sympathizers realistically concluded that a benevolent absolutism offered the best opportunities for improving society. Many government officials were interested in philosophical ideas. They were among the best educated members of society, and their daily involvement in complex affairs of state made them naturally attracted to ideas for improving human society. Encouraged and instructed by these officials, some absolutist rulers tried to reform their governments in accordance with Enlightenment ideals - what historians have called the enlightened absolutism of the later 18th century. In both Catholic and Protestant lands, rulers typically fused Enlightenment principles with religion, drawing support for their innovations from reform minded religious thinkers. Most influential of the new-style monarchs were in Prussia, Russia, and Austria, and their example illustrates both the achievements and the great limitations of enlightened absolutism. France experienced its own brand of enlightened absolutism in the contentious decades prior to the French Revolution.

Salon

Regular social gathering held by talented and rich Parisians in their homes, where philosophes and their followers met to discuss literature, science, and philosophy

How did Enlightenment thinkers address issues of radical and social difference, and how did new institutions and social practices diffuse Enlightenment thought?

The Scientific Revolution and the political and religious conflicts of the late 17th century were not the only developments that influenced European thinkers. Europeans increased interactions with non European people and cultures also helped produce the Enlightenment spirit

What intellectual and social changes occurred as a result of the Scientific Revolution?

The Scientific Revolution was not accomplished by a handful of brilliant individuals working alone. Achievements occurred in many fields - medicine, chemistry, and botany, among others - scholars developed new methods to seek answers to longstanding problems. They did so in collaboration with skilled craftsmen who invented new instruments and helped conduct experiments. These results circulated in an intellectual community from which women were usually excluded