Unit 10

phytoremediation

the use of plants to absorb and accumulate hazardous materials from the soil

brownfield

urban planning term for previously developed land; may be contaminated and require cleanup

Why are the first three Rs preferred from an environmental standpoint?

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)

provides a Federal "Superfund" to clean up uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous-waste sites as well as accidents, spills, and other emergency releases of pollutants and contaminants into the environment

solid waste

Any unwanted or discarded material that is not a liquid or a gas. See industrial solid waste, municipal solid waste.

phytoextraction

Using plants to extract metals from their ores.

secondary recycling

materials are re-used to form new products that are usually lower quality

primary recycling

materials are recycled into new products of the same type

What percent of the United States' e-waste is recycled?

14

secure hazardous waste landfill

A secure hazardous-waste landfill must have two impermeable liners and leachate collection systems.

Using Figure 21-16, what are the advantages and disadvantages of Waste-to-Energy Incineration?

AD: Reduces trash volume, produces energy, concentrates hazardous substances into ash for burial, sale of energy reduces cost DIS: Expensive to build, produces a hazardous waste, emits some CO2 ad other air pollutant, encourages waste production

Using Figure 21-24, what are the advantages and disadvantages of Deep Well Injection?

AD: Safe if sites are chosen carefully, wastes can often be retrieved, low cost DIS: Leaks can occur from corrosion of well casing, emits co2 and other air pollutants, output approach that encourages waste production

Using Figure 21-26, what are the advantages and disadvantages of Surface Impoundments?

AD: low cost, wastes can often be retrieved, can store wastes indefinitely with secure double liners DIS: water pollution from leaking liners and overflows, air pollution from volatile organic compounds, output approach that encourages waste production

Using Figure 21-18, what are the advantages and disadvantages Sanitary Landfills?

AD: low operating costs, can handle large amounts of waste, filled land can be use for other purposes, no shortage of landfill space in many areas, DIS:Noise, traffic, and dust, releases greenhouse gases unless they are collected, output approach that encourage waste production, eventually leaks and can contaminate groundwater

Summarize the sources of solid waste generated in the United States and the percentages.

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), about 98.5% of all solid waste produced in the United States is industrial solid waste from mining (76%), agriculture (13%), and industry (9.5%). The remaining 1.5% of U.S. solid waste is MSW.

Summarize the problems involved in sending e-wastes to less-developed countries for recycling.

According to the United Nations, more than 70% of the world's e-waste is shipped to China. A center for such waste is the small port city of Guiyu, where the air reeks of burning plastic and acid fumes. There, more than 5,500 small-scale e-waste businesses employ over 30,000 people (including some children) who work at very low wages in dangerous conditions to extract valuable metals like gold and copper and various rare-earth metals from millions of discarded computers, television sets, and cell phones. These workers usually wear no masks or gloves, often work in rooms with no ventilation, and are usually exposed to a cocktail of toxic chemicals. They carry out dangerous activities such as smashing TV picture tubes with large hammers to recover certain components—a method that releases large amounts of toxic lead dust into the air. They also burn computer wires to expose copper, melt circuit boards in metal pots over coal fires to extract lead and other metals, and douse the boards with strong acid to extract gold. After the valuable metals are removed, leftover parts are burned or dumped into rivers or onto the land. Atmospheric levels of deadly dioxin in Guiyu are up to 86 times higher than World Health Organization safety standards, and an estimated 82% of the area's children younger than age 6 suffer from lead poisoning.

Using Figure 21-14, what are the advantages and disadvantages of recycling?

Advantages: Reduces energy and mineral use and air and water pollution, Reduces greenhouse gas emissions, reduces solid waste Disadvantages: Can cost more than burying in areas with ample landfill space, reduces profits for landfill and incinerator owners, inconvenient for some

List four ways to reduce your output of hazardous waste.

Avoid using pesticides and other hazardous chemicals, or use them in the smallest amounts possible Use less harmful substances instead of commercial household cleaners. For example, use vinegar to polish metals, clean surfaces, and remove stains and mildew, and baking soda to clean utensils and to deodorize and remove stains. Do not dump pesticides, paints, solvents, oil, antifreeze, or other hazardous chemicals down the toilet, down the drain, into the ground, into the garbage, or down storm drains. Free hazardous waste disposal services are available in many cities. Do not throw old fluorescent lightbulbs (which contain mercury) into regular trash. Many communities and home product retailers offer free recycling of these bulbs.

Using Figure 21-11, what are some ways you can reuse items.

Buy beverages in refillable glass containers Use reusable lunch containers Store refrigerated food in reusable containers Use rechargeable batteries and recycle them when their useful life is over When eating out, bring your own reusable container for leftovers Carry groceries and other items in a reusable basket or cloth bag Buy used furniture, cars, and other items, whenever possible

hazardous (toxic) waste

Chemical that can cause harm because it is flammable or explosive, can irritate or damage the skin or lungs (such as strong acidic or alkaline substances), or can cause allergic reactions of the immune system (allergens). See also toxic chemical.

What is e-waste?

Electronic waste, or e-waste, consists of discarded television sets, cell phones, computers, and other electronic devices

How well has environmental justice been applied in locating and cleaning up hazardous waste sites in the United States?

Environmental justice is an ideal whereby every person is entitled to protection from environmental hazards regardless of race, gender, age, national origin, income, social class, or any political factor. (See the online Guest Essay on this subject by Robert Bullard.) Studies have shown that a lopsided share of polluting factories, hazardous waste dumps, incinerators, and landfills in the United States are located in communities populated mostly by African Americans, Asian Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans. Studies have also shown that, in general, toxic waste sites in white communities have been cleaned up faster and more completely than similar sites in African American and Latino communities have.

environmental justice

Fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people, regardless of race, color, sex, national origin, or income, with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.

open dump

Fields or holes in the ground where garbage is deposited and sometimes covered with soil. They are rare in developed countries, but are widely used in many developing countries, especially to handle wastes from megacities. Compare sanitary landfill.

List six ways in which industries and communities can reduce resource use, waste, and pollution.

First, change industrial processes to eliminate or reduce the use of harmful chemicals. Since 1975, the 3M company has taken this approach and in the process saved $1.2 billion (see Chapter 17, Case Study). Second, redesign manufacturing processes and products to use less material and energy. For example, the weight of a typical car has been reduced by about one-fourth since the 1960s through the use of lighter steel and lightweight plastics and composite materials. Third, develop products that are easy to repair, reuse, remanufacture, compost, or recycle. For example, Xerox photocopiers that are leased by businesses are made of reusable or recyclable parts that allow for easy remanufacturing and are projected to save the company $1 billion in manufacturing costs. Fourth, eliminate or reduce unnecessary packaging. Use the following hierarchy for product packaging: no packaging, reusable packaging, and recyclable packaging. The 37 European Union countries require the recycling of 55-80% of all packaging waste. Fifth, use fee-per-bag waste collection systems that charge consumers for the amount of waste they throw away but provide free pickup of recyclable and reusable items. Sixth, establish cradle-to-grave responsibility laws that require companies to take back various consumer products such as electronic equipment (Core Case Study), appliances, and motor vehicles, as Japan and many European countries do.

Using Figure 21-8, what can you do to reduce your output of waste?

Follow the four Rs of resource use: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle Ask yourself whether you really need what you're buying and refuse packaging wherever possible Rent, borrow, or barter goods and services when you can, buy secondhand, and donate or sell unused items Buy things that are reusable, recyclable, or compostable, and be sure to reuse, recycle, and compost them Buy products with little or no packaging and recycle any packaging as much as possible Avoid disposables such as paper and plastic bags, plates, cups, and utensils, disposable diapers, and disposable razors whenever reusable versions are available Cook with whole, fresh foods, avoid heavily packaged processed foods, and buy products in bulk whenever possible Discontinue junk mail as much as possible and read online newspapers and magazines and e-books

Explain how plastics are being recycled.

In 1994, Mike Biddle, a former PhD engineer with Dow Chemical, and his business partner Trip Allen founded MBA Polymers, Inc. Their goal was to develop a commercial process for recycling high-value plastics from complex streams of manufactured goods such as computers, electronics, appliances, and automobiles. They succeeded by designing a 21-step automated process that separates plastics from nonplastic items in mixed waste streams, and then separates plastics from each other by type and grade. The process then converts them to pellets that can be used to make new products.

Describe regulation of hazardous wastes at the global level through the treaty to control persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

In 2000, delegates from 122 countries completed a global treaty known as the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). It regulates the use of 12 widely used persistent organic pollutants that can accumulate in the fatty tissues of humans and other animals that occupy high trophic levels in food webs. At such levels, these hazardous chemicals can reach levels hundreds of thousands of times higher than their levels in the general environment (see Figure 9-13). Because they persist in the environment, POPs can also be transported long distances by wind and water. The original list of 12 hazardous chemicals, called the dirty dozen, includes DDT and 8 other chlorine-containing persistent pesticides, PCBs, dioxins, and furans. Using blood tests and statistical sampling, medical researchers at New York City's Mount Sinai School of Medicine found that it is likely that nearly every person on earth has detectable levels of POPs in their bodies. The long-term health effects of this involuntary global chemical experiment are largely unknown. By 2012, 178 countries had ratified a strengthened version of the POPs treaty that seeks to ban or phase out the use of these hazardous chemicals and to detoxify or isolate existing stockpiles. It allows 25 countries to continue using DDT to combat malaria until safer alternatives are found. The United States has not yet ratified this treaty. The list of regulated POPs is expected to grow.

What are the largest categories of MSW and their percentages?

In 2010, the largest categories of this MSW were paper and cardboard (29% of total), food waste (14%), yard waste (13%), plastics (12%), and metals (9%). According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, packaging makes up 32% of all the country's MSW—the single greatest category of MSW in the United States.

Why do trash items resist decomposition in landfills?

In landfills (as opposed to open dumps), trash can resist decomposition for perhaps centuries because it is tightly packed and protected from sunlight, water, and air, and from the bacteria that could digest and decompose much of these wastes in keeping with the chemical cycling principle of sustainability.

rhizofiltration

Rhizofiltration is a type of phytoremediation, which refers to the approach of using hydroponically cultivated plant roots to remediate contaminated water through absorption, concentration, and precipitation of pollutants.

Where does most of the e-waste end up?

Most of the rest of it ends up in landfills and incinerators, even though many of the components in electronic devices contain valuable materials that could be recycled or reused

What is garbology?

Much of that information comes from research by garbologists such as William Rathje, an anthropologist who pioneered the field of garbology in the 1970s at the University of Arizona. These scientists work in the fashion of archaeologists, training their students to sort, weigh, and itemize people's trash, and to bore holes in garbage dumps and analyze what they find.

Where does most of the world's recycled e-waste shipped?

Much of the e-waste in the United States that is not buried or incinerated is shipped to China (Figure 21-1), India, and other Asian and African countries where labor is cheap and environmental regulations are weak.

municipal solid waste

Solid materials discarded by homes and businesses in or near urban areas. See solid waste. Compare industrial solid waste.

industrial solid waste

Solid waste produced by mines, factories, refineries, food growers, and businesses that supply people with goods and services. Compare municipal solid waste.

Give three examples of how people are saving or making money through reuse, recycling, and composting.

One way to include some of the harmful environmental costs of products in their prices, while encouraging recycling, is to attach a small deposit fee to the price of recyclable items, as is done in many European countries, several Canadian provinces, and ten U.S. states that have bottle bills. Such laws place a deposit fee of 5 or 10 cents on each beverage container, and consumers can recover that fee by returning their empty containers to the store. In 2012, these ten states recycled at least 70% of their bottles and cans, compared to 28% in states with no bottle bills. This approach is in keeping with the full-cost pricing principle of sustainability. Another strategy is to greatly increase use of the fee-per-bag waste collection system. When the U.S. city of Fort Worth, Texas, instituted such a program, the proportion of households recycling their trash went from 21% to 85%. The city went from losing $600,000 in its recycling program to making $1 million a year because of increased sales of recycled materials to industries. Governments can also pass laws requiring companies to take back and recycle or reuse packaging and electronic waste discarded by consumers (Core Case Study), as is done in Japan and some European Union countries. Another important strategy is to encourage or require government purchases of recycled products to help increase demand for and lower prices of these products. Also, citizens can pressure governments to require product labeling that lists the recycled content of products, as well as the types and amounts of any hazardous materials they contain. This would help consumers to make more informed choices about the environmental consequences of buying certain products. It would also help to expand the market for recycled materials by spurring demand for them.

Explain how paper is being recycled.

Paper (especially newspaper and cardboard) is easy to recycle. Recycling newspaper involves removing its ink, glue, and coating and then reconverting the paper to pulp, which is pressed into new paper. Making recycled paper uses 64% less energy and produces 35% less water pollution and 74% less air pollution than does making paper from wood pulp, and, of course, no trees are cut down.

composting

Partially decomposed organic plant and animal matter used as a soil conditioner or fertilizer.

Using Figure 21-20, describe the process of Integrated Hazardous Waste Management.

Produce less hazardous waste->convert to less hazardous or nonhazardous substances->put in perpetual storage

What are three ways to encourage recycling and reuse?

Proponents say that leveling the economic playing field is the best way to start. Governments can increase subsidies and tax breaks for reusing and recycling materials, and decrease subsidies and tax breaks for making items from virgin resources.

What are three important steps that must occur for any recycling program to work?

Recycling involves three steps: collecting materials for recycling, converting the recycled materials to new products, and the selling and buying of products containing recycled material. Recycling does not work unless all three of these steps are taken consistently.

waste reduction

Reducing the amount of waste produced; wastes that are produced are viewed as potential resources that can be reused, recycled, or composted. See integrated waste management. Compare waste management.

How is the European Union dealing with e-waste?

The European Union (EU) has led the way in dealing with e-waste, taking a cradle-to-grave approach, which requires manufacturers to take back electronic products at the end of their useful lives and repair, remanufacture, or recycle them. In the EU, e-waste is banned from landfills and incinerators.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) is the public law that creates the framework for the proper management of hazardous and non-hazardous solid waste. The law describes the waste management program mandated by Congress that gave EPA authority to develop the RCRA program.

Bioremediation

The use of living organisms to detoxify and restore polluted and degraded ecosystems

waste management

a high-waste approach that views waste production as an unavoidable product of economic growth.

What are some benefits of composting?

There Is Great Potential for Recycling Composting is another form of recycling that mimics nature's recycling of nutrients. It involves using bacteria to decompose yard trimmings, vegetable food scraps, and other biodegradable organic wastes. The resulting organic material can be added to soil to supply plant nutrients, slow soil erosion, retain water, and improve crop yields. Home owners can compost such wastes in simple backyard containers, in composting piles that must be turned over occasionally, or in small composting drums (Figure 21-12) that are rotated to mix the wastes and speed up the decomposition process.

What resources are wasted when it is not recycled?

These wasted resources include high-quality plastics and valuable metals such as aluminum, copper, platinum, silver, gold, and rare-earth metals that are used to build most of the world's electronic devices and military weapons systems

What is an industrial ecosystem?

This is happening in Kalundborg, Denmark, where an electric power plant and nearby industries, farms, and homes are collaborating to save money and to reduce their outputs of waste and pollution within what is called an ecoindustrial park, or industrial ecosystem. They exchange waste outputs and convert them into resources, as shown in Figure 21-31. This cuts pollution and waste and reduces the flow of nonrenewable mineral and energy resources through the local economy.

What are three factors that discourage recycling?

Three factors hinder reuse and recycling. First, the market prices of almost all products do not include the harmful environmental and health costs associated with producing, using, and discarding them. Second, the economic playing field is uneven, because in most countries, resource-extracting industries receive more government tax breaks and subsidies than reuse and recycling industries get. Third, the demand and thus the price paid for recycled materials fluctuates, mostly because buying goods made with recycled materials is not a priority for most governments, businesses, and individuals.

recycle

To collect and reprocess a resource so that it can be made into new products; one of the four R's of resource use. An example is collecting aluminum cans, melting them down, and using the aluminum to make new cans or other aluminum products. See primary recycling, secondary recycling. Compare reduce and reuse.

reduce

To consume less of a good or service in order to reduce one's environmental impact and to save money.

What is the benefit of having households and businesses separate their trash into recyclable categories?

To many experts, it makes more environmental and economic sense for households and businesses to separate their trash into recyclable categories such as glass, paper, metals, certain types of plastics, and compostable materials. This source separation approach produces much less air and water pollution and costs less to implement than do MRFs. It also saves more energy, provides more jobs per unit of material, and yields cleaner and usually more valuable recyclables.

What is the fee-per-bag approach?

To promote separation of wastes for recycling, about 7,000 communities in the United States use a pay-as-you-throw or fee-per-bag waste collection system. They charge households and businesses for the amount of garbage that is picked up, but do not charge them for picking up materials separated for recycling or reuse.

reuse

To use a product over and over again in the same form. An example is collecting, washing, and refilling glass beverage bottles. One of the 4 Rs. Compare recycle, reduce, and refuse.

integrated waste management

Variety of strategies for both waste reduction and waste management designed to deal with the solid wastes we produce.

sanitary landfills

Waste disposal site on land in which waste is spread in thin layers, compacted, and covered with a fresh layer of clay or plastic foam each day. Compare open dump.

Using Figure 21-7, describe what we should do vs. what we do with waste.

We should reduce, reuse, recycle, incinerate, and bury. We instead bury, recycle, incinerate, reuse, reduce.

What are bioplastics?

biodegradable and more environmentally sustainable plastics. These bioplastics can be made from corn, soy, sugarcane, switchgrass (see Figure 16-27), chicken feathers, and some components of garbage.

phytodegradation

contaminant is taken up from soil and broken down

phytostabilization

involves plants that immobilize chemicals in soil

Biomimicry

learning from ecosystems and adapting their characteristics to human and organizational situations.