UNIT 2 - Chapter 6

Age-related decline in retro and prospective memories

AGE;Related to speed of cognitive processing rather than loss of information + EX. remembering to go to a cafe to meet a friend but forgetting the question they wanted to ask them

engram

An assumed electrical circuit in the brain that corresponds to a memory trace

chunking

Grouping of stimuli that are perceived as a discrete piece of information + Average person can remember seven integers at a time

recognition (measuring forgetting)

Identification of something experienced before + EX. correctly identifying letters seen previously in a sequence

infantile amnesia

Inability to recall childhood events + Freud attributed this to repression of aggressive and perverse impulses

memory trace (sensory memory)

Lasts for a fraction of a second + Held in a visual sensory register + Decays within a second for visual stimuli

saccadic eye movement (iconic memory)

Saccadic eye movements occur about four times a second, but iconic memory holds icons for up to a second + makes for smooth, uninterrupted visual information (like a movie)

biological explanations for infantile amnesia

-Immaturity of the hippocampus -Incomplete myelination of brain pathways for the first few years --Contributes to inefficient information processing and memory formation

Problems with identification based on eyewitness testimony

-Less accuracy in identification of different racial/ethnic groups -Identification influenced by misleading suggestions -Little evidence to support that claims of certainty are accurate

Hippocampus

-Stores new memories -Relays sensory information to parts of the cortex + involved in the where and when of things (episodic memories)

Storage (process of memory)

Second stage of information processing + Involves maintaining information over time + Maintenance rehearsal Elaborative rehearsal

visual code

Stimuli represented as pictures + EX. imagining THUNSTOFAM in your head

semantic code

Stimuli represented in terms of their meaning + EX. THUNSTOFAM = first two letters of each word in The United States of America

Memory relies on...

complex neural networks that draw on different brain areas

habit tasks (prospective memory)

easier to remember than occasional tasks, examples are getting to class on time + But motivation also plays a role

Encoding (process of memory)

first stage of information processing + modifies information so that it can be placed in memory; encoding is the first stage of information processing

Ebbinghaus's classic curve of forgetting

forgetting occurs most rapidly right after material is learned, we continue to forget material as time elapses but at a slower pace

sensory memory

the type or stage of memory first encountered by a stimulus + holds impressions briefly, but long enough so that series of perceptions are psychologically continuous + EX. being able to identify 4/10 letters after they have been flashed across a screen

event-based tasks (prospective memory)

triggered by events + EX. remembering to take one's medicine at breakfast

sensory cortex and memory

-store sensory information (in visual cortex, auditory cortex etc.)

long-term potentiation (LTP)

Enhanced efficiency in synaptic transmission that follows brief, rapid stimulation + Neurons and hormones influence memory

prefrontal cortex and memory

Executive center in memory + Enables the ability to represent and be aware of past, present, and future events

Repression (Freud)

Freudian concept of motivated forgetting + Automatic ejection of painful memories from conscious awareness

cognitive explanations for infantile amnesia

Infants: -Have no interest in remembering the past -May not make meaningful stories of their lives -May lose specific episodes -Make unreliable use of language -Limited ability to encode sensory input

context-dependent memory

Information is better retrieved in the context in which information was encoded and stored, or learned + EX. studying in the exam room or under the same conditions—can dramatically enhance recall

state-dependent memory

Information is better retrieved in the physiological or emotional state in which it was encoded and stored, or learned + EX. The grip of anger may prompt memories of incidents of frustration

Organization in LTM (Long Term Memory)

Information is categorized which helps make predictions about specific instances + Enables efficient storage of information (hierarchal structure maintained to form groupings and subgroups

proactive interference

Interference by old learning with the ability to retrieve material learned recently

retroactive interference

Interference of new learning with the ability to retrieve material learned previously

Thalamus

Involved in the formation of verbal memories

retrieval (process of memory)

Third stage of information processing + Involves locating information and returning it to consciousness

method of savings

a measure of retention in which the difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to relearn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed is calculated

icons

a mental representation of a visual stimulus that is held briefly in sensory memory

schema

a way of mentally representing the world, such as a belief or an expectation, that can influence perception of persons, objects, and situations

Repression (LTM)

in Freud's psychodynamic theory, the ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas from conscious awareness

limbic system and memory

largely responsible for integrating these pieces of information when we recall an event

dissociative amnesia

loss of memory of personal information that is thought to stem from psychological conflict or trauma

episodic memory - explicit memory type

memories of the things that happen to us or take place in our presence + EX. remembering what you had for breakfast

semantic memory - explicit memory type

memories pertaining to general knowledge + EX. knowing there are 50 states without visiting them all

Levels of processing model

memories tend to endure when information is processed deeply—attended to, encoded carefully, pondered, and related to things we already know

retrospective memory

memory for past events, activities, and learning experiences, as shown by explicit (episodic and semantic) and implicit memories + recalling information that has been previously learned

explicit memory (declarative memory)

memory for specific information, clearly stated or explained + 2 types: semantic and episodic

implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)

memory on how to perform a task, implied rather than plainly expressed or stated + involves procedures and skills, both cognitive and physical + EX. 2x2=4, the route to a classroom

prospective memory

memory to perform an act in the future, as at a certain time or when a certain event occurs + EX. remembering to pay your bills + may fail when stressors of time are involved

maintenance rehearsal (storage)

mental repetition of information to keep it in memory

Flashbulb memories

preserve experiences in detail that are surprising, important, and emotionally stirring + Enabled by: Distinctness of memories Formation of network associations Elaborate rehearsal + Strong feelings are connected with the secretion of stress hormones Hormones help carve events into memory

retrieval of information from our memories requires knowledge of the proper ___ ___.

retrieval cues

recall (measuring forgetting)

retrieval of learned material + EX. the person must retrieve a syllable, with another syllable serving as a cue (paired associates)

echoic memory

sensory register that briefly holds mental representations of auditory stimuli (echoes) + can last for several seconds

long-term memory

stage of memory capable of relatively permanent storage

Short-Term/Working Memory (STM)

stage of memory that can hold information for up to a minute or so after the trace of the stimulus decays + image tends to fade significantly after 10 to 12 seconds if it is not repeated or rehearsed (Common to encode visual stimuli as auditory stimuli) + EX. When you are told the name of someone at a party and then use that name immediately in addressing that person

acoustic code

stimuli represented as sounds + EX. reading the list of letters in your head

During learning, new ____ are formed, and changes occur at existing ____

synapses

priming

the activation of specific associations in memory, often as a result of repetition and without making a conscious effort to access the memory + makes it possible for people to carry out mental tasks with less neural activity + EX. alphabet

savings

the difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to relearn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed

elaborative rehearsal (storage)

the kind of coding in which new information is related to information that is already known

eidetic memory

the maintenance of detailed visual memories over several minutes

memory

the processes by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved

iconic memory

the sensory register that briefly holds mental representations of visual stimuli + accurate, photographic memories

interference theory

we forget material in short-term and long-term memory because newly learned material interferes with it

anterograde amnesia

••Memory lapse occurs after physical trauma ••Impairs attention, encoding of sensory input, and rehearsal

retrograde amnesia

••Source of trauma prevents ability to remember events that occurred prior to physical trauma

nonsense syllables

Meaningless sets of two consonants that have a vowel in between them + Recall depends on simple acoustic coding and maintenance rehearsal rather than elaborative rehearsal + used in studies regarding forgetting

echo (echoic memory)

Mental representation of an auditory stimulus (sound) that is held briefly in sensory memory

time-based tasks (prospective memory)

Performed at a certain time or after a certain time has elapsed + EX. watching a TV show at 7:30 or taking a pill every 4 hours

interference in STM

Prevention of rehearsal can hinder accurate recollection of information + Appearance of new information displaces old information

serial-position effect

Tendency to recall the first and last items in a series + EX. remembering the T and S in the letter series of TYPDS

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

The feeling that information is stored in memory although it cannot be readily retrieved; also called the feeling-of-knowing experience + May reflect incomplete learning problem lies in encoding and storage